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    22 views561 pages

    MWA Complete Searchable

    Uploaded by

    Akmal Zaharin

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 561

    PREFACE

    The JKR Design Criteria and Standards for Water Supply Systems in three
    volumes were published by the Office of the Director of Water Supplies.JlvR
    Headquarters Kuala Lumpur in early 1989.These publications served as useful
    reference material to water engineers and sub-professionals both in the public and
    private sectors when designing water supply systems. The materials were prepared and
    compiled by a technical committee comprising senior technical officers of the
    Cawangan Bekalan Air and represent design criteria and standards used by the
    engineering design office. ~
    i
    The present manual entitled MWA Design Guidelines for Water Supply Systems is
    an adaptation of the JKR Design Criteria and Standards for Water Supply
    I
    'i

    r
    !
    Systems. Unlike the JKR. publications the MW A manual is published in a single
    volume. The presentation format however remains the same. I
    l
    ~
    Section I and Section 16 have been completely rewritten while amendments/revisions I
    were made to the other sections.albeit minor. '

    ,· The panel of reviewers for the MW A manual comprises professionals and engineers
    i who have many years of experience and currently practising in the private sector as
    l
    well as those in the public sector. .

    Grateful thanks are due to the following who havt sacrificed their valuable time and
    effort to assist me in the preparation of this manual.Their comments.guidance and
    assistance are fully appreciated and acknowledged.

    Tan Eng Heng Lee Mun Siew Chan Hon Lam Mahan Singh
    • Debbie Sim Lee Yow Ching· Yap Sin Chong John Quarcndon
    '
    ;
    l
    Low Chee Par Khor Chai Huat Lee Bing Magdalene Tan Lee
    •
    • Toh Ah See Lai Cheng Cheong . Lai Sing Khang Chan Chiang Heng
    • Cheah Suck Poh Lee Thong Peng

    The prime mover for the publication of this manual is the President of the Malaysian
    Water Association,Dato' Haji Omar bin Ibrahim who is also the Deputy Director
    General (1) of the Jabatan Kerja Raya.The success of this publication is greatly due to
    his encouragement and advice.

    I take responsibility for any error or omission in this manual.Any constructive criticism
    or advice will be most welcomed and will be reflected in the future revised edition.

    Tay Soon Chuan


    Chairman
    Standards & Practice Committee
    Malaysian Water Association
    December 1994
    MWA DESIGN GUIDELINES
    FOR
    WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

    SECTION 1 - FEASIBILITY STUDY

    SECTION 2 - DESIGN LOW FLOW ESTIMATION

    SECTION 3 WATER QUALITY

    SECTION 4 GROUND WATER JNVESTIGATION

    SECTION 5 - WATER DEMAND

    SECTION 6 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

    SECTION7 - INTAKE WORKS


    ! '
    1,,,, .'
    "SECTION 8 - AERATORS AND MIXING DEVICES . "::;' ~·

    SECTION 9 FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION TANKS


    .
    ii_;;,.
    . '
    ;

    SECTION 10 - FIT~TERS
    SECTION 11 - TIU;ATMENT PLANT LAYOUT

    SECTION 12 - MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS

    SECTION 13 - ELECTRICAL EQUTPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS

    SECTION 14 - WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

    SECTION 15 - STORAGE TANKS AND RESERVOIRS

    SECTION 16 - WATER SUPPLY PLUMBING SYSTEMS


    i
    APPENDJX - EXPLANATORY HANDBOOK ON THE WATER :[
    I.

    SUPPLY RULES ..
    If
    '
    rt.

    ·----- .. -------------~-
    I
    MWA GUIDELINESFOR
    :wATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
    TABLE OF CONTENTS

    SECTION 1 - FEASIDilXfY STUDY


    1.1 Introduction

    1.2 Major activities

    1.3 Overview of Economic Development

    1.4 Water Demand Forecasting

    1.5 Water Resources Study


    1. 5. 1 General
    1.5.2 Hydrological Study
    1.5.3 Water Resources Planning
    1.5.4 Dams and Reservoirs
    1.5.5 Groundwater Sources

    1.6 Water Quality and Treatment Requirements


    1.6.1 Water Quality Assessment
    1.6.2 Treatment Requirements

    1.7 Formulation of Alternative Schemes


    1.7 .1 Existing Water Supply System
    1.7.2 Formulation of New Schemes

    1.8 Preliminary Environmental & Socioeconomic Considerations

    1.9 Financial Analyses


    l :9.1 Internal Rate of Return
    1.9.2 Estimating the Selling Price of Water
    1.9.3 Tariff Study

    1.10 Recommendation of Development Plan

    1.11 Preparation of Report

    .;·"t-.:.

    -1-
    SECTION 2 ~ DESIGN LOW FLOW ESTIMATION
    2.1 Introduction

    2.2 Design low flow

    2.3 Low flow frequency analysis

    2.4 Probability density function and cumulative distribution function

    2.5 Stream gauging data

    2.6 Procedure for calculating low flows for gauged catchments

    2.7 Theoretical review of model distributions. and estimations

    2.7.1 The Normal Distribution


    2.7.2 The Log-Normal Distribution
    2.7.3 The Exponential Distribution
    2.7.4 The Gamma-Distribution
    2.7.5 The General Extreme Distribution
    2.7.6 The Log Pearson Type ill Distribution

    2.8 Goodness of fit tests

    2.9 illustrative example for calculating minimum 7-day flows for given return periods given
    a set of data record

    2.9.1 Introduction
    2.9.2 The Data Set
    2.9.3 'D1e Log-Normal Distribution
    2.9.4 The Exponential Distribution
    2.9.5 The Gamma Distribution
    2.9.6 The General Extreme Value Distribution
    2.9.7 The Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test

    2.10 The use of Hydrological Procedure No. 12 published by the Drainage


    and Irrigation Department

    2.10.1 Introduction
    2.10.2 Development of Procedure
    2.10.3 Use of the procedure
    2.10.4 Comments on the use of the procedure

    ·ll-
    REFERENCES

    Appendix A; Appendix B

    SECTION 3 ~ WATER QUALITY


    3.1 General

    3.2 Definition of terms

    3.3 Raw water quality criteria

    3.4 Criteria for drinking water standard

    3.5 Microbiological
    3.5.1 Raw water
    3.5.2 Drinking Water

    3.6 Physical quality

    3.6.1 Colour
    3.6.2 Turbidity
    3.6.3 Taste and Odour
    3.6.4 Suspended and Total Dissolved Solids

    3. 7 Chemical quality

    3.7.1 Inorganic substances


    3.7.2 Inorganic substances of health significance
    3.7.3 Organic substances
    3. 7.4 Organic substances of health significance

    3.8 Other parameters

    3.8.l pH
    3.8.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
    3.8.3 Aluminium
    3.8.4 Amrnoniacal Compounds
    3.8.5 Chlorides
    3.8.6 Hardness
    3.8.7 Iron
    3.8.8 Manganese
    3.8.9 Sulphates

    3.9 Types and frequency of examination

    3.9 .1 Residual Chlorine


    3.9.2 Bacteriological Examination

    -111-

    ------------- .
    6.4.14 Conditioning
    6.4.15 Summary

    6.5 Selection of treatment processes

    REFERENCES

    SECTION7 - INJ'AKEWORKS,RAW WATERPUMP SUMP AND RAW


    WATER PUMPINGMAIN
    7.1 Criteria

    7.1.1 Quantity of Water to be Abstracted at Intake


    7.1.2 Reliability of Source
    7.1.3 Raw Water Quality
    7 .1.4 Intake Aqueducts
    7 .1.5 Grit Chamber
    7 .1. 6 Floating Booms and Screens
    7 .1.7 Pump Suctions
    7.1.8 Pump Sump Volumes
    7 .1. 9 Raw Water Pumping Main
    i;<· I~

    . :..v.:.:.: ..

    7.2 Standards

    7 .2.1 Requisites of Surface Water Intakes


    7 .2.2 Site Considerations for River Intakes
    7.2.3 River Intake Works
    7 .2.4 Components of a River Intake Works
    7.2.5 River Bank and Intake Structure Protection
    7 ..2.:6 Weirs and Other Structures Across Rivers
    7 .2.7 Intake Structure ·.=..

    7 .2.8 Aqueducts Connecting the Intake Structure to the Pump Sump


    i
    7 .2. 9 Pump Sump Design
    7.2.10 Raw Water Pumping Mains
    7.2.11 Requisites of Ground Water Abstraction Points

    REFERENCES

    APPENDIX 7.1 PU:M:P SUMP FEATURES

    SECTION8 - AERATORS AND MIXINGDEVICES


    8.1 Aerators

    8.1.1 General
    8.1.2 Efficiency of Aeration
    8:1.3 Types of Aerators
    8.1.4 Circular Cascade Aerators

    -vi-
    5.1.9 Unaccounted-for-water
    5.10 Unsatisfied demand

    5.2 Water demand for Felda supplies

    5.2.1 General
    5.2.2 Basic formula for water demand estimation

    5.3 Water demand for regional development authority supplies

    I . 5.3.1 General
    j
    ! 5.3.2 Basic formula for water demand estimation

    5.4 Water demand for housing estates

    5.4.1 General
    5.4.2 Basic formula for water demand estimation

    5.5 Examples on the use of water demand formulae .


    ! .
    ;
    '· '
    5.5.1 Water demand for urban supplies
    '; .
    :
    5.5.2 Water demand for FELDA supplies
    ! :

    SECTION 6 - WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES


    6.1 Objectives of water treatment
    l
    i 6.2 Drinking water quality to aim for
    { :

    6.3 Raw water quality suitable for conventional treatment

    6.4 Water treatment processes


    i
    t; 6.4.1 Raw water storage
    6.4.2 Screening ( Coarse & Fine)
    6.4.3 Grit Removal
    6.4.4 Chemical pretreatment
    6.4.5 Aeration
    6.4.6 Chlorination
    6.4.7 Chemical Mixing
    6.4.8 Coagulation & Flocculation
    6.4.9 Sedimentation
    6.4.10 Filtration
    6.4.11 Adsorption
    6.4.12 Fluoridation
    6.4.13 Disinfection'

    -v-
    6.4.14 Conditioning
    6.4.15 Summary

    5.5 Selection of treatment processes

    REFERENCES

    SECTION 7 - INTAKE WORKS. RAW WATER PUMP SUMP AND BAW


    WATER PUMPING MAIN
    7 .1 Criteria

    7 .1.1 Quantity of Water to be Abstracted at Intake


    7 .1.2 Reliability of Source
    7 .1.3 Raw Water Quality
    7 .1.4 Intake Aqueducts
    7 .1.5 Grit Chamber
    7.1.6 Floating Booms and Screens
    7 .1.7 Pump Suctions
    7 .1. 8 Pump Sump Volumes
    7.1.9 Raw Water Pumping Main

    7 .2 Standards

    7.2.1 Requisites of Surface Water Intakes


    7.2.2 Site Considerations for River Intakes
    7.2.3 River Intake Works
    7 .2.4 Components of a River Intake Works
    7.'? -, 5 . River Bank 9.11.d Intake Structure Protection
    7.2.6 Weirs and Other Structures Across Rivers
    7.2.7 Intake Structure
    7.2.8 Aqueducts Connecting the Intake Structure to the Pump Sump
    7 .2.9 Pump Sump Design
    7.2.10 Raw Wat.er Pumping Mains
    7 .2.11 Requisites of Ground Water Abstraction Points

    REFEREN03.S

    APPENDfX 7.1 PUMP SUMP FEATURES

    SECTION 8 - AERAIQRS AND MIXING DEVICES


    8.1 Aerators

    8. 1.1 General
    8.1.2 Efficiency of Aeration
    8.1.3 Types of Aerators
    8.1.4 Circular Cascade Aerators

    -vi-

    ... :... ,.....


    / 8.1.5
    8.1.6
    Example on the Design of a Cascade Aerator
    Square Single Drop Aerators

    ; 8.2 Mixing

    8.2.1 General
    8.2.2 Mixing Flume
    8.2.3 Weir
    8.2.4 Flash Mixer
    8.2.5 Mechanical Mixer
    8.2.6 Exan:-iple on the Design of a Mixing Flume

    8.3 Coagulant Dosing Points

    REFERENCES

    SECTION 9 - FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION TANKS


    9.1 Flocculation Tanks
    . . , .....

    9. 1.1 General
    9.1.2 Velocity Gradient
    9.1.3 Design of Flocculation Tanks
    9.1.4 Size and Shape of Flocculation Tanks
    9.1.5 Types of Flocculation Tanks
    9.1.6 Rollild-'The-End-Type Baffled Flocculation Tanks
    9.1.7 Up-And-Down Type Baffled Flocculation Tanks
    9.1.8 Mechanical Flocculators

    . .... 9.2 Sedimentation Tanks

    9.2.1 General
    9.2.2 Principles of Horizontal F1ow Sedimentation Tanks
    9.2.3 Rectangular Horizontal Flow Sedimentation Tanks
    9.2.4 "Lovo" Tank
    9.2.5 Inclined Parallel Plate Settler or Tube Settler Sedimentation Tanks
    9.2.6 Vertical Flow Sedimentation Tanks
    9.2.7 Choice of Sedimentation T<>nlrc
    9.2.8 Sludge Handling
    9.2.9 Sludge Disposal

    REFERENCES

    -vii-
    3ECTION IO - Fll,,TERS

    10.1 Introduction

    10.2 Objective

    10.3 Types of Filters

    10.4 Slow Sand Filters

    10.4.1
    ·. \
    Prerequisites -, ,, .)
    .•.
    '.:
    10.4.2 Basic Components
    10.4.3 Filtration Rate
    10.4.4 Filter Tanks
    10.4.5 Filter Sand
    10.4.6 Gravel Support Layer .,
    -10.4.7 Filter Underdrain
    10.4.8 Filter Flow Control and Measurement
    10.4.9 Filter Pipeworks
    10.4.10 Operation of Valves
    10.4.11 Filter Instrumentation

    10.5 Rapid Sand Filters

    10.5.1 Basic Components


    10·.s.2 Filtration Rate
    10.5.3 Filter Tank . . ....... ..
    10.5.4 Filter Sand
    10.5.5 . Gravel Support Layer
    10.5.6 Underdrain System
    10.5.7 Backwash System
    10.5.8 Backwash Supply
    10.5.9 Wash Water Outlet Channel
    10.5.10 Filter Channel and Pipeworks
    10.5.11 Operation of Valves and Penstocks
    10.5.12 FilterF1owControl
    I 0.5.13 Instrumentation

    10.6 High Rate Fil ters

    10.7 Coarse Single-Medium Filter

    10.7.l Filtration Rate


    10.7.2 Filter Medium
    10.7.3 Backwash System
    10.7.4 Underdrain System

    10.8 Dual-Media Filter

    -viii-
    10.8.1 Filtration Rate
    10.8.2 Filter Media
    10.8.3 Filter Depth
    10.8.4 Backwash System
    10.8.5 Applicability

    10.9 Multi-Media Filters

    10.10 Direct Filtration Filters

    10.10.I Prerequisites
    10.10.2 Design Requirements of Filters
    10.10.3 Operational Factors
    10.10.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

    10.11 Rapid Sand Pressure Filters


    i -.

