1 Syllabus

Course Code: 0ICT604

Acknowledgement:
Lecture notes for the M. Tech VLSI students. Just to facilitate their reading.
Most of the content are taken from Plummer book and attempts are made to simplify and update
for today’s trend. MATLAB and Sentaurus TCAD simulations are used to enhance the
understanding.
2 Introduction to Ion Implantation
Dominant doping technique for Silicon IC industry for the past 20 years and also dominates
for the foreseeable future.
“Ion implantation has been a key enabler, along with improvements in lithography, for the 40+
year evolution of MOS and then CMOS devices. Alterations in the channel doping levels
followed the template developed by Dennard in the mid-70's from feature sizes of mm to tens
of nm. When increasing channel doping in bulk planar CMOS created unacceptably high
leakage current problems, ion implantation process developed past the "End of the Roadmap"
to the "geometry-controlled" channels of fully-depleted finFETs and FDSOI of the present day.
Future applications for nm-scale devices call for new understanding of ion damage
accumulation in fin and nano-wire materials, consideration of effects of quantum confinement
on channel conductivity, development of new implantation tools for efficient operation in the
100 eV range with ion and neutral species and soon after, for single-ion doping for quantum
entangled, "atomic" electronics”

-
Ion Implantation in Power MOSFETs as well:
In this process, ions are accelerated and focused and bombarded over the silicon wafer. On
average, one ion will displace 1000 silicon atoms (like Hulk running into the army). Each ion
might have a random path depending on the lattice interaction. Such a violent and random
process, becomes a mainstream technology in the past, present and future of silicon devices.
Since more number of ions are implanted, average depth is important. By annealing (high
temperature for certain duration), implanted defects can be healed.
In ion implantation, dopant atoms are volatilized, ionized, accelerated, separated by the mass-
to-charge ratios, and directed at a target that is typically a silicon substrate. The atoms enter the
crystal lattice, collide with the host atoms, lose energy, and finally come to rest at some depth
within the solid. The average penetration depth is determined by the dopant, substrate materials,
and acceleration energy. Ion implantation energies range from several hundred to several
million electron volts, resulting in ion distributions with average depths from 10 nm to 10 m.
Doses range from 1011 atoms/cm2 for threshold adjustment to 1018 atoms/cm2 for buried
dielectric formation

2.1 Random Walk of Ion:

1. Range
2. Projected Range

2.2 Distribution of Ions:

1. Approximately Gaussian or Normal Distribution
 Finding the dose from the concentration profile

2.3 Blanked vs Partial Implantation:

Masking is important and side implantation.

Ions
Mask

Silicon Wafer

2.4 Mask thickness estimation

𝐶𝑃∗ − 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 concentration in the projected range of the masking material.
∗ → 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
 ∞ 𝑧
2 2)
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 (𝑧) = 1 − erf(𝑧) = erf(∞) − erf(𝑧) = {∫ exp(−𝜂 𝑑𝜂 − ∫ exp(−𝜂2 ) 𝑑𝜂 }
√𝜋 0 0
2.4.1 Example

Hint:
Energy Projected Range Standard Deviation
50 keV 35 nm 15 nm
80 keV 55 nm 22.5 nm

Solution:
Method1:

𝐶𝑃∗
𝑥𝑚 = 𝑅𝑃∗ + Δ𝑅𝑃∗ √2 ln ( )
𝐶𝐵

2. Replicate the same in Sentaurus Process and note any difference between analytical and
numerical.

When mask edge is not vertical or an angled implant is performed, numerical methods can be
used to calculate the 2D doping profile.
Solution:
2.5 Angled/Tilted Implantation

To reduce the SCE, pocket doping or halo doping is done surrounding the lightly doped drain
or source region. This will reduce the threshold voltage roll-off and punch-through effect.
2.6 Annealing of Implanted Profiles
Comparing the implanted Gaussian distribution and delta-function distribution that has
diffused:

