Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Lecture 12
EE-215 Electronic Devices and Circuits
Asst Prof Muhammad Anis Ch

Small-Signal Operation and Models

Thus for a BJT amplifier, linear amplification can be achieved by
biasing the BJT to operate in the active region
and by keeping the input signal small
for the conceptual amplifier circuit shown in fig
here the base-emitter junction is forward-biased by a dc voltage VBE
the reverse-bias of the collector-base junction is achieved by connecting
the collector to another power supply of voltage VCC through a
resistor RC
the input signal to be amplified vbe is superimposed on the dc bias voltage
VBE
let's first consider the dc bias conditions by setting the signal vbe =0

thus the dc currents and voltages can be given as

IC = IS eVBE /VT
IE = IC /α
IB = IC /β
VCE = VCC − IC RC
Note that for active-mode operation, VC should be greater than
(VB − 0.4) by an amount
that allows for the required signal swing at the collector

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

The Collector Current and the Transconductance

Now if a signal vbe is applied, the total instantaneous base-emitter voltage is
vBE = VBE + vbe
and the total instantaneous collector current iC is
iC = IS evBE /VT = IS e(VBE +vbe )/VT
iC = IS eVBE /VT evbe /VT
As IC = IS eVBE /VT
= ⇒iC = IC evbe /VT

As in terms of series, exponential can be represented as

ex = ∑∞
n=0
xn
n!
=1+x+ x2
2!
+ x3
3!
+ x4
4!
+⋯
= ⇒iC = IC evbe /VT = IC (1 + 2! ( VT ) + ⋯)
vbe 1 vbe 2
VT
+

iC = IC evbe /VT = IC (1 + 2! ( VT ) + ⋯)
vbe 1 vbe 2
VT
+
now if the amplitude of the signal vbe is kept sufficiently small i.e. vbe < VT or
⇒( VbeT ) <
vbe v 2 vbe
VT
< 1= VT
thus we can retain only the 1st two terms, when vbe < VT
= ⇒iC = IC (1 + 2! ( VT ) + ⋯)≈ IC (1 + )
vbe 1 vbe 2 vbe
VT
+ VT

this is the small signal approximation.

and under this approximation, the total collector current is
iC ≈ IC (1 + )= IC +
vbe IC
VT VT
vbe
i.e. the collector current is composed of the dc bias value IC and a signal

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

component ic ,
IC
where ic = VT
vbe
IC
ic = VT
vbe
thus the signal current in the collector is proportional to the corresponding base-
emitter signal voltage
IC
i.e. ic = gm vbe where gm = VT
IC
gm is called the transconductor and is given as gm = VT
thus the transconductance of the BJT is directly proportional to the collector bias
current IC
Note that BJTs have relatively high transconductance as compared to MOSFETs (for
ID
a MOSFET, gm = VOV /2
) e.g. at IC = 1mA , gm = 40mA/V
Graphical interpretation for gm is as shown in figure
Note that gm is equal to the slope of the iC − vBE characteristic at the bias point Q
∂iC ∣
i.e. gm =. ∂vBE ∣iC =IC
vBE /VT
as iC = IS e
[IS e BE ]∣∣iC =IC = . IS ∂vBE [e BE T ]∣∣iC =IC
∂iC ∣ ∂ v /VT ∂ v /V
gm = . ∂vBE ∣iC =IC
=. ∂vBE

[vBE /VT ]∣∣iC =IC = . iC ∂vBE [vBE /VT ]∣∣iC =IC

∂ ∂
gm = . IS evBE /VT ∂vBE
iC ∣ IC
gm = . VT ∣iC =IC
= VT
thus the small-signal approximation implies
keeping the signal amplitude sufficiently small that
operation is restricted to an almost-linear segment of
the iC − vBE exponential curve.