    .
    [ 10.11.1
    10.11.2
    Basic Components
    Filtration Rate
    !
    t
    10.11.3 Filter Tank 'i!
    f
    ! : 10.11.4 Filter Sand and Gravel Support Layer 1
    \' f
    10.11.5 Underdrain System !
    I ":
    .~ :
    10.11.6 Backwash System Il
    ! 10.11.7 Backwash Supply !
    10.11.8 Filter Control Valves and Pipeworks
    ~ 1 10.11.9 Operation of Valves
    10.11.10 Air Release Valves
    10.11.11 Filter Flow Control
    . . . . .. . -10.-1 L-12 Instrumentation

    10.12 High Rate Pressure Filters


    r:
    SECTION 11 - TREATMENT PLANT LAYQUI
    11.1 Introduction

    11.2 Location of Treatment Plant

    11.2. l General
    11.2.2 · Planning and Environmental Constrains
    11.2.3 Plant Design Factors
    11.2.4 Site Factors
    11.2.5 Environmental Factors

    11.3 Plant Layout

    11.3.1 General

    -ix-
    11.3.2 General Arrangement of the Water Treatment Facilities
    11.3.3 External Works Design Criteria
    11.3.4 Structural Design Criteria
    11.3.5 Architectural Design Criteria
    11.3.6 Safety Considerations
    11.3.7 Treatment Plant Finishes
    11.3.8 Plant Utilities

    11.4 Operations Building

    11.4.1 General
    11.4.2. Design Crire_ria anci Consideration

    11.5 Chemical Dosing Facilities and Store

    11.5.1 General
    11.5.2 Design Criteria and Consideration

    11.6 Contact/Clear Water Tank and Treated Water Pumping Station

    11. 6.1 General


    11.6.2 Design Criteria and Consideration

    11.7 Wash Water Tank

    11.7 .1 General
    11.7 .2 Design Criteria and Consideration

    11.8 Sludge, Filter Waste WashwaterDisposal ·· ·


    ~-·
    11.9 Quarters

    11.10 Generator House/Electricity Supply Substation

    11.10.1 Generator House


    11.10.2 Electricity Supply Substation

    APPENDIX - SCHEDULE OF INTERNAL FINISHES AND VENTILATION

    SECTION 12 - MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS


    12.1 Introduction

    12.2 Pumpsets and Pumping Systems

    12.3 'Planned Water Quantity and Number of Pump Units

    12.4 Pump Selection

    -x-
    12.4.1 General
    12.4.2 Classification of Pumps
    12.4.3 Capacity
    12.4.4 Power and Efficiency
    12.4.5 Specific Speed and Pump Type
    12.4.6 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation

    12.5 Data Required for Pump Purchase

    12.6 Pumps Characteristics Curves

    12.7 Affinity Laws

    12.8 System Curves

    12.8.1 Static System Head


    12.8.2 Dynamic System Head (TDH)

    12.9 Parallel Operation

    · 12.10 Miscellaneous Considerations

    12.10.l Sump Design


    12.10.2 Piping Design
    12.10.3 Valves
    j ' 12.10.4 Arrangement
    i;
    l '
    12.11 Pumps Control

    12.12 Prime Mover Selection and Types

    l . 12.12.1 Motors
    !
    1 12.12.2 Diesel Engines
    !

    ..;:····
    12.13 Selection of Drives for Pumpsets
    t. :

    12.14 Pumpsets Plinth

    12.14.1 Special Design of Plinths for Pumpsets and Generators


    12.14.2 Vibration Damping Using Isolators

    12.15 Surge Suppression Plant

    12.15.l Example on Preliminary Calculation on Sizing of Surge Vessel·

    12.16 Criteria and Standards for Instrumentation

    12.16.1 Process Measuring Elements

    -xi-
    12.17 Chemical Dosing Equipment

    12.17.1 Liquid Feeders


    12.17.2 Machine Dry Chemical Feeders
    12.17.3 Chemical Dosers
    12.17.4 Chlorination System
    12.17.5 Chlorine Leak Detector
    12.17.6 Emergency Safety Shower and Eyewash
    12.17.7 Exhaust Fans

    1.,.__'"> ....1 Q
    v

    12.18.1 Washwatcr Purnpset


    12.18.2 Air Blower
    12.18.3 Filter Control

    12.19 Mechanical Handling Equipment

    12.19.1 General
    12.19.2 Hand Trolley
    12.19.3 Forklift
    12.19.4 Cranes
    12.19.5 Other Lifting Devices

    SECTION J 3 - ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS


    13.1 Introduction

    13.2 Power Intake (or Generation)

    13.2.1 Voltage at .which electricity


    . can be taken
    13.2.2 Local Power Generation
    13.2.3 Standby Power

    13.3 A.C. Motors

    13.3.1 General Specification


    13.3.2 Main and Minor Motors Used in Treatment Plants
    13.3.3 Types of Motors
    13.3.4 Types of Motor Enclosures
    13.3.5 Motor Insulation
    13.3.6 Motor Bearing
    13.3.7 Coupling
    13.3.8 Performances

    13.4 Electrical Motor Starters

    -xii-
    13.4.1 Guidelines for Starters for Motors (generally)
    13.4.2 Starter Board

    13.5 Control Strategies

    13.6 A.C. MotorsProtection

    13.6.1 Overload Protection of Motors


    13.6.2 Short - Circuit Protection
    13.6.3 Single Phasing in 3 - Phase Motors
    13.6.4 Overheating Protection Device
    13.6.5 Motor Protection Relay

    13.7 Sizing of Motor

    13.7.l Total Head of a Pump


    13.7.2 Efficiency and Required Power
    13.7.3 KW rating of motor

    13.8 Rating of Cables for Motor Winding

    13.8.1 . Motor Wiring Table

    13.9 Generator

    13.9.1. Sizing of Generator


    13.9.2 Useful Criteria and Data
    13.9.3 Method to Size Generator
    .13.9A Generator Room/House

    13.10 General Lighting and Power

    13.11 Internal Electrical Wiring

    13.12 External Lighting

    13.13 Main Switch Boards I Sub-switch Boards I Distribution Fuse Boards, etc.

    !3.l~- Lighwing Protection System

    SECTION 14 ~ WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS


    · 14. l Introduction

    14.2 Objective

    -xiii-
    14.3 Types of Distribution Systems

    14.4 Distribution and Reticulation Layout ir···


    1
    L··-
    14.5 Pipes

    14.5.1 Pipe Materials


    14.5.2 Pipe Classification
    14.5.3 Selection of Type of Pipe

    14.7 Fittings and Specials .

    14.8 Valves

    14.9 Pipe Diameter Selection

    14.9.1 General
    14.9.2 Criteria for Sizing Pipes
    14.9.3 Design of Distribution Networks
    14.9.4 Estimation of Minor Friction Loss
    14.9.5 Estimation of Pump Operation Cost
    14.9.6 Analysis of Reticulation Network
    14.9.7 Design Factors in Pipe Sizing

    14.10 Design of Pipe Profile

    14.10.1 Cover Requirements


    14.10.2 Gradients
    14.10.3 Dead Ends
    14.10.4 Valve Chambers
    14.10.5 Culvert Crossings
    14.10.6 Stream and River Crossings
    14.10.7 Road and Railway Track Crossings
    14.10.8 · Thrust Blocks

    14.11 Other Related Pipeline Design Considerations

    14.11.1 Water Hammer


    14.11.2 Service Connections

    14.12 Booster Stations ~;

    I
    i. :
    14.12.1 Booster Systems
    . 14.12.2 Location of Booster Stations
    14.12.3 Booster Stations Components

    -xiv-

    ··- -----· .. ·.-.· r--·····--~-~~~·-· ··•·····,--·· ---···,··- ~---~ , ......... -· ~---~-- - --.·; ·~-~--~----~·-,·-- . ~----·····- ·-. ·-,-~· _,.,,:;.,.".,".:.·-·- -,~....:,:,;,
    REFERENCES

    APPENDIX - WORKED EXAMPLES

    SECTION15 - STORAGETANKS AND RESERVOIRS


    15.1 General

    15.2 Balancing and Service Reservoir

    15.3 Capacity

    15.4 Types of Reservoirs and Storage Tanks

    l •. 15.4.1 Reinforced Concrete Reservoirs


    !
    15.4.2 Prestressed Concrete Reservoirs
    15.4.3 Elevated Pressed Steel Tanks
    15.4.4. Fibreglass Reinforced Polyester (FRP) Tanks
    15.4.5 Steel Fused with Glass Tanks

    15.5 Standards Components of a R.C. Reservoir

    15.5.1 Inlet Pipe


    15.5.2 Outlet Pipe
    15.5.3 .Overflow
    15.5.4 Scour Pipe
    ';.. 15.5.5 Ventilator
    15.5.6 Manhole/Inspection Gallery
    +' -.
    15.5.7 Ladders
    ~~ :. 15.5.8 Level Instrumentation
    i :

    15.6 Drainage

    15.7 Turfing
    }i .:
    : ;
    15.8 Fencing

    c: "
    1
    J..) ,:::, Access Road
    j
    \ ;

    \
    i .

    SECfION 16 - WATER Sllfl'l,Y PLUMBINGSYSTEM


    ; .

    16.1 Introduction

    -xv-
    6.2 Criteria

    6.3 Standards of materials.fittings and appliances

    l6.4 Storage Cisterns

    16.5 Rate of flow of fittings and appliances

    16.6 'Assessment of Probable Demand

    16.7 Effective Length of Pipe Run

    16.7.1 Loss of bead through pipes,fittings and valves


    16.7.2 Head Loss through valves
    16.7.3 Head Loss through meters
    16.7.4 Head Loss through taps ",.
    16.7.5 Head Loss through float valves
    ~ ..
    '
    j,
    .

    16.8 Available Head

    16.8.1 Supply from storage cistern


    ·"· -,
    16.8.2 Direct supply from mains

    16.9 Pumping Installations in Plumbing Systems

    16.9.1 Indirect Boosting to Storage Cisterns


    16.9.2 Indirect Boosting with pneumatic pressure vesel
    16.9.3 Direct Boosting
    16.9.4 Pumps and Equipment
    .......
    16.10 Provision of Stop Valves

    16.11 HotWaterSystems

    16.12 Meters ?u

    APPENDIX - EXPLANATORY HANDBOOK ON THE WATER SUPPLY RULES

    -xvi-
    ,:
    I
    .'
    SECTION I - FEASIBILITY STUDY
    I
    ./
    ./ 1.1 lNTRODUCTION

    I
    A feasibility study constitutes an important step in the water supply development programme
    for a specific region; it may cover a single township on the smaller scale or several States on
    the bigger scale. The ultimate objective of the feasibility study is the preparation of a long
    term master plan for the phased development of water supply schemes to meet future demand.
    A proper feasibility study will facilitate the recommendation of a development plan which
    when earned out accordingly will ensure the most optimal investment and timely completion
    of projects so that the water consumers' demands can always be satisfied. This section gives
    an outline of the principal activities involved in the preparation of the feasibility study.

    1.2 MAJOR ACTIVITIES

    ... The general major activities involved in the feasibility study are:
    \j
    ~ 1. an overview of past development in the area under study and the potential for further
    growth,
    !
    I ..
    ii. population and water demand forecasting,
    e::
    i
    ;
    llJ. water resources study to assess source yields and requirements of other users,
    t :

    lV. study Of water quality and treatment requirements,

    v. formulation of alternative development schemes,

    vi, environmental impact and socioeconomic consideration,

    vu. financial analyses,

    viii. recommendation of a development plan; and

    IX. preparation of a study report.

    The study will normally be carried out by a team of specialists and depending on its nature
    may take several months or even more than a year to complete. The above activities are
    outlined below.
    ' '
    }
    t :
    1.3 OVERVJEW OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

    An overview of economic development in the area under study is required in order to establish
    the need for investment and demonstrate that development can be justified. Attention should
    be given to:-

    - 1/1 -

    --: --- ... ·--··-··--


    '».
    i, Macro-economic perspectives. These would include land use, econorr-" . iA"'}~..
    and gross domestic product indicators in the various activity sector. 'tr ""'v...
    7
    structure, income levels and prospects for future development. "-, '"';.; .
    ·.. ~~
    ·'.,;
    _)
    ,,·~,
    lL Industrial development

    UL Tourism potential.

    iv. Population estimation.

    v. Any special development projects in other sectors envisaged in the study area.
    \
    '\.
    .
    ·.
    ~
    '·
    The demographic study should be carried out for a horizon of 20 - 30 years. All available data
    should first be collected from the following sources:-

    i. Federal Economic Planning Unit (EPU)

    The EPU has established a management information system containing all available planning
    data for each State including details of analyses carried out in the preparation of other reports.

    n. State Economic Planning Units (SEPU)

    SEPU's are concerned with planning at district, or even at mukim levels, and have their own
    population projections which are used for infrastructure planning within the States.

    iii. Statistics Department

    Population census data and forecasts; both published and unpublished reports may need
    examination ..

    IV. District Offices

    Details of land use and applications for land development

    Y. Town & Country Planning Department

    Responsible for preparation of Structure Plans for development of urban areas.

    vi. State Economic Development Corporations

    Responsible for housing, tourism and industrial developments.

    vii. State JKR or Water Authority

    Distribution sections have records of consumption as determined from meter readings in


    different areas.

    I .

    !·':
    - 1(2 -
    rj
    i;;
    it·
    viii. Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran (JPS)

    Irrigation and drainage policies and projects.

    ix. State Agricultural Departments

    Agricultural qevelopment policies and projects.

    ' .
    i x. Ministry of Tourism

    Data on tourists originating from outside Malaysia.

    xi. Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB)

    Data on hydro-electric and other installations.

    , '
    ' xii. Valuation and Property Services Department
    'I
    Details of land transaction prices.

    xiii. Other relevant Federal and State Govemment departments and agencies.

    xiv. Previous reports covering study area.

    Demographic projections mnst _take account of natural increases and migration. Agreement
    l
    l
    should be reached with the relevant Government statistician on the methodology to be
    l
    ' .
    .
    adopted.

    1.4 WATER DEMAND FORECASTING

    Water demands comprise: ' . ... ······.

    i ;
    ; ;
    1. Domestic consumption
    l.
    n. Commercial and Institutional consumption

    Ill. Industrial consumption


    1- i

    iv. Consumption by agricultural processes e.g. palm oil and rubber factories

    v. Tourism consumption

    vi. Losses from the system.

    Existing consumption rates and losses can fairly easily be established by reference to meter
    records and random checking of data in the field. However caution should be used in
    asswning that volumes thus obtained represent actual requirements due to low pressures and
    ' other factors that may be affecting the supply.

    - 1!3 -

    ~ --··-----
    i ~-
    Consumption rates to be allowed for in future years in several urban, semi-urban and rural '
    areas in Malaysia have been agreed with Steering Committees in other studies. They should
    · be regarded as the normal per capita rates for forecasting unless there are good reasons for
    adopting other values.

    Consumption rates for many industrial processes can be derived from records of consumptions
    on existing industrial estates.

    Consumption rates by tourist (and staff) in hotels can be obtained from an analysis of
    consumptions recorded in existing tourist areas. Assessments of non-revenue water were
    made by the JKR for all districts in 1988. Programmes to reduce losses to not more than 25%
    have been drawn up and should be reviewed.

    1.5 WATER RESOURCES STUDY

    1.5.1 GENERAL

    The aim of the water resources study is to determine suitable sources of water that can .l;>c
    utilised or developed to meet future demand requirements. Sources of water may be:

    1. Direct runoff from rivers.

    11. Supply from rivers after the development of headworks, e.g. impounding reservoirs,
    tidal or diversion barrages, bunded storage reservoirs.

    llL Groundwater.

    iv. Conjunctive use of ground and surface derived waters.

    'I11e optimal choice of sources and headworks development depends on the reliability of
    forecastyields, water quality and an economic analysis of capital and operating costs.

    The study normally requires inputs from hydrologists, water resources planners and an
    economist A geologist and a geotechnical engineer would normally be required for preparing
    preliminary headworks layouts and a hydrogeologist would be needed for assessment of
    groundwater yields.

    1.5.2 HYDROLOGICAL STUDY

    The key tasks ma hydrological study may be assessed as:

    L To collate all available hydromctric data from the JPS, Th'B and other sources in order
    to establish a project database.

    n, To check rainfall and runoff data for consistency, reject data from stations that show
    inconsistencies and infill · gaps in the records of hy rainfall and streamflow
    measurement stations that are to be used for analysis.

    - 1/4 -

    .......
    ·~~~~~~..;.._---,,--~~~,,,...,. ,...........,,_,,,_..,...,.......,,..~~~~~~~-~
    I
    iii. Assess the available water resources of all river catchments that could serve the project
    study areas.

    iv. Prepare runoff sequences from available streamflow data or synthetic data generated
    from a rainfall/runoff model based on available rainfall data.

    v. Assess direct river yields, yield/storage relationships for reservoirs and regulated yields
    for a range of failure risks.

    VL Derive flood inflow hydrographs for each reservoir under consideration in order that
    they may be routed through the reservoirs for determination of required spillway
    capacities.

    vu. Compute flood/magnitude frequency estimates for each potential damsite to guide the
    design of construction flood works.

    Vlll. Assess the rate of sediment accumulation in each of the potential reservoir in order to
    determine a suitabledead storage allowance.

    a. Data Collection and Reviews

    JPS can provide on request data on rainfall, streamflows, evaporation and measurements of
    suspended sediments as measured at specific locations throughout the country..

    Monthly data will normally be adequate for most studies but rainfall/runoff .modelling may
    require daily rainfall data as the 'input. TI1e JPS have published rainfall and evaporation maps
    for the whole country which provide good general guides to values applicable for different
    areas.

    The Malaysian Meteorological Services have available data on winds1. humidity and hours of
    sunshine recorded at specific locations.