By comparing, implanted profile is similar to diffused one with effective time-temperature

cycle of: 2Δ𝑅𝑝2 = 4 𝐷𝑡 → Δ𝑅𝑝 = √2𝐷𝑡. Since we simply add successive Dt cycles to predict
the dopant profile evolution with time, annealing of implanted profiles simply add the Dt cycles
to the implanted equation:
Replacing Δ𝑅𝑝2 → Δ𝑅𝑝2 + 2𝐷𝑡

𝑥 − 𝑅𝑝
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑝 exp (− )
2(Δ𝑅𝑃2 + 2𝐷𝑡)
𝑄 𝑄 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑡 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 = √2𝜋 Δ𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 → 𝐶𝑝 = = → 𝐶𝑝
√2𝜋Δ𝑅𝑝 √2𝜋Δ𝑅𝑝2
𝑄
=
√2𝜋(Δ𝑅𝑝2 + 2𝐷𝑡)

𝑄 𝑥 − 𝑅𝑝
𝐶= exp (− )
2(Δ𝑅𝑃2 + 2𝐷𝑡)
√2𝜋(Δ𝑅𝑝2 + 2𝐷𝑡)
Gaussian implanted profile remains Gaussian while annealing as well, however the standard
deviation or straggle about the peak concentration increases with diffusion distance.

Link with the above equation (to understand the above plot), peak concentration decreases (due
to the Dt term in the denominator of the peak concentration) and straggle increases.

2.7 Comparing the above analytical solution with the numerical simulation:

Clearly there is no symmetry which we expected from simple Gaussian distribution. The Boron
profile is skewed (inclined) towards the surface which can’t captured by the simple Gaussian
distribution. Only the peak concentration can be captured by the Gaussian distribution (shown
for 500 keV). We should know why this skewing is happening and how to capture them
analytically.
Why this skewing?
To understand this effect, it is good with check whether similar effects are happening with other
dopants as well.
For Antimony, something opposite to that of the Boron is happening. So, Boron is getting back-
scattered by the silicon lattice (since boron is smaller than silicon) whereas Antimony scatters
the silicon and reaches deeper (since antimony is larger than silicon).
How to account it mathematically?
Higher-order moments
In statistics, moments are mathematical measures that describe the shape, center, and variability
of a probability distribution. Higher order moments refer to moments beyond the first two
moments, which are the mean (first moment) and the variance (second moment). Higher order
moments provide additional information about the distribution's shape and asymmetry.

Second moment can be seen as Variance:

𝟏 ∞ 𝟐
𝚫𝑹𝟐𝒑 = ∫ (𝒙 − 𝑹𝒑 ) 𝑪(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙
𝑸 −∞
Skewness (Third Moment):
Skewness measures the asymmetry of a distribution. A symmetric distribution has a skewness
of zero. Positive skewness indicates that the distribution has a longer right tail, while negative
skewness indicates a longer left tail.
Kurtosis (Fourth Moment):
Kurtosis measures the "peakedness" or "tailedness" of a distribution. It compares the tails of
the distribution to those of a normal distribution. A distribution with higher kurtosis has heavier
tails and a sharper peak compared to a normal distribution. Positive kurtosis indicates more
extreme values, while negative kurtosis indicates fewer extreme values compared to a normal
distribution.
We were able to explain the implanted profile. However, the level of sophistication needed in
describing implant profiles in most devices requires that we consider the atomic-scale structure
of the silicon lattice to accurately describe profiles.
2.8 Comparison of Analytical Solutions
2.9 A different Tail Skewness - Explained by Channelling
Left: An ~12 nm thick silicon crystal viewed down the 110 crystal direction
Right: Same silicon crystal viewed from a randomly rotated direction

[Source: Wiki - Channelling]

Implanted ions may enter such a channel. Rotation of the wafer and tilt can minimize the
implanted ions entering the channel.
Channel – path for the ions – without any barriers. It could be at particular axis or plane.
Electronic drag forces or collision may cause the ions to exit the channel.