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base

to determine the resistance seen by vbe , first we need to determine the total base current
iB
iC
as iB = β
IC
using iC = IC + v
VT be
I
i IC + VC vbe IC 1 IC
= ⇒ iB = βC = β
T
= β
+ β VT
vbe
or iB = IB + ib
IC
where IB = β
and ib is the signal component
1 IC g I
i.e. ib = v = βm vbe ∵gm = VCT
β VT be
gm
thus ib = v
β be
The small-signal input resistance between base and emitter, looking into the base
is denoted by rπ and is defined as
vbe
rπ = ib
gm
using ib = v
β be
v vbe β
rπ = ibeb = gm = gm
β
vbe
thus rπ is directly proportional to β and is inversely proportional to gm
IC
As gm = VT
β βVT VT IC
= ⇒ rπ = gm = IC
= IB
∵ IB = β

The Emitter Current and the Input Resistance at the Emitter

the total emitter current iE can be given as
i I +i IC ic
iE = αC = C α c = α + α
= ⇒ iE = I E = ie
IC
where IE = α
ic
and the signal current ie = α
IC
as ic = gm vbe = VT
vbe
IC
vbe
ic 1 IC IC 1
vbe = IE V1T vbe ∵IE = IC /α
VT
= ⇒ ie = α = α = α VT vbe = α VT
IE
thus ie = VT
vbe

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

the small-signal resistance between base and emitter looking into the emitter is
denoted by re and is defined as
vbe
re = ie
vbe
re = ie
IE
as ie = VT
vbe
vbe vbe VT
= ⇒ re = ie
= IE = IE
VT
vbe
IC IC
as IE = α and gm = VT
VT αVT α
= ⇒re = IE
= IC
= gm
VT α
thus re = IE
= gm
rπ and re
vbe β VT vbe VT α
thus rπ = ib
= gm = IB
and re = ie
= IE
= gm
from these relations, we can determine the relation between rπ and re

i.e. vbe = ib rπ = ie re
ie
= ⇒rπ = r
ib e
ie i i β i (β+1) β
as i
b
= 1e i1b = αc ic = c β ic = β +1
= ⇒rπ = ibe re =(β + 1)re
i

Voltage Gain
by KVL, VCC = iC RC + vCE
the total instantaneous collector voltage is
vCE = VCC − iC RC
under the small signal condition
iC = I C + ic
= ⇒vCE = VCC − iC RC = VCC −(IC + ic )RC
vCE = VCC − IC RC − ic RC
vCE =(VCC − IC RC )−ic RC
vCE = VCE − ic RC ∵ VCE = VCC − IC RC
here VCE is the dc bias voltage at the collector

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

vCE = VCE − ic RC
= ⇒ the signal component of vCE is
vce = −ic RC
As ic = gm vbe
= ⇒ vce = −ic RC = −gm vbe RC
or vce =(−gm RC )vbe
the voltage gain of this amplifier Av can be given as
vce
Av = vbe = − gm R C

IC
Note that the gain is proportional to gm . As gm = V , thus stable gain can be
T
achieved by making the collector bias current stable
vce
Av = vbe = − gm R C
IC
As gm = VT
vce IC RC
= ⇒ Av = vbe = −gm RC = − VT
here the minus sign indicates that the output signal vce is 180o out of phase w.r.t.
the input signal vbe
Separating the Signal and the DC Quantities
thus under the small-signal approximation,
signal quatities are superimposed on dc quantities

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

i.e. every current and voltage in the amplifier circuit is composed of

two components: a dc component and a signal component
thus vBE = VBE + vbe , iC = IC + ic , iE = IE + ie ,
iB = IB + ib and vCE = VCE + vce
thus we can simplify analysis by separating “dc calculations” from “small-signal or
ac calculations”
first we perform dc analysis by suppressing all ac sources, and determine the dc
operating point
for ac analysis, we suppress all dc sources,
i.e. dc voltage source is replaced by a short circuit
a dc current source is replaced by an open circuit
The Hybrid-π Model
we have already seen that under the small-signal condition
ic = gm vbe where gm = IC /VT
= ⇒ BJT behaves as a voltage controlled current source
it accepts a signal vbe between base and the emitter
and provides a current gm vbe at the collector terminal
The small-signal input resistance between the base and emitter, looking into the
base is rπ
the output resistance is infinite (if base-width modulation effect is neglected)
thus the small-signal operation of the BJT can be represented by figure
from this model, ic = gm vbe , ib = vbe /rπ
by KCL
vbe
ie = ib + ic = rπ + gm vbe
ie =( r1π + gm )vbe =(1 + gm rπ )
vbe
rπ
β
As rπ = gm = ⇒ gm rπ = β
ie =(1 + gm rπ ) rbeπ =(1 + β)
v vbe
rπ
rπ
but rπ =(β + 1)re or β+1 = re