    The TNB also collect data on rainfall, runoff and suspended sediment yields. Generally TNB
    supplement the national data collection programme, operated by the JPS, in areas of particular
    interest to them for hydropower generation projects.

    b. Yield Analysis

    With the completion of the database, analysis can be performed to assess the reliable yields of
    sources .. In Malaysia it is usual to assess· yields of sources for water supply purposes on a
    return period of 50 years for the major urban areas. For lesser populated areas a return period
    of 20 to 25 years is assumed and for areas where only a minimum risk of failure can be
    accepted, such as tourist areas, return periods of 100 years may be used. It must be
    rernemberred that the chosen period will be reflected in the costs of implementation of new
    project works.

    The JPS normally accept that in droughts, more severe than· l in 5 year events, supplies for
    irrigation can be reduced. Hence in droughts with return periods of about 1 in 20 years or

    - 1/5 -
    longer it may be assumed that rivers will not be required to. su.,.pp\.. -~·
    purposes.

    There are no regulations in Malaysia that specify the methods to :-\ -


    compensation flows or the ~wn quantities that m~st ~ allowed to • -i;\~,~-.
    or be released from reservoirs m order to meet the npanan needs of de ·
    maintain the ecology of the river systems. Water quality modelling wot. t)C "
    determine the latter volume. "'\

    0\'
    ~
    The river flow corresponding to the selected return period is normally taken as th, ,iJ, '
    recorded 7 day mean flow. Drought flows can be derived from "JPS Hydrological Pt.·
    No.12 - Magnitude and Frequency of Low Flows in Peninsular Malaysia" or specific lov 1
    ,c. .~,
    frequency analyses can be carried out , ~~,,. ,
    ' \
    \ ~~ii

    Yields of underground sources are determined from pumping tests on trial boreholes using the . ~ .

    procedure given in section 4 or by making an assessment of the likely recharge from the
    catchment contributing to the aquifer.
    ~-
    ·t,.

    ' ·\, )
    ,, "'
    ~->;;

    "-'•
    \.
    /.';.":',,_~

    1.5.3 WATER RESOURCES PLANNING


    \
    \.
    Planning the development of a water resources system requires examination of alternative \
    development options that may be available. Simulation modelling techniques using the graphic
    capabilty of spreadsheet model programs are now utilised for analysis of all but the simplest
    works layouts.

    Models have the capability to:-

    L Plot reservoir drawdowns for different yields and determine critical drawdown and
    refilling periods.

    ll. Determine optimum sizes for system components.

    ill. Determine the sensitivity of system yields· to variations in operating rules such a
    compensation water releases.

    rv. Examine the low flow characteristics of regulated rivers.

    v. Check the effect of including abstractions for irrigation use in 1 in 5 year drought
    return periods.

    · The water quality in rivers, as measured by analyses of samples taken from typical river flows,
    can change in the course of time due to various factors such as:-

    L Changes in effluent inflows and pollutant loads at point sources discharges.

    11. Changes in land use which would affect pollutant loadings in non-point source
    discharges.

    - 1/6 ·
    Ij
    iii Changes in river hydrology caused by flow regulation, increased abstractions or
    discharges, or impoundments with controlled compensation releases.

    In order to forecast the future water quality of rivers, models should be constructed to
    examine the effects of existing pollutant loads on river water quality and also predict future
    pollution levels in the rivers and test broad pollution control scenarios.

    1.5.4 DAMS AND RESERVOIRS

    a. General

    ..,-
    Sites for dams and impounding reservoirs in areas where storage is required. are first identified
    on small scale topographical sheets - the 1 : 63,360 (or 1 : 50,000) scale maps are the smallest
    ~·
    } .
    - ·.
    scale maps that should be used for this purpose. Preliminary site visits must then be made by a
    geologist to advise on likely foundation conditions and availability of construction materials
    and an experienced dam design engineer to identify the types of darns best suited for each site
    f .
    i and suitable-positions for locating structures. Some activities involved in a feasibility design
    f
    t study are outlined below.
    f .~
    b. Data collection

    ! :.'
    !
    Data required before commencing a study comprises:

    1. Topographical maps (particularly 1 : 25,000 and 1 : 63,360 or 1 : 50,000 scales).


    I
    ~
    '
    l;
    11. Aerial photographs.

    111. Geological maps and area reports.

    iv. Land use maps and development plans.


    I
    t
    V. Geotechnical data.
    l : I!
    '
    vi. Hydrological data for assessment of flood volumes.

    vu, Sediment data.

    All data should be checked to the extent possible for reliability.

    c. Prelimi --a..:...,. ---o-


    n <>rv -Investi
    i . . . _ ..,
    zations

    Following examination of all available data and initial site visits it ·will 9C necessary to
    supplement visual observations with some preliminary subsurface investigations and surveys to
    establish actual ground levels and the profiles of the valleys at selected sites. The aim will be
    the establishment of the following parameters:-

    1. Outline geology of the damsite and reservoir area.

    11. Elevation/storage/flooded area curves.

    - 1n -
    ---- ------·-··-·~·-----·· ····---~--··------·-··
    UL Availability and general properties of construction materials.

    iv. Flood discharge volumes for diversion culvert and spillway design.

    v. A possible layout for the darn, spillway and drawoff arrangements.

    Outline designs for dams appropriate to the design parameters can then be prepared. The
    required reservoir storage volumes, which determine the heights of dams to be constructed,
    will be obtained from the modelling studies discussed in Section 1.5.3.

    The overall estimated cost of construction of each dam can only be obtained by pricing
    preliminary bills of quantities making due allowances for land acquisition, resettlement, etc.

    d. Further Investigations

    After economic analyses and comparisons of available options have been undertaken, further
    investigations should be undertaken to improve the accuracy of the cost estimates before the
    recommended development plan is finalised. This comprises»

    L Mapping of the damsites with contours at :intervals of 0.5m.

    JL Surveys to confirm reservoir capacities using .Irn contour intervals. Surveys may be
    undertaken by photogrammetric means using existing or new aerial photographs or by
    cutting vegetation to obtain levels along traverses across the proposed reservoir areas.

    in. Boring, drilling and test pits on the damsite and in potential borrow pits and quarry
    areas with adequate sampling of materials encountered.

    _IV. Laboratory testing of samples to confirm properties of materials.

    v. Use of maps to prepare plans showing site geology and possible locations for obtaining
    materials for construction.

    Vl. Preparation of preliminary engineering drawings to accompany the final report

    e. Flood Hydrology

    Overtopping and possible failure of dams should be regarded as being unacceptable anywhere
    in Malaysia and the provision of spillways to pass runoff generated by routing Probable
    r- ..
    Maximum Floods (PMFs) through reservoirs should be assumed to be the appropriate design rp.:·

    event t
    f. Sediment Yield

    Estimates of sedimentation that would occur during reservoir operation, normally taken as
    over a period of 100 years, are required in order to assess the allowances to be made for dead
    storage and to fi.x bottom intake levels to drawoff towers.

    - 1/8 -
    TI1e JPS and TNB have carried out suspended sediment measurements at a number of gauging
    stations and have prepared rating curves but there is generally a paucity of data available and
    estimates must be made subjectively. Care in allocating sediment deposition rate~ is necessary
    particularly in catchments that may be subject t9.~eveloJ>i:nenL . · . . . -. ·

    1.5.5 . Groundwater Sources . .


    :.... · . • ) f \ •, ~ ,," .. ':. I '., , ••

    The technique fors-. k?U!.1~W.ate{my¥stigati_6ns is:..ctes~ribed in Section 4.-· . -The .Geological


    Survey Malaysia -~~ve published maps iii~satl.1;1g the order. o_f yields that may be expected from
    different formation's
    .. -. ~:t. ·: throughout
    ::· .;,.-.-.-~:~r::..,;.:.; Peninsualr
    ~.:;_:. .: :_: __.:":" ..
    Malaysia. :·.
    ::·_~;· . .... :·J_,, . • ,.;.~
    J
    . . ,
    ••••••
    , . .. .: . . . ·. . ·

    1.6 WATER QUALITY AND TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS

    1.6.1 WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

    The· existing water quality data available· from. the Department of Environment, Water
    Authorities, Drainage and Irrigation Departmerit;·pr~vious reports etc. shall be collected and
    assessed .. TI1e: location of'. majordischarges :· pollutants shall be identified. These are of
    expected to arise from industrial workshop and. factories, rubber factories, palm oil mills,
    farms, mines, domestic wastes land based development activities. .

    The magnitude of discharges shall be established interms of major pollution parameters, such
    as BOD for rubber effluent, and their impact river . quality shall be assessed. Comparison of on
    the present and previous raw waterquality shall be made so as to study the trend of pollution.
    of the various rivers: Sources which are heavily. polluted shall be ruled out. : For: those rivers
    where the present quality is still reasonably. but are subjected to increasing pollution, good.
    measures to mitigate such adverse effects should ~ .recommended. ·The.study- should also
    recommend a programme for collection of additional water. quality. data . and future water
    quality control measures. The subject of raw quality is further elaborated in Section 3 water
    of this Volume.

    1.6.2 TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS

    For the suitable raw water sources, samples should be collected at different times to cover the
    range of quality fluctuation for physical and chemical analyses. Jar tests shall be carried out to
    establish coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation requirements. For the potential
    impounding schemes, uncoagulated settling tests shall also be carried out to establish the likely
    turbidity of impounded water. The water treatment process can then be established, followed
    by preparations of outline designs and cost estimates for the treatment plant· and sludge
    disposal facilities. Design criteria and 'standard for water treatment process ere c!e~e.d :.::
    Section 6 of this V olume.

    1.7 FORMULATION on ALTERNATIVE SCHEMES

    1.7.1 EXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

    The existing water supply systems in the study area should be carefully studied and analysed
    before the formulation of new schemes. The existing treatment plant, storage and distribution
    capacities should be reassessed. Infonnat:ion on pumping and operation details should be

    - 1/9 -

    ---- --------·-·----- . -----·---·-"·-----------------


    ~ .. .. . .. '
    - .
    . -'/:~ .. ', · :-::, ·. :. ... ;.

    reviewed. ~valuation should then be carried o~t to determ_m~ whether it~'~ \(,(~{.:_)/\.\. ·:\·:"

    ::.:o:::::~;:: :;::::::::sof the existing supply sys,. :~ '\ ' \\'.},~;r_.;Ji.,


    To meet the water demand for the planned horizon of at least 20 Years, n~w ;;,~1. ~' \{g{;;tt[;
    the compo~ents of headwor~s,_ tre~~-. e?t pl~ts-. , serY1. · ce _re~ervoirs an. d d~stribution mall. c-:
    • ':-.. \i._/J{_\_ . :._}/
    .: be planned and formulale4 m :O~J~Ctto,n ~th. the findings of the W~~!. resources S~dY'\_ l) \~JiJJJt)
    the ~sults of s_tudy on the emtmg. V:~ter. s~pply s~hem.es. U~';}allY several alternative~. a)~ ,._ "~~\:~ii
    technically feasible. The general activrties involved in the planrung of supply works are listed -, ) (\:.;}
    below ' i···•' · •

    : desk :::y Ss:: Ix, carried out to identify all feasible alternative schemes and. suitable sites
    for headworks, treatment plants, pumping stations, service reservoirs.
    The desk study shall be based on topographical mapping, land
    an~.
    the pipeline. routes.
    use ·m'apping and
    other. available
    . -, 1},i~,1 .
    ) ·.
    reports. The general terrain of the study area should first be' familiarizedas it. affects the ;lJ
    feasibility . , and cost of the proposed schemes. The choice ofjhe sites. and
    pipeline routes
    should take into account current known land development plans. Care
    should be taken to 'I

    avoid, wherever possible, land allocated to smallholders for cultivation, any unnecessary· i
    breaking-up of individual lots and unnecessary social disturbance. In·the selection of intake
    .1
    sites consideration should be given to avoid problem that can arise from erosion, siltation and, .
    i
    I
    __ j
    pollution and change in river characteristic. 111e treatment plant site shall not be flood prone
    and shall be strategically located to facilitate easy access, economy in construction, operation
    and maintenance and possibility of future extension. Service reservoirs shall be positioned for
    · . future extension. Service reservoirs 'shall be positioned at suitable high ground to provide
    · adequate· pressure in the distribution' system. In selecting the routes for the trunk mains,
    preliminary hydraulic calculations shall be done to determine the hydraulic gradient profile in
    - .I
    I
    relation to the topography. Details on the treatment plant layout are given in Section 11,
    while details on distribution systems and service reservoirs are given in Section 14 and 15
    respectively.

    b. Field Inspection and Preliminary Survey

    Following the desk study, it is necessary to go to the field to check the suitability of the sites
    chosen based on topographical maps. It is especially important to ascertain that the high
    grounds earmarked for service reservoirs are still available. The pipeline routes selected shall
    be inspected along their entire lengths if possible. Some preliminary survey like taking spot
    levels may be required during the course of field inspection. The relevant Government
    authorities should be consulted regarding availability of land.

    c. Preparation of Schematic Layout and Cost Estimates

    Once the field inspection is completed, the schematic layout of each alternative scheme can be
    prepared. The schematic layout shall cover the outline design of each component of the water
    supply system and the general site specific layout of the complete scheme as a whole.
    Preliminary cost estimates shall be carried out for each alternative scheme.

    - 1/10 -
    1.8 PRELiryllNARY ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIOECONOMIC
    CONSIDERATIONS

    Preliminary environmental and socioeconomic consideration should be given to all components


    of the scheme particularly po~nfi~ dam sites. -·:: ,:·; . '/ i. ·. · :·.·· · ' ·

    1.9 FINANCIAL ANALYSES · . •.••' .. ,•• ..

    ; ", ·, •.
    :· ·~·;:: .- • I ·~'. • ;": • •• '.- •. ~' "; •' '

    1.9.1 Internal Rate of Return .·.· .:, , . , ., . . , ;-:', :


    - • • .'. - ,• . . ,. - ..••. : It. ~ ' ' ... - ., • • . • - • . ..
    <:.;
    ... .....
    : :- .

    The principal .objective 9f th~ financial .. analysis i~; to. select the most viable scheme out of the
    various alternativewater development schemes which are technically feasible. '

    The criterion for ranking the various alternatives is the. internal rate of return which is
    determined for each alternative scheme as fcllows.-. ·
    ... ·::, ~-·. ·.· - . ... ·. ,:.. .:·: ··1_/ ~::- -·. :.~ .... ~ . .
    1. Determine .. the capital cost of th9. ~cj1~111~, and the phasing of the capital expenditures
    based on current prices and thereafter work out the present worths of the capital cost at
    various discount rates such as 4%, 8%,12%, 16% and 20% ..
    M I• • • '• • •- • • • •• • •

    ll. Determine the annual operating and maintenance costs which include the costs of
    personnel, electrical power. or diesel . for .pumping, . chemicals 'for water treatment,
    materials for repairs and maintenance, plus other expenses such as office supplies, etc.
    Theoretically the life span of the scheme can be considered but for practical purposes of
    financial analysis, a period · of. 30 years is .deerned to be'. appropriate. , The annual i

    1 : operating and maintenance costs shall be based on current prices; ·since inflation cannot
    ·I, be accurately predicted and moreover the various alternatives are subjected to similar
    trends of inflation. Then work out, the present worths. of the total operating and
    '{ '
    : maintenance costs at various rates corresponding to -.those for the. capital 'cost -in (i)
    [ above.

    ill. From (i) and (ii) above, calculate the present worths of the total cost at the various
    discount rates and plot a graph of present worth versus discount rates as shown in Fig.
    1.1.
    c;
    lV. From the water demand projection, work out the· annual benefits (revenues) to be
    derived from the scheme based on the. current water prices. The period considered
    shall be the same as that for working out the annual operating and maintenance cost
    The factor for non-revenue water need not be considered since it can vary over the
    period concerned and all alternatives are subjected to similar effects.

    Present worths of the total benefits are then worked out at various discount rates and a
    graph of present worth verses discount rates are plotted as shown in Fig. 1.1.

    v. The internal rate of return of a scheme is then given as the discount rate at which the
    present worth of the total cost is equal to the present worth of the total benefit.