Higher order moments captures the skewness. However sometimes, two different distributions
may require (one for the main part of the profile and other for the channelled part of the profile
- > dual-Pearson model)
As the crystal gets damaged by the implanted ions, the channels are less evident to subsequent
incoming ions. Higher implanted doses are less prone to channelling effects.
2.9.1 Minimizing the channelling:
Thin screen oxide which is amorphous is often used over the wafer to randomize the incident
ion beam before it enters the lattice.
Other models are based on look-up table and profile based on the SIMS (which depends on
blanketed implantation and may not account for implantation near the mask layer)
Monte Carlo model (atomic picture) based on atomic interactions and seems to be more
accurate.

3 Atomic Picture of Implantation:

To accurately model the implanted profile, especially in channelling directions, accurate
stopping models should be available.
It starts with Bohr – who first came up with explanations for ion stopping. He came up with
energy loss of ions could be divided into two components:
1. Nuclear energy loss to the positive atomic cores of the target
2. Electronic energy loss to the free electrons of the target
Fermi and Teller found that electronic energy loss would be directly proportional to ion’s
velocity
Because of random nature of starting conditions, atomic simulation of ion trajectory is called
Monte Carlo Simulation. Accurate modelling of both the nuclear and electronic stopping in a
Monte Carlo Simulator is the only feasible way to obtain accurate implanted profiles.
3.1 Nuclear Stopping:
Nuclear stopping is carried by a collision between two atoms, and can be described by classical
kinematics. Nuclear stopping is elastic in nature and the energy lost by the incoming ion is
transferred to the target atom, which is recoiled away from its lattice site. This process is
responsible for the production of lattice disorder and most of the damage to the crystal structure
of the target material. This stopping is dominant at low ion velocity (energy). Heavy ions have
more probable nuclear stopping.

Note on elastic and inelastic collision:

A perfectly elastic collision is defined as one in which there is no loss of kinetic energy in the
collision. An inelastic collision is one in which part of the kinetic energy is changed to some
other form of energy in the collision.

3.2 Electronic stopping

Electronic stopping is caused by interaction with the electrons of the target. Electronic
stopping is inelastic in nature and the energy lost by incident ions is dissipated through the
electron cloud into thermal vibrations of the target material. Electronic stopping is dominant at
high ion velocity (energy). Light ions have more probable electronic stopping.
3.2.1 Non-Local Electronic Stopping
Dielectric medium (allows electric field but not electric current) polarizes with charged
particle. Because of this polarization, the electric field built drags the moving ions (but not
change the direction). This is an overall characteristics of target medium and hence called non-
local electronic stopping.

3.2.2 Local Electronic Stopping

Local electronic environment also may interact with ions by collision of ion with electrons.
There will be momentum transfer and subtle change in ion direction.

3.3 Total Stopping Power:

The total stopping power S of the target, defined as the energy (E) loss per unit path length of
the ion(x), is the sum of these two terms
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝑆=( ) +( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
3.4 Damage Production
Nuclear stopping creates lot of damage to the lattice (disadvantage of ion implantation). This
damage has to be repaired by annealing at high temperatures.

Displacement energy - 𝐸𝑑 = 15 eV in silicon.

Kinchin-Pease Formula:
𝐸𝑛
𝑛=
2𝐸𝑑
𝐸𝑛 → 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑛 → 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
Time scale of damage production:
1
𝐸𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣2
2

2𝐸𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣=√
𝑚

Time:
𝑑 𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑝
𝑡= = =
𝑣 𝑣
√2𝐸𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚
Find the time scale of damage production. Assume arsenic implanted with energy of 30 keV
with projected range of 25 nm.

𝑡 = 2.85 × 10−12 𝑠
Events Time Scale
Ions come to rest 10−13 𝑡𝑜 10−12 𝑠
Thermal vibrations (Debye 10−12 𝑠
frequency)
Interstitial and Vacancy 10−9 𝑠
recombination
After 10−9 𝑠, defects are considered stable.

t = 0.1 ps

t = 0.5 ps

t = 6.0 ps
What are types of damages?
Small defect clusters
Dopant-defect complexes
Isolated Interstitials
Isolated Vacancies

Primary damages accumulate (build-up) until eventually an amorphous state is reached after
which no channelling occurs and the damage accumulation saturates.