= ⇒ ie =(1 + β)
vbe vbe vbe
rπ = rπ /(1+β)
= re

A slightly different equivalent-circuit model is obtained by

expressing the current of the controlled source (gm vbe ) in terms of the base
current ib
i.e. ic = gm vbe = gm (ib rπ )=(gm rπ )ib = βib ∵rπ = β/gm
this results in an alternative equivalent-circuit model shown in fig (b)
here the transistor is represented by a current-controlled current source, with the
control current being ib

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Note that these models (fig above) are small-signal versions of large signal models (fig
below)
Note that rπ is the incremental resistance of DB

The T Model
Another possible small-signal model for a BJT called the T-model is shown in figure
here the BJT is represented as a voltage-controlled current source
with the control voltage being vbe
here the resistance between base and emitter, looking into the emitter is
explicitly shown
from the figure we can see that the model yields correct expressions for ic
, ib and ie
i.e. ic = gm vbe , ie = vbe /re
− gm vbe =( r1e − gm )vbe
vbe
and ib = ie − ic = re

ib =( r1e − gm )vbe

ib = ( )vbe =( re )vbe ∵re =

1−gm re 1−α α
re gm or gm re = α

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

ib =(1 − α) r1e vbe =(1 − β+1 ) re be

β 1
v
ib =( β+1 ) r1e vbe =( β+1 ) re vbe
(β+1)−β 1 1

As rπ =(β + 1)re
= ⇒ib = r1π vbe

A slightly different equivalent-circuit model is obtained by

expressing the current of the controlled source (gm vbe ) in terms of the emitter
current ie
i.e. ic = gm vbe = gm (ie re )=(gm re )ie = αie ∵re = α/gm
this results in an alternative equivalent-circuit model (T-model) shown in fig (b)
here the BJT is represented by a current-controlled current source, with the control
current being ie

Note that these small-signal models are small-signal versions of the large-signal models
(fig below)
and re is the incremental resistance of DE

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Small-Signal Models of the pnp Transistor

for a pnp transistor,

Recall that for a pnp transistor, larger signal models can be given as

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Also the above small-signal models developed for npn transistors,

apply equally well to the pnp transistor with no change in polarities.
to see why?

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Augmenting the Small-signal Models to account for the Early Effect

because of Early effect, iC depends not only on vBE and also on vCE
i.e. iC = IS evBE /VT (1 + V )
vCE
A
As a consequence of Early effect, the output resistance looking into the collector is
not infinite and can be given as
VA
ro = IC '
where VA is the Early voltage and IC ' is the collector current with the Early effect
neglected.
The Early effect can be included in the small-signal models by placing ro between
the collector and the emitter terminals

Application of the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits

Thus in the analysis of a BJT amplifier circuit, we follow the following steps
1. Suppress the signal sources and determine the dc operating point of the BJT

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

(particularly the dc collector current, IC )

2. Calculate the values of the small signal model parameters:
IC β α
i.e. gm = VT
, rπ = gm , re = gm
3. Eliminate the dc sources by replacing each dc voltage source with a short-circuit
and each current source with an open-circuit
4. Replace the BJT by its small-signal equivalent circuit model
5. Analyse the resulting circuit to determine the required signal quantities e.g. Av ,
Rin etc.
Table summarizes the small-signal models and relevant relations for a BJT
note that these small-signal models and relations apply equally well to both the
npn and the pnp transistors with no change in polarities

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

for a pnp transistor,

Example 6.14
Analyze the transistor amplifier shown in Fig 6.42(a) to determine its voltage gain vo /vi .
Assume β = 100.

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Handout 12 , Asst Prof M Anis Ch, Electronic Devices and Circuits

Example 6.16
Analyze the transistor amplifier shown in Fig 6.44(a) to determine its voltage gain vo /vi .
Assume β = 100.

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