    - 1/11 -
    Fig. 1.1 shows an example involving fom 'alternative· schr·/
    . ·. • ~::::s~~~: ::~;, ?;;~i;~,e;;=~,b~\
    1.9.2 . ESTIMATING Tllli SELLING PRICEOFWATE~ · "\'
    ' ' ·1,-

    . Once the most viable scheme is selected, it is necessary to estimat{'ti. . . ..,o,"-~;,~ ,.


    produced from that scheme so as to have an idea of the cost of the schern, 'b't-, '#,,i
    in the determination of the selling price for any required internal rate of renn. ... v-'%,7
    4-t.
    Determine the capital cost of the scheme· taking into account inflation ra ~
    imp,. , ,~ "0,.;?. \}?{}{{/~ }
    ofthescheme.
    to be estimated.· The capital expenditures inay be phased out for staged
    . , . )~ ,~+. '{}/{}\
    u, Since the capital costs of water supply schemes are normally firilmceci· 'by· .fo·~~\ 1• "<\ ~~-- \{\f(J:\f

    llL
    :::::~~:::s~:::::::::::::: p~7:r~;3:::go
    f :":. '\'~~~{H
    taking into account the factor of inflation. , f\
    ·a.~

    . .iv. From (ii) and (iii) above, work out the present w~rth of the total cost at various
    discount rates.

    v. . Work out the present worths of the benefits at different assumed selling prices, taking
    into account the factor of non-revenue water.

    Vl. The results can then be plotted as shown in Fig. 1.2 and 1.3. From Fig. 1.3 the selling
    price of water for any desired internal rate of return can be obtained.·

    1.9.3 TARJFF STUDY

    Where a new scheme constitutes a significant percentage of the total production capacity it is
    necessary to review the existing water tariff taking.into account the new and the existing water
    supply schemes in a State. Such review is normally required by international financial ~·

    institutions before approval of a loan for any new scheme. Tariff study is normally carried out
    .
    by a financial analyst conversant with water supply industries .

    1.10 RECOMMENDATION OF DEVELOPMENT PLAN

    The end result of the feasibility study is the recommendation of a development plan to meet the
    water demand of the study area over a time period of at least 20 years. The plan should cover
    such details as preliminary engineering design, phased development programme, land
    acquisition requirements, cost estimates and staff requirement for operation and maintenance.

    - 1/ 12 -

    -l,
    1.11 PREPARATION OF REPORT

    Preparation of report is the final stage of the feasibility study. The report 'should contain a
    complete account of the data and information gathered, details of the study· carried out, the
    findings and the recommended development plan.

    ~- ';

    '
    '; .

    ,i, :
    ~

    f .
    L -

    i ..
    '

    i
    i
    L.

    - 1/13 -

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    0
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    . . cc

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    ---- - ----'/. t,-·8

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    '/. c-v
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    () ~ lD

    NO!Tl!W S ...llDSJUd

    FIG. 1.1 PRESENT \\!ORTH OF BENEFIT AND DISCOUNT IlATE FOR FOUR
    ALTEllNATIYES

    - 1/(4 -
    ··ij;;l
    r:
    0
    .N

    (
    ····.

    (.
    }
    (

    ~
    0

    z;
    .r 0
    t - 0::
    :)
    !
    i r-
    w
    0::
    u,
    0

    .. ur
    r-
    \ (
    <(
    i : a:
    1 '
    f:, .:

    (
    f
    [ I

    I
    0
    N
    I
    0
    Q
    0
    I
    Cl)
    0
    I
    (!) ..
    0
    l
    0
    N
    I

    ( NOlll!W s ) HJ.cJOM J.N3S3cid

    FIG. 1.2 PRESENT WORTH OF BENEFIT ANDTOT AL COST FOR


    ALTERNATIVE IV

    - 1/15 -
    0

    ........ .I

    :z !; .I
    0:
    - "'"' 'I
    I
    r .J
    LL
    0:

    u,
    .I
    V1 c J
    u,
    r<l
    ((

    0 0 0 0 0 0
    0 Ol co t--. U)

    0 o 0 0

    FIG.1.3 SELLING PRJCE VS RATE OF RETURN FOR ALTERNATIVE IV

    - 1/16 -

    -------··-
    SECTION 2 - DESIGN LOW FLOW ESTIMATIQ~
    2.1 INTRODUCTION
    I.
    j In designing a water supply scheme with surface water as the source of supply, one would
    i. . always investigate the. possibility of constructing a· scheme which abstracts. water directly from
    the natural river. The
    direct abstraction scheme is obviously the cheapest solution since it does
    not involve source development such: as' the construction of a dam bair~gt(
    'or ·a·· for' river
    regulation.'( Source .development works are 'not only 'costly butalso ·pos~ 8!~at social and
    :( ·, .envirorunental.impacts,-.like theneedtoresettle community an_d_ change ofecology and living
    t ~
    iJ,: . environment for natural habitats; ·' · .. ·- · :. · · · · ·. · ·· · . ' · · · _
    !'
    i
    ' For the water supply scheme which abstracts direct runoff from a natural river.. the designer
    invariably has to determine, to the most accurate extent possible, the reliability 'of the water
    availability during periods of low flows since the intake, treatment' plant and also perhaps the
    distribution systems are to be sized according to the availability of raw water. Overestimation
    of low flows would lead. to -oversizing of a water supply scheme 'which could prove" to be
    unreliable ·during critical periods of low flows. On the other hand, underestimation of .low
    flows would result in under utilization of the available resources" and hence' the need'. to
    construct more expensive schemes or regulating works earlier than actually required.

    Th.is section-describes a methodology and procedure for estimating low flows where discharge
    records are available. An illustrative example, with detailed steps of calculation, is also given.
    For estimation. of low flows for ungaugcd catchments, reference is made to Hydrological
    Procedure No. 12 (Drainage and Irrigation Department) for wh.ich a brief description is also
    included in this section.

    2.2 DESIGN LOW FLOW

    When the water source is from an unregulated natural river, the reliability of the water
    ; availability is a function of the low flow characteristics. 111e three main characterstics of low.
    {~! i
    flow which are of interest to designers are:-

    1. its duration,

    n, its magnitude, and

    111. its frequency of occurrence.

    The permissible duration of low flow will reflect the tolerance of the user to periods of water
    deficits. The magnitude of low flow for the specified duration will determine the amount of
    water that is available to the user. The specified frequency of occurrence of low flow reflects
    the risk associated with the failure of the water supply and is dependent op. the socio-economic
    importance of the scheme to the community.

    For major water supply schemes in Malaysia, it has been the practice to design for a reliability
    of 50 years return period, meaning to say that the scheme can, on the long term average,
    '\ · produce water less than the design quantity once in 50 years. Or in other words, the·
    \ probability of the design low flow occurring in a given year is 2 %. For schemes which abstract

    .
    . :·.. .-·. .
    ' . - 2/1 -

    ·----- .. _,. .. --~---·

    .. •· ...
    direct. runoff, it is acceptable to design for 7-day low flow which has a return period of 50
    years.

    2.3 LOW FLOW FREQUENCY ANALYSIS [


    In low ·nqw frequency analysis,_.'th_e:ain1 a lo\¥ flow frequency curve for low flows is: toderive
    a
    11, .\ .~I • ... •'_r " " ,• : •' ,

    of specified._dur.ation__(say I?,days).,,,.The.frequency curve is derived by fitting a theoretical


    O ,\. •, /• ,.t I ·•- '', ~- ' •

    frequericy,j~'.'the~s~mpl(ofjecorcied P,:-dayJow flows using either analytical or graphical


    means .. ···For .dete/mining. ihe',~elia.bHity. ·of.dire.ct runoff yield for. water· supply purpose, the
    • •· • • : - ; .... ._j. • : I~- ' ', ' • • • ; • •,. ·: ,, ' . ' ._.., , • ~ ' • t ·• l,.I,,·~ • • •

    anal~~1s JS.. ~~s:~d'.,o~,),~d~y :1~~. ~o»,1; as.rnentioned !n Paragraph 2.2 above. The low ~ow
    frequency curve, once determined, can be used to generate the 7-day low flows for any desired
    return periods.
    • ', · ... ~• I '

    2.4 -PROBABIT.,ITY DENSITY. FUNCTION AND.


    .. CUMULATIVE
    .,, . . DI°STRIBUTION FUNCTION

    Ir is.
    necessary .:to introduce the concepts .o( probability density function and cumulative
    distribution functionhere for better understanding of distribution fitting of observed low flows
    ~i"escribe"J in''Jatcr paragraphs. . . ' . .
    '.. I '

    Consider" a probability" density function curve as shown in Fig. 2.1 and the corresponding
    cumulative distribution function as shown in Fig. 2.2.
    ··- ...

    f(x)

    1 ·
    .. .. . I ...
    r I
    I I
    I
    I I I
    __________ J J _
    x' x" x

    Fig._ 2.1 Probability density function curve


    F(xl I
    1.0 !---------------
    I
    I
    I
    I
    l
    I
    I
    t
    __________ JI Jl ·
    v ..
    x'

    Fig. 2.2 Cumulative distribution function curve

    - 2/2 -
    i · f(x) is the probability density fonction which gives the probability or relative frequency of
    occurrence of x. In the context of low flow frequency analysis, x can be the occurrence of 7-
    day low flow (or any D-day low flow) which is a random variable denoted-by x.

    F(x) is the corresponding cumulative distribution function.

    The two functions are related by:-

    f(x) = : dF(x) .: · \, t. · (2.1)


    .·.dx
    x·
    (

    j
    I
    ..
    or F(x)= f f(x)dx (2.2)

    It is to be rioted that F(x) is non-decreasing and is right continuous.


    \

    Also F(+ oc) = f f(x)dx = l (2.3)


    -cc

    The probability.that.X is smaller than x' is:-


    x'

    P(X 5 x') F(x') "" f -cc


    f(x)dx (2.4)

    The probability that Xis larger than x' is:-

    P(X ~ x') -- 1 - P(X 5 x')


    CiI !
    i ;
    or P(X ~ x') -· 1 - F(x') (2.5)

    AJso the probability that X lies between x' and x" is:-

    P(x' 5 x 5 x11) = P (X 5 x") - P (X 5 x')

    F (x") - F(x') (2.6)

    Closely associated with this is the concept of return period or recurrence interval (T years) ..
    The return period of a low flow, q, is the average interval of time (in years) in which a low
    flow less than or equal to q is expected to occur. For example, if the low flow is equal to or
    below a certain value q, on the average of 2 times in 100 years, then-
    q
    ...
    ~ ·: ·. ~ . ·..... -- F(q) = f f(x)dx= _2_ = 0.02
    -cc 100

    - 2/J -

    itWM . . • , --------· ·- - -· ----· ------ -


    :._ ,.
    The corresponding return period T is then given by:-

    T = = = 50 years (2.7)
    p (X ~ q) F(q)

    2.5 STREAM GAUGING DATA

    For a catchment where the average daily discharge records are available, the annual 7-day low
    flows can be extracted and denoted by X1, X2, Xn, where n is the total number of years for·
    which flow records are available. The following statistics can be easily calculated.

    l n
    -
    x = L X·l
    (2.8)_ .
    n i =I

    l ..n
    52 I: .(xi- x)2 (2.9)
    n i =1

    . ..
    l n
    z = I: l n Xj (2.10)
    n i =l

    n .......

    L (In Xj - Z )2 (2.11)
    11 i =1

    where x is the arithmetic mean of the 7-day low flows,

    s is the standard deviation,.

    52 is the variance,

    z is the arithmetic mean of the neperian


    logarithm of the 7-day low flows, and

    is the standard deviation of the neperian


    logarithm of the 7-day low flows.

    In the' event that some stream gauging data at a station were missinp
    by developing a relationship which correlates the available data at '

    / . . . . . . . . .. :·: ...
    . .. . . : :··. -~ :·: . : .. : : ..
    - 2/4 -
    In the event that some stream gauging data at a station were missing, the gaps can be mfilled
    by developing a relationship which correlates the available data at the station with the stream
    gauging data at another nearby station. However this may not be always possible and it may
    be necessary to infill the gaps using the available data at the station itself. But such method
    involves complicated
    ,.
    statistical analysis
    : .. i. ; ... ·.. . ·.
    which
    •,.
    are not intended
    ·. .
    to be dealtwith
    .
    here.

    2.6 PROCEDURE OF CALCULATING LOW FLOWS ·


    FOR GAUGED CATCHMENTS

    To determine the 7-day low flow having a


    .return period of T years, given a data record of the
    observed low flows, the following procedure can be used.

    Steo 1. Model Selection

    Select a family of model distribution to fit the observed data, from the following common
    distributions:-

    L the log-normal (GIBRA T) distribution,

    lL the exponential (FULLER-COUTAGNE) distribution,

    iii the gamma (P_E!\R-$QN TYPE _IU) distribution,


    iv. · the general extreme-value distribution, or

    v. · the gamma distribution of the neperian logarithms of the annual 7-day low flows
    (LOG-PEARSON TYPE ill distribution).

    (Note:· A theoretical review of the above distributions is given in_ Paragraph 2.7).

    Step 2. ......... Model


    ······ .....Estimation

    t;_ i

    Estimation of the model parameters, i.e. determination of the 'best' member of the above
    family, using moment estimates.

    (Note: Maximum likelihood estimates· of the model parameters are known to be more adequate
    than moment estimates since the latter show a larger variance. However, the maxirrrum
    likelihood fitting is basically an optimisation technique, requiring the solution of a
    system of non-linear equations. Starting values for the iteration procedure to solve this
    system are then provided by the moment estimates).

    Stev 3. Model Testing

    Is the 'best' member obtained in Step 2 above good enough? This can be tested by one of the
    following two tests.

    Chi-square goodness of fit test


    Kolmogorov-Smimov test.

    - 2/5 -
    If the test is negative, return to Step 1 i.e. select another family of model distributions.

    If the test is pQsitive, proceed to Step 4.

    (Note: A brief description of the Chi-square goodness of fit test is given in Paragraph 2.8).

    Step 4. Application of the Model .

    Calculation of the 7-day low flows for given return periods T.


    r •. ,. •

    Remarks:
    L Matalas (1963), Joseph (1970) and Kite (1975) have shown that the general extreme-
    value (type Ill) distribution (or commonly known as EV3 distribution) is a satisfactory !r
    I'"-·
    i
    model for analysing low flows. Hence the EV3 distribution should be selected for the
    first trial. Nevertheless, there are cases where the EV3 distribution is not the best or a
    suitable model.

    n. An illustrative example to demonstrate the above procedure of calculation is given in


    Paragraph 2.9. ···1
    .
    t
    .I .i
    It is unlikely that the location. .of the. water. supply intake will coincide with the stream
    UL
    gauging station. The design low flow at the intake plant _can simply be estimated from
    I·~
    - . I
    ·. I
    . I
    I
    the ratio of the catchment areas upstream of the intake point and the gauging station.

    2.7 THEORETICAL REVIEW OF MODEL


    DISTRIBUTIONS AND ESTWATIONS

    2.7.1 THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

    a. General properties

    A random variable Xis normally distributed with parameters µ and o2 (N ( µ, 02) - distributed)
    when its density function is given by ·

    --"---r x - µ 1 2
    2 L O J
    f(x) = e (2.12)

    ~2rc _ o

    for v= < X < + oc and with -CX < µ < +o::, CJ> 0.

    The mean and the variance are given by, respectively: t•


    E(X) = µ (2.13)

    var X = E(X - E(X))2 = 02 (2.14)

    - 2/6 ·
    y = X - Lt or Y ,...., N(O, l) (2.15)
    1-·
    I O"
    I

    Tabulated val ties of the distribution function of Y are given in Appendix A.

    b. Estimation by the method of moments

    The moment estimates ofµ and 02, denoted u and &1 respectively, are defined as

    ·u x (2.16)
    and a1 = s2 . (2.17)

    However, in order to obtain an unbiased estimate of the parameter o2, the following correction
    is made:-

    _!l_____ 52 (2.18)
    n- I

    Indeed, from (2.17) we have that

    E ( _!L • 52 I = _d!~ ~-- -E (S2)


    L n-1 J n-1

    = _._n_ -1!:l . 02
    n-1 11

    - . a1.

    which proyes_ that the expected value of the statistic _n_._. S2 is equal to the corresponding
    . . . .... . n-I
    population parameter 02·

    2.7.2 THE LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

    a. General properties

    A random variable X is log-normally distributed when its nepenan logarithm rs normally


    distributed.

    Hence we have that

    Z = In X (2.19)

    is N( F, 02) distributed, and from


    X=& 920
    .' , we have that X is a function of a normally distributed random variable .

    - 2/7 -

    -
    The density function f(x) of X is given as

    ro for x < 0
    I 1 1n x - µ
    f(x) := 4 ---( --------- ) 2 (2.21) ,-
    I 1 2 a
    L------------ e for x > 0

    where µ and o: are the mean and the standard deviation of Z.