For heavier ions like arsenic implantation, due to the dominant nuclear collision, damage
profile is relatively flat over the whole range upto Rp. For lighter ions like boron implantation,
due to the dominant electronic collision (nuclear collision only occurs at lower energy close to
the projected range), damage profile is concentrated near Rp where ion energy is lower. So
amorphous region follows the above damage profile.

Cross sectional TEM images of amorphous layer formation with increasing implant dose
(300keV Si -> Si) [Rozgonyi]
Easier to form amorphous layers at low temperatures (as point defects recombine faster at
higher temperatures).
These ideas suggest the possibility of pre-amorphizing the silicon substrate to eliminate ion
channelling and form shallow implant profile.

3.5 Damage Annealing:

 Remove primary damage created by the implant and activate the dopants.
 Restore silicon lattice to its perfect crystalline state.
 Restore the electron and hole mobility.
 Do this without appreciable dopant redistribution.
Damage annealing is about removing the primary damage created by the implant and restore
the silicon lattice to its perfect crystalline state, leaving the dopants on active substitutional
sites. Damage removal can be divided into two regimes: One below the amorphous threshold
(10% of the silicon lattice density is displaced) and the other above the amorphous threshold.
Primary damage starts anneal at low temperature of 400°𝐶. First, the vacancy complexes begin
to break up and the released vacancies annihilate with interstitials. The final result of the initial
stages of annealing is to remove most of the Frenkel pairs

Cross sectional TEM images of amorphous layer regrowth at 525˚C, from a 200keV, 6e15
cm-2 Sb implant.

In the tail region, the material is not amorphized. Damage beyond the a/c interface can nucleate
stable, secondary defects and cause transient enhanced diffusion (TED).
3.5.1 Damage Annealing and +1 Model
In regions where SPE does not take place (not amorphized), damage is removed by point defect
recombination. Bulk and surface recombination take place on a short time scale.
3.6 TED – Transient Enhanced Diffusion
TED occurs when attempt is made to anneal the implanted damages and restore the lattice to
its crystalline form. TED causes significant increase in diffusion (many thousand times faster)
than what is normally observed without implantation damages.
4 Why called Monte Carlo Simulation?
Monte Carlo simulation is named after the Monte Carlo Casino in Monaco. The technique was
named by scientists Nicholas Metropolis, Stanislaw Ulam, and John von Neumann during their
work on the Manhattan Project in the 1940s.
The story goes that during World War II, Metropolis, Ulam, and von Neumann were working
on the development of the atomic bomb. They needed a method to simulate the behavior of
neutrons in the chain reactions involved in nuclear fission. Since solving the equations involved
in these simulations analytically was extremely complex, they turned to statistical methods.
As Ulam recounted later, the idea of using random sampling to solve these problems came to
him during a visit to the Monte Carlo Casino in Monaco. The randomness inherent in the
outcomes of casino games like roulette reminded him of the random nature of the processes
they were trying to model.
So, they adopted the term "Monte Carlo" to refer to their method of using random sampling to
approximate solutions to mathematical and physical problems. The name stuck, and today,
Monte Carlo simulation refers to a wide range of computational techniques that use random
sampling to obtain numerical results for complex systems.

5 References

1. Refer Plummer Book for more readings

2. https://www.iue.tuwien.ac.at/phd/wittmann/node8.html#SECTION008100000000000
00000
3. http://www.jhaj.net/jasjeet/tcad/Learn3/l3d.htm#:~:text=As%20each%20implanted%2
0ion%20enters,different%20mechanisms%20of%20energy%20loss.
a. (Good at Ion Stopping)
4. Used ChatGPT for reasoning!
5. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/elacol.html (Elastic and Inelastic collision)
6.