    One can prove that

    µ +
    2

    E(X) = e (2.22)

    (2µ + 02)
    var X= e .. (2.23)

    b. Estimation methods

    When Xis log-normally distributed, the logarithms of the observations;


    z;.= In Xifor i = 1, 2, n, form a random sampleofa normal distribution.

    Hence the estimation methods of a normal distribution (see 2. 7.1.b) may be used.

    2.7.3 THE EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION

    a. Genera) properties

    A random variable X has a general exponential distribution, with parameters a and '3, if its
    distribution function F(x) is given by

    r o for x < a.
    I x - a.
    F (x) = I (------) (2.25)_
    I ~
    L 1 - e for x > a.

    where 13 > 0.

    This can be denoted as

    - 2/8 -
    rL X ~ Ex·(a, P) (2.26)

    r· The mean and the variance are given as

    E(X) = a+ p (2.27)-

    var X = B 2 (2.28)

    The reduced exponential variate Y, given as

    ,.,. ., X-a
    y (2.29)

    has a distribution function G(y), given by

    r o for y < 0
    G(y) = I (2.30)
    L l - e·Y for y > 0

    and a mean and a variance given by

    E(Y) = 1 . (2.31) :· .. ·:
    and var Y = 1 (2.32)

    b. Estimation by themethod of moments

    Clearly the estimates a and 0 are given by the relations


    -
    x
    ,• ····· .
    (2.33).

    and s2 = (2.34).

    2.7.4 THE GAMMA-DISTRIBUTION

    a. General proper-tics

    A ;a~;dor;;. variable X bas ~iJe general three parameter gamma. distribution (Ga ( a, P, y ) -
    distribution) if its density function is given by

    - 2/9 -

    -- ----- ··-·-·-----
    r o for x < a
    I x-a
    f(x) = 1 y- l - ----- (2.35)
    I 1 x-a p
    l----------- (-----) . e
    P · T(j) p for x > a

    with P > 0, y > 0.

    T.
    Lil
    lit era.ure,
    t twArr?~<tYt'>
    r-------·-· o-··~·--·
    f! •.. -
    ~; .,.r-:1-,.. .. , .. :,...,_
    n~r~tY1.t:rtto,-
    ~.S ..
    r"t_,.. (0. o .. \
    -va \V,iJ,T}
    ,v,AL1'1H
    i , ,.._._. ..... :
    - 1.:> :,v111C:ll1llC:::>
    "' "~
    1

    t;allt;O a gamma
    distribution for short, while a Ga (a,(3,y) is then referred to as a Pearson type III distribution.

    The symbol r stands for the gamma function.

    The moments of the gamma distribution are given by:-

    E(X) = a+ p ·Y (2.36)

    varX = f32. y (2.3 7)

    E(X - E(X) )3
    _,. ____________
    2
    g(X) = - --- (2.38)
    (var xyp yYi

    where g(X) is the skewness of X.

    Changing a changes the mean only, changing P changes the mean and the variance, changing y
    changes the mean, the variance and the skewness or the shape of the distribution is changed.

    The reduced variable Y, obtained as

    X-a
    y =

    clearly has a Ga (0, J, y) - distribution.

    A Ga (a, f3. 1) -distribution is the same as an Ex( a, f3 ) -distribution and a Ga (0, 2, y) -


    distribution is a chi-square distribution with 2y degrees of freedom.

    Hence when Xis Ga ( a, /3, y) -distributed then the distribution function F(x) of Xis given by

    X-a x-a
    F(x) . - P(X ;<:; x) = P(--------- ~ --------)
    /312 ~/2
    ·~t
    '

    - 2/10 -

    ....... -~--.-··.· .·- ·- - -~


    x - a
    a= P(U :;; 2 -------- ) (2.39)
    ~

    where U is a chi-square distribution with 2y degrees of freedom. Approximate calculations of


    distributio_n function values of any gamma distribution can be made by use of a table chi- of
    square values (Appendix B).

    b. Estimation by the method of moments


    ~ .
    The moment estimates a + ~ and y ~- be obtained from the following sys~em of equations:-

    ...
    x = d+ /3. r" (2.40)
    -· /11. r (2.41)

    2
    g = ---------- (2.42)
    (y) Y2

    where g is the sample skewness coefficient."

    2.7.5. THE GENERAL EXTREME VALUE DISTIUBUTION.

    a. General properties

    There are three types of extreme value distributions'.~


    .....
    1. The extreme value type 1 distribution or GUMBEL-: o.istributin.(EVl)with distribution
    function>

    (for - co < x < .+oo and with - co < a < + ex:,, ~ > O)
    x - a
    - (-------)
    F(x) == exp (-e B ) (2.43)

    2. The extreme value type Il distribution or FRECHET -distribution or (EV2) with


    distribution function:

    · 2/11 -
    (for - co x a<+ co, p > 0 and y < 0)
    p
    ro for x < a + ----
    y
    I
    F(x) = f (2.44)
    I x - a 111 13
    lexp { -[ 1-y(------)] } for x > ex. + ----
    f3 y

    3. The extreme value type III distribution (EV3) with distribution function:-

    (for - co < a<+ co) f3 > 0 and y > 0)


    x - a 1/y 13
    r exp{ -[1-y(------)] } for x < a + ----
    I P Y
    F(x) = ~ (2.45)
    I 13
    l1 for x >a+----
    y

    Note that the same expression is used for both distribution functions of EV2 and EVJ; for
    EV2, y < 0 and for EV3, y > 0. The· distribution function of EVl is the limiting form of both
    distribution functions for which y tends to zero. In practice, the value of y lies in the range -0.6
    to +0.6.

    i. Moments of EV-distributions . . :. .r :
    The mean is given by

    (a.+ 0.5772f3 forEVl


    I
    E(x) = ~ (2.46)
    I ~ P
    la. + ---- - ---- 1(1 + y) for EV2 or EV3
    y y

    - 2/12 -

    •• •• • "' M ",,·••''~~.-~ •• :,: .... ~",o-.•l•••


    The variance is given by
    l : --:-
    i f 712

    L l
    I 6
    ·w for EV1

    Var X == ~ (2.47)
    I
    I ~
    l (---)2 ( f(J+2y ) - f(l+y) for EY2 and EV3
    y

    The skewness coefficient, defined as:

    E(X - E(X))3
    g

    is J .14 for EV I. For EV2 and EVJ, g becomes a function of y only, in such a way that

    g > I . l 4 for E\/2

    g < 1.14 for EV}

    as is illustrated by the following Figure 2.3.


    g
    5·-----
    EV2. EV1 EVJ
    -

    :L~~_____..___.___
    -0.J -0.2 -01 0 0.1

    Fig. 2.3 The skewness coefficient gas a function of the shape parameter y

    )1.
    ~;

    )
    !
    - 2/13 -

    '-
    The following table simplifies the calculations

    Table 2. 1 Some data concerning extreme value distributions

    y r(l+r) I'(1+2y) - I'(l+r) g

    - 0.05 1.031453 0.004727 1.532


    - 0.10 1.068622 0.022272 1.903
    - 0.15 LI 12482 0.060426 2.532
    - 0.20 i. i 64225 A ,,...,...,,..,C""l 1 C?C
    V. L).) t o» .....1.,../..,,..,
    - 0.25 1.225413 0.270803 5.605

    0 1. 0. I.14

    0.05 -0.97350 0.003650 0.911500


    0.10 - 0.95135 0.013093 0.623041
    0.1 S - 0.93304 0.026906 0.436171
    0.20 - 0.91816 0.044242 0.255755
    0.25 - 0.90640 -0.064659 0.086610

    b. Estimation by the method of moments

    Since the skewness g is a function of y only, first the sample skewness coefficient is calculated
    to obtain the estimate y of the parameter y. The skewness g as function of y is given in Figure.
    2.3. Next, substitution ofy by yin equations (2.46) and 2.47) allows the estimates a and~.

    2.7.6 The Log-Pearson Type III-Distribution

    A random variable X is said to have a log gamma or a log-Pearson type III-distribution if Z =


    ln Xis gamma-distributed.

    By using the logarithms of the data, i.e.

    z, ln x; for i = 1,2, .... ,n (2.48)


    ~

    one can use the same formulae and estimation procedures as for the gamma distribution.

    - 2/14 -
    2.8· GOODNESS OF FIT TESTS

    a. The. Chi-square goodness of fit test

    We define k classes in which the observations must be found:

    .! class 1
    class 2

    class k

    The choice of these classes is more or less arbitrary (see later on). Next, we consider the test
    statistic T, a random variable, defined as

    T - I(Fi - n .Jlli:
    .-
    :
    .
    •
    ,.

    =::<

    where k
    j

    =
    = I n pj

    number of classes
    (2.49)

    -~. ·~
    n = total number of observations
    ;
    1'

    ~
    '..:

    Fi = observed frequencies of class j


    !
    j

    Pi -- probability of observations lying within class j.

    .and where np; are theoretical frequencies of class j under the hypothesis that the observations
    follow the parent distribution.

    From the sampling theory we know that the test statistic T is approximately Chi-square (v) -
    distributed with v, the number of degrees· of freedom, given by

    v=k-1-m (2.50)

    where m is the number of theoretical parameters estimated from the data (these theoretical
    parameters must be estimated to be able to calculate the theoretical frequencies npj). For this
    j .
    approximation to be valid the theoretical frequencies must at least be 5 i.e. npj ~ 5.
    ! '
    'i' In our application we only have one realization of the test statistic T, given as
    . ;!_

    k (f - n pj)2

    = (2.51)
    I----------
    j == 1 n pj

    - 2/15 -

    !J
    ! -----------
    The closer the value oft is to zero, the more agreement there is between the theoretical model
    and the observations. Note that aiso f in the above formula is seen as one realization of Fj.
    • J

    :sf
    Since the test statistic Tis considered to be Chi-square distributed, we have that ...•
    P(T ~ X2v, a. ) = a Fir
    (with a. given to be 0. 90 or 0.95 in normal cases).
    -tn
    _-ttf1
    .
    Hence, the actually observed value of the test statistic, t, is smaller than X2v,a in 1 OOa.% of the
    . i?-.·.··.

    ~
    samples, when the hypothesis ("observations
    '"- _ . ., 1: ..-.
    L!UC \lll
    ,.
    UUl
    .- ....... _ ~
    L,h:,c;
    1
    follow the theoretical distribution considered")
    r.
    JVVU./0
    l""I _ fl / : •
    1:,
    .,, '-
    u iu s
    • _
    is
    A f"I O I
    7V/O
    ~_
    Vt
    r'\
    7J/O),
    <: J) / \ bf
    Two possibilities may thus occur:

    k (f - n pj)2

    Po~sibilitv 1. t I
    j = 1
    ,_.. _________
    ~ X2v,a
    n PJ

    In this case we say that the hypothesis is acceQJ:eci at a significance level of 1 OO(i ~ aJ°(o, This
    does not mean that the hypothesis is true. It only means that there is no evidence in the data
    that the hypothesis is wrong.

    Possibilitv 2. > X2v ,Ci.

    In which case the hypothesis is rejected. at a significance level of 100(1 - a)%. The fact that
    we find that the realization t of Tis larger than X'vc: can of course be that primarily our initial
    assumption was wrong Or it could also be that our actual sample is just one of the
    100(] - a.)% samples in which _t turns out to be larger than X'vc: ah)10ugh the hypothesis was
    true.

    Since] 00(1 - a) is small one takes the d~cision to reject the hypothesis at a significance level
    of 100(1 - a )%. If one is not willing to take this risk, i.e. the rejecting of a true hypothesis,
    then we must take a equal to one, which means that X2v,a becomes +co and hence it could
    never be concluded that a theoretical model is not in accordance with a given data set.

    b, The K0Uv10GOROV-SMIRNOV goodness of fit test

    This test is not dealt with here in detail as the Chi-square goodness of fit test is normally
    adequate.

    2.9 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE FOR CALCULATING MINIMUM 7~DA Y


    FLO\VS FOR GIVEN RETURN PERIODS GIVEN A SET OF DATA RECORD

    - 2/16 -
    2.9.1 INTRODUCTION

    Twenty six (26) years of discharge records of Sg. Selangor at Rantau Panjang are used to
    calculate the minimum 7-day flows for given return periods. The 26 years of records may not
    be long enough to give very good results, but nevertheless the aim here is to demonstrate the
    techniques and procedures of calculation.

    2.9.2 THE DATA SET

    The mean daily discharge records of Sg. Selangor at Rantau Panjang for the years 1961 -1986
    were obtained from the Drainage and Irrigation Department. The annual minimum 7-day flows
    wereabstracted manually and tabulated as shown in Table 2.2.

    Tabe 2.2 A 26 year record of minimum 7-day flow


    of Sg. Selangor at Rant au Panjang

    Minimum 7-d~y flow


    Year (m3 /s)

    1961 19.05
    1962 17.47
    1963 12.42
    1964 24.26
    1965 18.77
    1966 26.14
    1967 19.49
    1968 18.45
    1969 26.99
    1970 20.69
    1971 21.50
    1972 19.38
    1973 26.76
    1974 22.00
    1975 24.32
    1976 22.23
    1977 21.56
    1978 14.24
    1979 16.71
    , ("\('\ r,
    1;,ov :i ,.So
    1981 14.44
    1982 13.30
    1983 18.93
    1984 14.30
    1985 18.13
    1986 14.70

    - 2/17 -
    From Table 2.2, the following statistics can be calculated.

    n
    -x L Xi 19.38 m3/s, where xi is the
    n i= I annual minimum 7-day
    flow.

    n
    52 = I: (xi - x)2 ( 4.0824 m3/s)2
    n i = 1
    -- 16.6662 ( mvs)'

    1 n
    -z ~ I: In Xi = 2. 941 S
    n i = 1
    t
    . ....
    1-
    [

    n
    (In Xi- z)2 (0.2142)2
    n i = 1
    0.0459

    2.9.3 THE LOG-NORMAL DISTJUHUTION

    a. Parameter estimation

    Application of the equations (2. l 6) and (2.17) yields the following moment estimates of p and
    o:
    .....
    ~l z 2.9415

    ...... .J
    and a -- Sz2 0.0459

    The unbiased estimate of 02 is (see equation (2.18))


    n 26
    • Sz' (0.0459) = 0.0477
    n - 1 25
    A
    or 0 0.2184 m3/s

    Since Z := ln X is N(µ, o")

    - 2/18 -
    f
    ln q - µ
    = P(ln X s In q) === P(U s ---------)
    o

    Minimum 7-day flow with a return period_of50 years (q~) is calculated as follows:-
    1
    = 0.02 (see equation 2.7)
    50
    In q.)O - p
    or P(U s --------------· ---)
    a

    In q.)O - µ In q.)O - µ
    P(lJ ~ - (------------)) = 1 - 'p(U S ---------------)
    CJ a

    (Note: P(U ~ - a) = I - P(U ~ a))

    . In CJ.lO - ~1
    P(U s - (---------------)) 1 - 0.02 0.98
    0
    -- (0.5 + 0.48)

    From Appendix A (Table for normal distribution)

    ln q'.>v - u
    (--·-------------) 2.055
    0

    lnq'.,C;: p- 20550= 2.9415-2.055(0.2184)


    ! .
    ! ..
    q» = 12.09 rn3/s
    ,.
    l
    i. ; Minimum 7-day flow with a return period of 30 years (q») is calculated as:
    ]
    ! .
    '
    === 0.03333
    30
    In qj() - p
    P(U < ------------------) = 0.03333
    0

    - 2/J 9 -

    l ~----·--
    In q:io - µ
    P(U ~ - (-------------)) = 1 - 0.0333
    0 = 0.9667
    = (0.5 + 0.4667)

    From Appendix A,

    Jn q30 - µ
    - (----------------) = J.8343
    a

    Jn q» = p - J .8343 a = 2.9415 - 1.8343 (0.2184)

    12.69 m3/s

    \
    2.9.4 THE EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION

    a. Parameter estimation

    From equations (2.33) and (2.34), the moment estimates of a and B are:

    -
    x 19.38 m3/s :c:: a+~
    .,..
    52 (4.082 m3/s)2 = f32
    ,..
    Hence f3 4.082 m3/s

    15.298 1113/s

    b. Minimum flow est irn a tion

    Minimum 7-day flow with a return period of 50 years (q») is calculated from equation (2.25).
    J
    ;--=- 0.02
    so
    Jn q.lO - -"a
    - (----:;_------)
    f3
    1 - e = 0.02
    ~ ,...
    a- f3 In 0.98

    = J 5. 3 8 rn3/s

    - 20.0 -
    f!li
    ii
    --"'
    .
    /Minimum 7-day flow with a return period of30 years (q30) is:

    I = =
    .,I 'F(qso)
    30
    0.0333

    I .........
    {
    I
    I q:io a- f3 In 0.9667

    I 15.44 m3/s

    c. Remarks.

    Comparing with the data records (Table 2.2), the calculated minimum 7-day flows for return
    periods of 50 years and 30 years are higher than 6 years' records out of a total records of 26
    years. Hence it is quite obvious that the exponential distribution is unlikely to be acceptable
    and the Chi-square goodness of fit test need not be carried out.

    2.9.5 THE GAMMA-DISTRIBUTION

    a. Parameter estimation

    Estimation by the method· of moments ( equations (2.40) to (2.42)).

    The sample skewness g, defined as

    n
    E(----- • L (x: - · x)")
    n i= l
    g
    53
    1 '

    can be obtained as follows:


    ( ·.
    l: It can be proven that

    ! ' n
    i '
    E(----- • L (Xi - x)3) aJ - 3a2 • a1 + 2ai3
    n i l
    i :.=

    I '
    ': I

    n
    where a1 = I Xii forj = 1,2,3
    n i ,.:: 1

    - 2/2 l ·
    Applied to our data-set we have

    n
    •L Xi = x = 19 .3 8 m3/s
    n i = l

    n
    ru = . :I: Xi2 = 392.1s
    n i= 1

    n
    as ·- ·L xl ·- 8258.80
    n i= l

    ai 3a2 • a, + 2a13 16.85

    53 (4.0824 m3/s)3

    ] 6.85
    Hence g = ( ----------) = 0.2476
    68.04

    2
    = (------)2 65
    g

    . ....... ... Fr.om equation (2.39), U is a chi-square distribution with 2y i.e. 130 degrees of freedom. From
    Appendix B (Table for chi-square distribution), it is seen that 130 degrees of freedom is out of
    the normal range. Hence the gamma-distribution is unlikely to be acceptable and no further
    calculation is carried out.

    2.9.6 THE GENERAL EXTREME VALUE DISTRIBUTION

    a. Parameter estimation

    The skewness, g, as calculated in paragraph 2.9.5 above, is 0.2476. Hence according to Fig.
    2.3 and Table 2.1, the Extreme Value Type Jll (EV3) distribution with 't > 0 should be fitted.

    The moment estimates are given by equations (2.46) and (2.47).

    - 2/22 -
    From Table 2.1, with g = 0.2476

    y = 0.20475

    f(l + y) - 0.91704

    f(l + 2y)- I'(! +y) = 0.04618


    ,... ,,...
    ! . f3 p
    ..... ____ .., ____ ..
    x 19.38 ···~ a+ --------- + (- 0.91704)
    0.20475 0.20475

    t
    l ' 13
    16.6662 = (----------)2 (0.04618)
    1 . 0.20475
    'i .-· .
    Hence a" = 17.804 m3/s
    r·
    1

    l ' 3.8897 m3/s

    b. Minimum flow estimation

    [ · Minimum 7-day flow with a return period of 50 years (q.10) is calculated from equation (2.45).
    i i

    0.02
    50
    I '
    !

    r q.1v - 17.804 -------- 1


    i . exp i - [J -0.20475 (-----------------)} 0.20475 r 0.02
    !
    ! ' l 3.8897 J
    I
    I : = 11.68 m3/s
    l :
    Minimum 7-day flow with a return period of 30 years (q30) is:
    '1 l '
    1
    i . - 0.0333
    !
    30
    l t .:

    = 12.39 m3/s
    l

    !1.:

    - 2/23 -
    c. Graphical solution

    The annual minimum 7-day flows are ranked (from highest value to lowest value) and the
    unbiased plotting positions are calculated as shown in Table 2.3. The ranked data are plotted
    on log-Gumbel extreme value paper as shown in Fig. 2.4. The plotting position formula is:

    i - 0.44
    p :=:

    n + 0.12

    where P = probability of exceedence


    1 "" ranking number
    •. = sample size (n = 26 in this case;

    A straight line that 'best' fits the plotting points is drawn. The minimum 7-day flows with
    return periods of 50 years and 30 years are given by the graph as: $!~':
    ~:

    ~1 I
    = l0.8 m3/s ·.~
    :~
    = l i.s m3/s ~-~ -,;

    t.' ,;

    Table 2.3 Data and plotting positions of EV3 distribution


    r: -
    {;~ '

    F
    ·-~~
    !
    ~
    :~f
    ~
    I Annual minimum
    7-day flows
    Plotting positions
    •. i
    i - 0.44 i
    (m'/s) ---------~---- }. ,,,;:•,·"'
    XI n + 0. 12
    ---- ! a

    ~
    l 26.99 0.021'1
    2 26.76 0.0597
    3 26.14 0.0980
    4 24.32 0. 1363
    5 24.26 0.1746
    .... . 6 ,., . .... ..
    22.23 0.2129
    7 22.00 0.2511
    8 21.56 0.2894
    9 21.50 0.3277
    )0 20.69 0.3660
    11 l 9.49 0.4043
    12 19.38 0.4426
    13 19.05 0.4809
    14 l 8.93 0.5191
    15 18.77 0.5574
    16 18.45 0.5957
    17 18. l 3 0.6340
    18 17.58 0.6723
    19 l 7.47 0.7106
    20 16.71 0.7489
    21 14.70 0.7871
    22 14.44 0.8254
    23 J,1.JO 0.8637
    24 l 4.24 0.9020
    25 l 3.30 0.9403
    26 12.42 0.9786

    - 2/24 -

    ----------------~----------·--
    ·--~~-····- ... --.······-v-•-:_....:_, __ ,..,
    i
    I

    · ~/\-,
    1
    j
    /
    l

    i
    /
    l
    I ··7~:

    ..
    co
    <D
    0
    <::
    0..
    0
    0-

    0
    V)

    ...
    0

    B ..
    0
    ~

    LOG - GUtl.8H PAffR

    FIGURE 2.4 ANNUAL MINIMUrvl 7-DA Y DISCHARGE OF SG. SELANGOR AT


    RANTAU PANJANG

    - 1(25 -

    :------·-

    '
    d. Remarks

    1. As mentioned in Paragraph 2.6, the extreme value type IIl . .,,


    normally a satisfactory model for analysing low flows. The grapt, '~.
    quick but rough verification as the drawing of the 'best' straight lint
    the results obtained from the .graphs determined by different· persons
    differ by more than 20%. In this case, the minimum 7-day flows for retu. . .
    50 years and 30 years as given by graphical solution arc respectively 7.5% rJ <:{"
    lower than the calculated values. The graphical method is employed to give re, ');,
    results when there is insufficient data for statistical analysis. As a rule of thun. ?.v.' -~ .
    years of records are required when carrying out statistical analysis to determine , , . ., --~~ .
    iiow of 50 year return period. · · -.. ,,),,\ if'

    Il. Although there exist also graphical solutions for other distributions, they are not as D..
    -,,:?,i
    \ ~
    ~

    popular as that for the EV3 distribution because they are not more advantageous. ':),
    Hence they are not elaborated in this Section. 1*-'

    2.9.7 THE CHI-SQUARE GOODNESS OF FIT TEST


    \,f. t 'g'
    1:., "'.
    i,··
    The Chi-square goodness of fit test are carried out only for the log-normal distribution and the l·
    ~--
    extreme value type III (EV3) distribution since the other distributions are not suitable for j.-.
    I
    '
    r;
    fitting the data:- f: J
    f• .~ .~

    a. Test for log-normal distribution


    (µ = 2.9415, a = 0.2184)

    . Four classes have been selected and the calculated data are shown in Table 2.4.

    Table 2.4 · 'Chi-square goodness of fit test for log-normal distribution

    Observed Theoretical ( fj - npj)?


    Class frequency frequency ----------
    fJ 11Pi npj
    . ·~

    . ~ 16.71 7 7.35 0.0167


    16. 71 < . ~ 19.05 7 5.92 0.1970
    19.05 < . ~ 22.00 6 6.32 0.0162
    22.00 < . ~ 26.99 6 5.00 0.2000
    .• --· - -------

    Totals 26 24.60 0.4300

    - 2/26 -
    The values of npj are calculated as follows:

    ln16.71 - 2.9415
    pt = P (X s 16. 71) = P (Z s ----------------------)
    0.2184
    z N(0,1)

    pi = P (Zs - 0.5746)

    -- J - P (Zs 0.5746)

    From Appendix A, P (Z s 0.5746) = (0.5 + 0.2174)

    0.2826

    26 x 0.2826 7.3476

    Similarly,

    p2 = P (16.71 < x < 19.05)

    In 19.05 - 2.9415 In 16.71 - 2.9415


    -- P (Z s ------------------~---) - P (Z ~ ----------------------)
    0.2184 0.2)84
    = 0.5104 -·0.2826

    0.2278

    np2 == 26 x 0.2278 5.92

    .... from equation (2.50),


    u - k-1-m
    where k number of classes :-:: 4
    rn number of estimated parameter == 2 (i.e. ~t and o)

    Hence u 1, i.e. the test statistic Tis Chi-square distributed with one degree of
    freedom

    \ :.
    From equation (2.51) and Table 2.4

    k (f - n pjr

    t -- I ------.---- 0.430
    j = l n Pi

    - 2/27 •
    From Appendix B,

    t 0.430 < X\0.90 (= 2.71), with v = 1

    Hence the log-normal distribution is accepted at a significance level of I 0%. In fact this
    distribution is even accepted at a significance level of 50%.

    b. Test for Extreme Value Type III (EV3) distribution


    ( a. = 17 .804, ~ =3.8897, y = 0.20475)

    Five classes are selected and the calculated data are shown in Table 2.5.

    Table 2.5 Chi-square goodness of fit test for EV3 distribution

    Observed Theoretical (fj - npj)2


    Class frequency frequency ......... ___ .............. _
    fj np, npj

    . 5 15.80 6 5.08 0.1666


    15.80 < .
    s; 18.10 3 5.22 0.944 J
    l 8. JO< • 5 20.20 7 5.19 0.6312
    20.20 < .
    :S 22.80 5 5.26 0.0129
    22.80 < .
    <. 36.80 5 5.24 0.0110
    ·- . ..
    ..

    Total . 26 25.99 1.7658

    The values of npJ are calculated as follows:

    ····· ···- ..
    p; P (X :S 15.80) = F(IS.80)
    exp { - [ l - 0.05264 (15 80 - 17.804)] UR1i }

    (use equation 2.45)


    0. 1955
    26 x 0. I 995 5.08

    Similarly,

    p: P(JS.8<X 518.J)
    {
    ·,~.·
    P(X :S 18.1) - P(X :S 15.8)
    F( J 8. l) - F(J 5.8)
    0.3961-0.1955
    0.2006

    - 2/28 -
    ../
    1
    .> .'- I .: np~ = 26 x 0.2006 = 5.22
    \ \'
    i
    I v = k- 1 - m

    I = 5-1-3=1
    II Hence the test statistics Tis chi-square distributed with one degree of freedom.

    (
    I From Table 2.5, t = 1.7658

    From Appendix B,

    = 1.7658 < X1- I, 0.90 (== 2.71)

    Hence the EV3 distribution is accepted at a significance level of 10%.

    c. Summary

    i. The log-normal distribution and EV3 distribution are acceptable to fit the given data set
    at a significance level of 10%.
    l
    ( l
    11. The minimum ?~day flows for given return periods are:
    ('''\

    l i
    ; '
    Return Minimum 7-day Minimum 7-day Minimum 7-da y
    ;- .
    \ : Periods flows given by flows given by flows given by
    i\ log-normal EV3 graphical
    distribution distribution solution of EY3
    distribution

    · 50 years 12.09 m3/s 11.68 m3/s 10.8 m3/s

    30 years .. 12.69 m3/s 12.39 m3/s 11.8 m3/s

    UL As mentioned in paragraph 2.6, the EV3 distribution is normally suitable for low flow
    analysis. In this case the log-normal distribution is better than the EV3 distribution for
    the given data set since the t-value for the chi-square goodness of fit test for the log-
    normal distribution is smaller than that for the EV3 distribution (recall from paragraph
    2.8 that the closer the value of t is to zero, the more agreement there is between the
    theoretical model and the observations).

    lV. The graphical solution of the EV3 distribution can give a quick but rough estimation of
    minimum 7-day flows (or any D-day flows) for given return periods. This method is
    usually employed when there are insufficient data (say less than 20 years of record) for
    statistical analysis.

    ! - 2(29 -
    i
    ''· .

    ~-- ;
    .. -- . ----- ····------·-·----- ----
    2.10 THE USE OF HYDROLOGICAL PROCEDURE ,.
    ,·
    NO. 12 PUBLISHED BY THE DRAINAGE
    AND IRRlGATION DEPARTMENT ' · i,,. -
    '\.\ · -,

    2.10.1 INTRODUCTION

    The Hydrological Procedure No. 12 (Toong A.T., 1985) published by the L ' ·,,
    '- ~,
    Irrigation Department allows. the design low flow of an ungauged catchment in P, su, · ,\. ·
    Malaysia to be estimated based on the regions it is identified with, the catchment area a, ,1--· ·-~~
    mean annual rainfall over the catchment. Two maps identifying regions in Peninsular Mala) '·,. ·~;,
    with similar mean annual low flow and low flow frequency characteristics respectively wer, '> · \.
    developed for UJe use of this procedure.
    \ t
    2.10.2 DEVELOPI\1ENT OF PROCEDURE

    a. Regional low flow frequency curves

    Fifty three (53) gauging- stations from Peninsular Malaysia, each with a minimum of 8 years'
    records, were selected for low flow frequency analysis. For each station, the annual minimum
    D-day (1-, 4-, 7- and 30-day} flow series was reduced to its dimensionless form by dividing it
    by its corresponding MAM which is the mean annual minimum l-day flow. By plotting on the
    log-Gumbel probability paper, a set of dimensionless frequency curves for various low flow
    durations relating the dimensionless ratio Qo.T /MAM to T, where Qo.T is the minimum D-day
    flow with return period of T years, was obtained. Tue log-Gumbel probability plots from
    nearby stations were superimposed to examine the similarity of the plotted data. Stations
    which exhibited similar dimensionless frequency distribution were lumped together and treated
    as belonging to one sub-region. Many sub-regions were identified in this manner and the sub- r--
    ..
    ;· ·f:i
    regional probability plot was derived by drawing a mean curve using all the low flow data of l-·
    the stations within the sub-region. These sub-regional curves were superimposed and the t ?
    t: :f'i i:·
    !·
    process of examining the similarity of the low "flow frequency curves was repeated. Adjoining
    sub-regions which displayed similar curves were combined to form a low flow frequency
    region (RC regions). In this manner four types of RC regions (RCl, RC2, RC3, RC4), each
    :f
    :._ i.:·.
    ;:_

    with similar low flow frequency characteristics were identified. For each RC region, a set of
    curves (as well as tabulated values) relating the ratio Qo.T/MAM to various return periods were - I·~ )('.
    ~{ ,:-
    developed.

    b. Regional MAM (mean annual


    minimum 1 - day now) equations

    A simplified equation was developed to relate the mean annual minimum I-day flow to the area
    and the mean annual rainfall of the catchment. 111e equation is of the form: .. ,.

    t- ,.
    MAM -- a (AREAi' • (MAR.)u2 (2.52) -4: I ~.
    where MAM == mean annual minimum I-day flow (cumecs)
    AREA ~ area of catchment (km-)
    MAR = mean annual catchment rainfall (mm) ·

    a, b 1 and b2 are coefficients.

    - 2/30 -
    The procedure delineates Peninsular Malaysia into three RE regions (RE 1, RE2 and RE3) with
    similar mean annual low flow characteristics. By multiple linear regression analysis, a set of
    values for the coefficients a, bl and b2 were developed for each of the RE regions.

    2.10.3 USE OF THE PROCEDURE

    To use the procedure for the estimation of the minimum D-day flow for a given return period
    for an ungauged catchment, only two parameters of the catchment is required. The first
    parameter is the area (AREA) of the catchment which can be determined from the
    topographical map. While the second parameter is the mean annual rainfall (MAR) for the
    catchment which can either be estimated from available rainfall records or obtained from the
    Peninsular Malaysia Mean Annual Rainfall Map (1976) published by the Drainage and
    Irrigation Department.

    Knowing the values of AREA and MAR of the catchment, the value of MAM can be
    computed from equation (2.52). The minimum D-day flow for a given return period can then
    be computed from the graphs of Qo.T/MAM versus return periods or from similar tabulated
    values.

    2.10.4 COMMENTS ON THE USKOF THE PROCEDURE

    a. The application of the procedure is constrained by the nature of the data used in
    deriving it. Its application should therefore be confined to catchments that satisfy the
    \ .
    I ' following criteria:
    t :

    i. The catchment must be rural.

    11. The catchment must not have significant storages (swamps, lakes, reservoirs),
    extraction or diversion of water upstream.

    b. . Since the development of the procedure was based on regional approach and some
    If.
    t .
    simplified assumptions, there are bound to be some uncertainties in the results
    generated by the use of this procedure.

    C. The biggest advantage of this procedure is that it is very easy to apply and the· results
    can be obtained very quickly.

    ••"
    ;t .
    ' .
    1
    ~
    'j '
    l

    '

    l
    f - 2/31 -

    r
    r ..,..,._
    i;
    REFERENCES

    Josepy S.E. (1970). Probability Distribution of Annual Droughts. Proc. A.S.C.E. IR4;'
    1970.

    Kite C.N. (1976). Frequency and Risk Analysis in Hydrology. Water Resources
    Publication, Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S.A.

    Matalas N.C. (1963). Probability Distribution of Low Flows. U.S.G.S. Professional


    Paper 434-A.

    Marien J. (1984). Lecture Notes on Statistics. Free University of Brussels.

    Toong A.H. (1985). Magnitude and Frequency of Low Flows in Peninsular Malaysia.
    Drainage and Irrigation Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.
    !:' ...
    ,t:., .. ;
    ..,., ·.

    i
    ~
    .
    :1f?
    :i·.··;····
    ...· :·····..··..

    fi&
    t
    r
    ~

    - 2/32 -
    ._ .... _ ::: .
    Appendix A
    . .'. : ...
    .._.·.· ·.·

    ............ ! :.

    . ·-.· '. _!·-·,.· ·_..

    Areas
    undortho
    Standard
    Normal Curve
    from. 0 to z
    ..
    s 0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

    0.0 .0000 .0040 ,0080 .0120 ,0160 .01!)9 .02J9 .0279 .0319 .0369
    0.1 :0398 '.0438 · ·.0478 .0617 ... 0567 .0596 .0636 .0676 ;07l4 .0754
    0.2 .0793 · .0832 .0871 .. ono .0!148 ,0937 .• lOZG .1064 .1103 .1141
    0.3 .1179 ·. .1217 .lJ-65 .12'.JJ .1331 .1368 .1406 .H4:J .1480 .1517
    0.4 .1564 .16!)1 :i628 . 1664 .1700 . .1736 .1772 .1808 .1844 .187!)

    0.5 .1915 .1%0 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2157 .2190 .2224
    0.6 .2258 .2291 .2324 .2367 .2389 ..2-t22 .2454 . .2486 .2518 .2549
    0.7 ..2580 .2612 .2642 .2673 .2704 .2734 ..2764 .2794 .2.823 .2852.
    0.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2996 .3023 .3051 .3078 .Jl06 .3133
    0.9 .3159 .3186' .3212 .3238 .3264 .328!) .3315 .3340 .3365 .3389

    1.0. ,3<(13 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3664 .3577 .35!)9 .3621
    1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 ,3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 · .3830
    1.2 .3.849 .3869 .3888 .3907 .3926 .3944 .3962 .3980 .3997 .4015
    1.3 .4032 .4.049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4147 .4162 .4.177
    1.4 • .092 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4319

    1.6 /.4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 .4382 .4394 .• 4406 .4418 .4429 .4441
    1.6 .4.452 · .4463 .44.74 .4484 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4.525 .4535 .4545
    .. .4616 .4625 .4633
    1.7 .4.564 .4564 .4573 .4682 A59 l .4599 .<606
    1.8 .4641 .4G49. .4656 .4664 .4671 .4678 .4.686 .4693 .'1699 .4706
    1.9 .>1713 .4719 .4.726 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4.750 .4756 .4761 .4767

    2.0 .4772 .4778 :~'i83 .4788 .4703 _47g3 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
    2.1 .4821 A826 .4830 .4.834 .4838 .4842 .484(i .4860 .4864 .4857
    2.2 A861 ,'.
    .48G<l .4863 .4871 .48'!5 .4878 .4861 .4884 .4887 .4890
    2.3 .4893 .4896 .4898 :4!l01 ..... ..19.04, ...... ".4906 .4!l09 .4911 .4913 ,4916
    2.4 .4918 .cozo .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4g31 .4932 .4934 ,4936

    2.6 .4938 .4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 ,4946 A!H8 .4949 ,4961 .4952
    2.6 .4953 .4965. .496G .4967 .4959 .49GO .4961 .4 ')62 .4963 .4%1.
    ; . 2.7 .4%6 .4966 .4967. .4!JG8 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4972 .4973 .4974
    2.8 .4974 .4975 .4976 .4'J77 .4977 ,4978 .4979 .4979 .4980 ,4981
    2.9 .4981 .4982 .4982 ; .4'J3.3 .4!l84 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986_

    3.0 .4987 .4987 .4987 .4983 .4')88 .4989 .4989 .4')89 ,4.990 .4990
    3.1 .4 990 .4!19·1 ,4991 .40!)1 .49!12 .4992 .4992 .4992 .49!l3 .4993
    \ ,4!)95
    l. , 3.2 .499.1 .4993 .4994 .4!l!)4 .<994 ,4!)9,i ,,{!)9{ .<99$ .4996
    2) .49'..lS ,49'..l[, .49% A!l!JG .-19% ,49% .49% .19% .4 9% .49!l'i
    3..t .4 99'1 .19'.)7 .4.997 .49.97 .4997 .4997 .4997

    3.G .4998 .4!)!)8 A!ln .49!)8


    ,4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 .4998 A!l!l8
    3.G .'1998
    .49'.J8 .499'.) .4.999 _.j'.)!)!) ,4!)9!) ,4999 .499!) .(!)!)!) .4!)99
    3.7 .499!)
    .-!9'.J'.J
    .4999 .·1999 .~99!) .·19')9 .4999 .4999 .19!)!) .49!)'.)
    3.8 .4999
    .49'.J9 .-1999 ,4!)!)'.) .49!)9 _,j!)!)'.) ,4!l!l!i . 4 ()!)') .'\!)!)!) .499!)
    3.!J .sooo .6000 .5000 .6000 .5000 .GOOO .GOOO ,5000 .5000 .5000
    '---~-'--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~.J._~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--'

    - 2/33 ·

    ·~.·:~. •·•,; -•• ~·-, • r.~, • • • ,·· ,,. ·-. ·• ., ... • • • • •


    \. . ·:·:,· .·.· ...·.
    .· ·. :\'(.: :'/·.\)/ :·:\: .
    \-_: -~·.-: ': .: ·.~ _: .; (:_'.:}: ': -. : ... · . . . ·. i
    I,,

    Porcontilo V.iluos (x;) .


    tor tho · -

    .L
    ..

    r
    Chl-Squaro Distribution
    with r Degrees of Froodom

    . x1.ecs'.
    ..

    x1<>1 I x1on I X2os T x'1• x1


    .• 7.$ x\o l . x2.i.\ 2
    x.~" l
    1·
    2
    x ~-. x.~n
    1 .
    X.gn
    '·.
    1 -,
    x.•• -. \
    ',. '
    :,,
    .·:~..
    -,
    , ... :

    ·::·.·:,;.·.:·:,:::W'
    •.

    .0039 .0158 .102 ASS 1.32 2.7l 3.84 S.02 6.(iJ 7.88 1'1.,
    -i
    1 .0000 ·.0002 .0010
    2 .0100 .0201 .0506 .103 .211 .676 1.39 2.77 4.(il 5.!J!J 7.38 !1.21 10.G · 13.8·
    .. -
    3 .0717 .116 .21 (i. - .352 .5S4 1.21 2.37 4.11 G.25 7.81 9.35 11.3· · 12.B 16.3
    4. .207 .297 .484 .711 l.OG 1.92 3.3G 5.3'J 7.78
    .. !U!J .. 11.1 13.3. 14.!l
    16.7
    18.5
    :
    20.5
    .
    6 .412 • 564 '. ,831 1.15 i.c; 2.67 4..3:i G.63 !J.2·1 11.1 12.8 15.i' . . ~. '
    6 .676 .872 1.U 1.64 2.20 3.45 5.35 7.84 10.G 12.G · 1.4.4 lG.8 18.5 22.S
    7 .989 1.24 1.69 2.17 2.33 4.25 6.35 !1.04 12.Q. r-r.i 16.0 18.5. 20.3 2(.3
    8 1.34.' 1.65 2.18 2.73 3.49 5.07 7.3-t 10.2 13...f 15.5 17.5 20.l 22.0 26.l
    9 1.73 2.0!1 2.70 3.33 . 4..17 5.90 8.34 11.4. 11.7 l G,9 19.0 21.7 23.G 27.9
    10 2.16 2.66 3.25 3.94 4.87 G.74. 9.34 12.S 16.0 18.3 20.5 23.2 25.2 29.G
    11 2.60 3.05 3.82 4.57 5.58 7.58 10.3 13.7 17.3 19.7 .. 21.9 2U 26.8 31.3
    12 . 3.07 3.57 4.{D 5.23 G.30 8.44 11.3 14.8 18.5 :::1.0 23.3 2G.2 28.3 32.9
    13 3.57 4.11 6.01 5.89 7.04. !l.30 12.J 16.0 19.8 22.4 2~.7 27.7 29.8 34.5
    H 4..07 <.GG 5.63 G.67 7.79 10.Z 13.3 17.1 21.l 2.1. 7 2G.l 29.1 31.3 36.1

    16 4.60' 6.23 6.26 7.26 8.55 11.0 1-'. .3 18.2 22.3 25.0 27.S 30.G 32.8 37.7
    16 5.H . 5.81 G.91 7.% 9.31 11.9 1:-i.3 19.4 2:J.5 26.3 28,8 az.o 34.3 39.3
    17 6.70 6.41 7.56 8.G7 10.1 12.8 16.3 20.5 24.8 27.G 30.2 33.4 35.7 40.8

    18 6.26 7.01 6.23 9.39 10.9 13.7 17.3 21.G 2G.0 28.9 31.5 34.8. · 37.2 42.3

    19 6.84 7.63 8.91 10.1 11.7 14.6 18.3 22.7 27.2 30.l az.s 3G.2 38.G ~3.8

    20 7.43 8.26 9.69 10.9 12.4 i s.s 19.3 ns 28.4 31.4 J,t.2 37.G 40.0 45.3
    13.2 lG.3 20.3 24.9 29.G 32.7 35.5 38.!J 41.4 4G.8
    21 8.03 8.90 10.3 11.6 . ~. . ..
    11.0 12.3 14.0 17.2 21.3 2G.O 30.8 33.9 36.8 40.3 (2.8 48.3
    22 8.64 9.64
    14.8 18.1 22.3 27.1 32.0 35.2 38.1 41.G -!4.Z 49.7
    23 9.26 10.2 11.7 13.1
    23.2 33.2 36.4 39.<l 43.0 I 4 5.G 61.2
    24. 9.89 .1.0.9 l 2.4 13.S 16.'/ 19.0 23.3
    1 ~.G 1 G.5 19.9 24.3 29.3 34.4 37.7 40.G 44..3 4G.9 52.G
    25 10.6 11.5 13.1
    17.3 20.8 25.3 30.-1 35.G 38.9 -ll.!J 45.G 48.3 5U
    2G 11.2 12.2 13.8 15.<
    13.1 21.7 26.3 31.5 3G.7 .:0.1 43.2 4.7.0 49.6 55.6
    27 11.8 12.9 H.6 lG.2
    lB.9 22.7 27.3 3'.!.G 37.~ 41.3 4 ·1.5 48.3 51.0 5G.'.l
    28 12.5 13.G 16.3 lG.9
    19.8 23.G 23.3 3J.7 39.l 42.G 45.7 49.G 52.3 58.J
    29 13.l 14.3 16.0 17.7
    20.G 24.S 29.3 3·1.8 40.3 43.8 47.0 50.9 53. 7 :i9.7
    30 13.8 15.0 lG.8 18.6
    40 20.7 22.2 2•U 26.S 29.1 33.7 39.3 ·!G.G 51.8 ss.s 5().3 GJ.7 GG.8 73.4

    <9.3 5G.3 C,3.2 G'l.5 '11.4 7G.2 79.5 8G.7


    GO 28.0 29.7 J2.4 34.S 37.7 42.9
    3G.6 37.6 40.S 4::1.2 4G.5 52.:J 59.3 G7.0 'i·L4 79.1 83.3 88.4 oz.o 09.G
    GO
    6'.l.3 77.G 85.!i !J0.5 95.0 !00 10·1 112
    70 43.3 45.4 48.8 61.7 liG.3 Gl.7
    ss.i 107 112 llG 12:i
    80 61.2 GJ.5 67.2 60.4 G·:.3 71.l ro.a DG.Ci 102
    8'.J.3 %.G 1.0S 113 118 J2·l 128 137
    90 69.2 Gl.8 65.G G9.l 73.J 80.G
    l '24 130 · 13G HO 1~9
    100 G7.3 70.l i« .2 77.9 62.4 90.l 99.3 109 ll 8

    - 2(34 -
    SECTION 3 - WATER QUALITY

    3.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS

    Conventional Treatment includes screening, grit removal, aeration, coagulation, flocculation,


    sedimentation, filtration, fluoridation, disinfection and conditioning.

    l.··.·"-.
    ;~
    Special Treatment includes additional water treatment processes such as algae control, pre-
    chlorination, ozonation, activated carbon adsorption, sludge treatment etc .

    Acceptable value of raw water is the maximum level of constituents in raw water for which if
    exceeded, conventional treatment will not suffice and special treatment is required. (see Table
    3.1).

    The standard of Drinking Water as set .out in Column 1 of Table 3.2 of this section is the
    maximum level with respect to characteristics and constituents in water which if exceeded, may
    affect human health even during short periods of exposure.

    3.3 RAW WATER QUALffY CRITERJA

    Table 3.1 shows quality criteria of raw water. The criteria lists the desirable level of various
    parameters suitable for conventional treatment. Treatment required and the criteria for the
    selection of the treatment methods are discussed in Section 6 - Water Treatment Processes.

    3.4 CRTI'ERIA FOR DRINKJNG WATER ST AND ARDS

    Drinking water must be clear, free from visible suspended matter and has P..C ctj~~!ic:,a8!e.
    taste and odour. It must be pleasant to drink and free from all harmful organisms, and ,
    chemical substances in amounts which could constitute a hazard to the health of the consumer.

    3.5 MICROBIOLOGICAL

    Microbiological quality of drinking-water is of the greatest importance and must never be


    compromised.

    \
    l .·

    - 3/1 -

    ·•l ..-;'"'•~"; ·, , ·.·• ··••I··~"' ~---·· "'""'


    3.5.1 RAWWATER
    ... ' .... ·

    The bacteria content of raw water can sometimes be useful in indica~·


    ·,
    ·1
    .
    '\ . :. > ' : ·~.

    ·.
    . (b) . the faecal coliform count which estimates the numbers of E.coli bacteria in a\,·
    ~:~~. ,;~{-'%:\-<: [: .• ~

    · th·ese. being· a partic~l~ _strain of bacteria;vithin the coli-aerogenes group w_hich\ ~ > \S. \-\:\\.-l-:'
    definitelv nf faecal
    "J -- -~"
    oncnn
    ~--o-··
    /
    . ' . . .
    .
    . . ' \ \ '\· ~\;~\i:;/~<·
    ,· , ~ ~: .''. :-·.-.. :

    Hence a 1:righ total coliform count indicates the likelihood of sewage pollution, and the faecal ;tf\l ·."
    coliform count confirms any pollution as being of human or animal origin. TI1e number of such ~\::.<: ·.,;
    bacteria present per unit volume of water (usually lOOml) indicates the degree of pollution. . , "<i< \ift;:
    . ~ )· (f.~>
    3.5.2 DRINICTNGWATER

    In order to achieve consistently a final water quality meeting a coliform standard of 1 per 100
    ml using conventional treatment, the coliform organism of raw water should be less than 5000
    per 100 ml. Similarly for raw water partially treated with chlorination its coliform density
    should be less than or equal to 50 per 100 ml.

    For· drinking water the following standards should be fulfilled for samples taken from
    distribution networks:

    (a) No single sample must contain more than 10 coliforms per 100 ml.

    (b) No single 100 ml sample must contain E. Coli. . ··t


    ...
    t.
    (c) Coliform must not be detected in 2 successive 100 ml samples. if
    ii<,
    I<- .

    (d) In any one year, at least 95% of the 100 ml samples must be free of coliforms. tr
    t ;':_i

    If examination of a sample reveals the presence of colifonns, at least one more sample must be
    taken. If 1 to 10 coliforms (or more in some samples) per 100 ml are regularly found, there are
    reasons to believe that undesirable substances are entering the water, and urgent measures are
    necessary to find out and eliminate the cause of the pollution.

    3.6 PHYSICAL QUALITY

    The principal physical characteristics of water arc colour, turbidity, taste, odour, suspended
    and dissolved solids.
    ~!~

    .rit
    I

    J;
    '

    - 3/2 -
    3.6.1 COLOUR

    Water should be as colourless as possible. Presence of colour indicates the presence of


    complex organic compounds, colloidal forms of iron and manganese, or highly coloured
    industrial wastes. . , . , ..
    f" . . ., . • .• • I •

    \
    ( . Colour in any unpolluted water caused by natural organic colour producing substances such as
    humic and fulvic acids may be toxic. However, drinking water containing less than 2.5 mg/1
    humic
    .
    and fulvic acid is considered
    •.: . . .
    safe
    -
    for human consumption.

    The standard for colour in drinking water is less than 15 TCU and in raw.water should be less
    than ~00 TCU.

    About half of Malaysian rivers contain more than 50 TCU. Colour in water can usually be
    reduced to within the recommended limit by conventional treatment if the raw water does not
    contain more than 75 TCU. For higher levels activated/powdered carbon or ozonation may be
    required in addition to the conventional treatment.
    \ . .
    3.6.2 TURBIDITY

    Turbidity may be due to organic or inorganic impurities suspended in water. . In Malaysian


    waters, silt, clay and finely divided organic matter are the predominant suspended solids. It is
    an indication of the clarity of a water and is defined as the optical property that causes light to
    be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight line through a sample of water.

    Treated water of high turbidity may render it unattractive to the consumer. Excessive turbidity
    can be a significant factor in disinfection because it can shield bacteria/virus from the effects of
    the disinfectant

    Malaysian river waters have high turbidity, mostly-of silt with 47% of them having more than
    50 rng/l of suspended solids. The maximum turbidity level allowed in-drinking water is 5 NTU.
    Maximum acceptable raw water turbidity level is 1000 mg/1. Turbidity in a raw water can be
    · reduced to acceptable levels by appropriate coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and
    filtration, Higher turbidity levels of more than 1000 mg/1 will involve additional water
    treatment costs.

    3.6.3 . TASTE AND ODOUR

    Water should not have a bad taste. P~serice of a slight amount of salt may spoil the taste.'
    Certain organic and inorganic impurities if present even in the slightest amount .. may make
    water unpalatable. Presence of phenol even in the order of 0.003 mg/l may be noticeable.
    Taste tends to be closely related to odours, although there are certain non-volatile substances,
    such as sodium chloride, which give rise to taste without causing odour. There are many
    potential causes of tastes and odours in water, the principal ones being algae, decaying
    vegetable matter, volatile chemicals and products resulting from chlorination; such as
    chlorophenols. Stagnant water in dead ends of the distribution system can also have taste and
    odour problems.

    - 3/3 -
    Taste and odour problems can be eliminated by.-

    • aeration - if the problem is due to H2S or other gases.


    ,.fF

    t·
    • chemical pretreatment - (with Cu So4) - to inhibit growth of algae.

    • prechlorination - to destroy algae .


    ~: : ; . . .. . .. --· 12
    • adsorption (with activated carbon) - if the problem is due to organic matter .
    1 . L.· ..

    ..
    microstraining - to remove
    a combination of these processes.
    algae, OR
    i '
    i!';-1,f'
    '

    3.6.4 SUSPENDED AND TOT AL DISSOLVED SOLIDS.

    TI1e suspended solids content or filter residue of a water quantifies the amount of particulate
    material in a water sample. This includes both the organic and inorganic matters such as
    plankton, clay and silt. The suspended solids content of a surface water can vary widely
    depending upon flow -and season. Some rivers under flood conditions can have several
    thousand mg/1 in suspension.

    ··Total dissolved solids (TDS) is a quantitative measurement of the dissolved salts in a water.
    For a given water the dissolved solids concentration can be directly related to the conductivity.
    . .
    Total dissolved solids has an influence on the physical and aesthetic qualities of water such as · ,.
    taste and .hardness, besides other qualities such as corrosion properties and tendency to +. ~ ~

    incrustation. There is no evidence that humans drinking water containing more than I 000 rng/l t,
    of TDS have suffered any ill effects but excessive TDS give the water an unpalatable mineral
    taste and possible laxative effects mainly from sodium and magnesiumsulphate. the other On ,·:.
    hand, water with extremely low TDS levels may also be unacceptable because of its flat and
    insipid taste.· In the design of a water treatment plant, the TDS level to aim for is 1000 rng/L -*
    TI1e maximum acceptable value of TDS in raw water is 1500 mg/I. ·

    3.7 CHEMICAL QUALITY

    3.7.1 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES

    This is· the most difficult group to deal with since conventional treatment techniques generally
    are not effective. Therefore, first consideration should be given to alternative source and
    blending of sources. Fortunately, the inorganics usually are not present in concentrations
    anywhere near 'the maximum permissible levels. They are generally found naturally only in
    certain ground waters or only when industrial contamination is present. However, lead and
    cadmium contamination can occur as a result of an aggressive water attacking plumbing
    systems where lead or galvanized piping is used.

    - 3/4 -
    .. ,• .

    . ·. ;, ...
    INORGANIC SUBSTANCES OF HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE
    ·':··· .... ...
    ·,

    . . ~- ::~_:... - ·::·.·.' ..
    -; », -. • • .···>'
    ere are certain inorganic substances which if present in supplies of drinking water at
    :,·. :· -:_\;·.l::\._ · . /;:' oncentrations
    ;\ ...• r-,.. ", ,:-,
    Y. ' '• ~•• · :-;
    above certain levels, may give rise to actual danger to health. A list of such
    {};{J}:}:f;fu:?·,· substances and the levels of concentration which should not be exceeded in drinking water

    ...... • ; '•
    •'
    . Max. allowable concent
    Substance
    .... . . ..... . . ,, ..
    . . . . ,. , mg/I

    ;.:~: ~~~:·> Arsenic


    .. . 0.05
    ./!(:?'{ ·:

    Cadmium. 0.005
    Chromium-
    •' t ~ •
    0.05
    . Cyanide 0.1
    j. Fluoride 0.9
    ,<,~ Lead 0.05
    Mercuy 0.001
    Nitrate (as N) .. 10.00
    Selenium 0.01
    \:
    II '

    \: . ·· · · · TI1e toxicity of chemical substances in water dependsupon several factors other than the actual
    \ concentration. 'The problems arise primarily from their ability to cause adverse .effects after
    prolonged exposure.

    Where there is a possibility of presence of metals listed above, a special test should be carried
    out. When a _test shows· a value above the maximum allowable concentrarion.ifurther tests
    should be carried out to confirm the result. If the subsequent result shows- a value still
    exceeding the_ maximum allowable concentration then an alternative source shouldbe .chosen ..

    a. Arsenic

    The maximum allowable concentration in drinking water for arsenic is set at 0.05 mg/l. It can
    be found in surface waters from areas where there are certain types of metalliferous ore: More
    usually it is the result of pollution from weed killers and pesticides containing arsenic
    compounds or from runoff from mining waste tips.

    The arsenic concentration in Malaysian rivers and lakes varies considerably. Most levels are
    well below 0.01 mg/lbut in .somc instances can be as high as l.O r.!g/l. As.ccaventtcnal
    treatment is not effective in removing arsenic, the arsenic limit in raw rater for conventional
    treatment should be 0.05 mg/1.

    b. Cadmium

    \ · Excessive exposure to cadmium has resulted in severe health effects. It is necessary to restrict
    \ . the level of cadmium exposure level to 0.005 mg/litre.

    - 3/5 -

    .,. _
    Cadmium can be removed effectively by coagulation at pH greate /'.
    treatment -, ~ ,, .... .

    c. · Chromium '\ :,. . · ·

    Chromium occurs in small amounts in most rocks and soils. The only~ ..~ \, .
    is chromiumrVl). Chromiurn(VI). is Illt:Ch Il?ore toxic than chrorniurrufllx, ·~~;
    aerated water, chromium(Vl) is the predominant form. The maximum allows, ·
    mg of total chromium per litre. (total chromium has been specified because·'6 -.
    analysing for the hexavalent form only). "

    About 83% of the 49 river basins in a 0983 - 1984) DOE studv 'has
    'an avera~i'- . ~; . . .,
    chromium of ~ess than 0.01 mg(l. _Thisye~ce~tage could be less no~-due'~? intensive i~d\, · \,~, . \ ... ·:t!, _
    developm~nt 111 a number ?f river basins. ~rnce the re~1ov~ of tlus.:.~Ie~en\ by conventi~\~·, . \. · · .. >._f'.
    treatment is poor, the maximurn concentration of chrommm m raw water should also be 0. -~'\- \_ · ·;.<:~.",:
    . mg/1 if conventional treatment is employed. ·::·~:..:;;. · · \):~·~/<i(
    d. Cyanide i\·:~ :
    ~1tt·
    ~ ..
    (}
    Cyanide and cyanide complexes will only be found in waters po11uted by industrial or mining :!<'
    effluents involving processes using cyanide. The maximum allowable value is 0.1 mg/l, In
    Malaysia; average concentrations in natural waters are in the range of less than 0.1 mg/1. The
    : limit for both treated water and raw water is 0.1 mg/l. Cyanide is readily biodegradable and
    . treatment with chlorine will remove 90o/o to 100% it. of .:...
    f{'
    -~·~. ·,;
    . i,~.:.~··.·:·.

    °S!"
    E
    r: ~:
    e. Fluoride t tt i
    t
    ·J
    The fluoride content of surface waters in Malaysia is usually low, in the range of 0.02 to 0.78
    mg/1. However, its concentration in ground water may vary widely; for example from less than
    Gt . €<.f
    1.0 to 25.0 mg/1. Fluoride in water may also be due to the fluoridation of water supplies. !:'t~ :
    t
    Fluoride levels of 0.6 - 0.9 mg/1 provide substantial protection against dental caries. However,
    for fluoride the margin between beneficial and toxic effect is rather small. Higher
    concentrations and increase 'in water consumption may lead to excessive exposure and adverse
    health effects varying from mottling of teeth to crippling fluorosis. The benefit from
    fluoridation has been determined by the Ministry of Health to be effective at a range of 0.5 -
    0.9 mg/1.

    It has been found that conventional treatment does not remove fluoride; thus the solution of
    excessive fluoride is to choose a raw water that does not contain fluoride beyond the limit of
    1.5 mg/1.

    f. Lead

    Lead is a cumulative body poison and the hazards of exposure to lead have been well
    documented. · It is rare to find natural waters with a lead concentration of more than 0.02 mg/1
    except in areas where soft, acidic waters come into contact with ·galena or other lead ores.

    - 3/6 -
    '!ff
    ... .-----·---·
    --i"
    Children and infants, foetuses in utero and pregnant women are probably the group most
    sensitive to lead exposure. Themaximum allowable value is 0.05 mg/l of lead.

    In a DOE survey in ( 1983 - 1984) on l 04 stations on rivers,


    . ··· : · i."i : ~ ·. ·:. : ·• . ~-'ttilir: - ·. · ·: ( ~-,. ·. :· i~ .:- . :- >~,-·. i .
    !

    • ' 58i{confained fe~s th~-#.1.o'i-mg/l of lead: •. .


    • 16o/o:beiween: o.-drmjy!f~~d ·0".05\r1g11 ",) ,. :'··
    • 25% between 0.051 mgli and 0.20 mg/1
    . ,·1-
    . ·:
    . .. . .. . . . . . .-"-~~· . . .. l,. ~ : ..•

    with the '(est, having -·.more-:t}:ian ·0.-20:·mg!L' Lead is quite effectively removed by alum
    coagulation .. : ; . , , : , ; . _- rr, Cf} : ~- :. , ·,. ,: ·,~: .. ' ,

    g., Mercury
    .• .,· ~"'"

    Mercury is a toxic element and has no beneficial physiological function in man. In drinking
    water it is predominantly in the inorganic form, which is poorly absorbed. The concentration
    of 0.001 mg per litre is the maximum allowable value. Organic mercury may be removed by
    activated carbon adsorption: e> •

    ;.··,
    l : h. Nitrate
    i
    { ~
    The nitrate is. the final stage of oxidation of nitrogen compounds and 'is related to organic
    matter present in the water. Waters containing high nitrate concentrations are potentially
    harmful toinfants and young children.Hsased on the upper limit of 10 mg/l for nitrate (as N) as
    stipulated in the "National Guidelines" and WHO guidelines, the upper limit for nitrate (as
    r:i N03) should be ,45 mg/l.
    t

    r. Selenium
    l' :
    ' '
    : -·
    The effects considered to be due to selenium toxicity have been observed at levels 'of intake of
    r '.
    ' . 0.01 - 0.1 mg of selenium per kg of body weight per day. The maximum concentration of
    !
    selenium in drinking-water should not exceed 0.01 mg per litre.
    $" ·-:.
    r . 3.7.3 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
    ''• .. ·

    There are three major sources from which organic substances may be introduced to water:- .

    (a) , 'Dissolution of naturally occuring organic materials such as from the decomposition of
    plant and animal;

    (b) Compounds formed through chemical reactions that occur during disinfection/treatment
    and transmission of water; and

    (c) Contaminants originating directly from commercial activity.

    In general, the attention has been focused primarily on reducing the input of compounds from
    the latter two categories of sources.

    - 3/7 -

    --- . -·--·-'"'·--------,-------------------------
    Concentration range of organic contaminants is from none in some ground waters to 10 - 3 0
    mg/I in naturally productive or contaminated surface waters:
    ; /, ; · I 1~ .. · -:' (
    Numerous contaminants are formed through chemical tran. sformations of naturally occuring
    0

    organic matter during water disinfection. For example, chlorine will convert hurnic substances
    to trihalomethanes and other organohalogen oxidation products under. the reaction conditions
    encountered in water treatment systems. . " . . · ·., .

    Organic chemicals from industry, agriculture, and municipal effluents contribute extensively to
    the pollution of many water sources. Surface waters are especially vulnerable to these types of
    pollution.

    3.7.4 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES OF HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE

    a. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAI-Is)


    I ·- ._... · .. ;i:-~ ·.·:-~~-~:.:.·-~:, ..
    Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons are organic compounds produced from tarand tar products
    and some are carcinogenic. Trace amounts of P AHs have been found. in industrial and
    domestic eflluent. Their solubility in water is very low but can be enhanced by detergents and
    by other organic solvents which may be present. PAHs are not very biodegradable but are
    taken out of solution by adsorption on to particulate matter. The total concentration of six
    · (named) representative PAJ-I compounds should not exceed 0.0002 mg/I in treated water.
    These a~e flu oranthene, benzo] a [pyrene, . _benzo[ghi] perylene, benzo[b Jfluoranthenc,
    bcnzo[k Jfluoranthene and indeno( 1,2,3-cd jpyrene.

    b. Pesticides

    Pesticides which are widely used in agriculture and public health include compounds used as
    insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and algicides. They include inorganic compounds such as
    DDT, dieldrin, aidrin, and lindane; organophosphorus compounds such as parathion and
    malathion; and many others. The organic compounds are potentially toxic even in small
    amounts and some, particularly the chlorinated hydrocarbons, are very resistant to chemical
    and biochemical degradation. ·-\.
    ',.

    WHO guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, I 983 gives values recommended for several of
    the persistent chlorinated pesticides known to occur frequently in drinking water: aldrin and
    dieldrin, chlordane, 2,4-D, DDT, heptachlor, gamma-HCI-I (lindane) and methoxychlor. These
    ..r
    -.,
    guideline values were derived from toxicological data based on lifetime exposure. Accidental
    discharges of pesticides in bulk to water courses can be more serious causing fish death and
    making it necessary for a temporary shut down of water intakes.
    1'".·

    c. Trihalornethane (THMs)
    ..'
    When chlorine is used to disinfect waters containing organic substances a range of chloro-
    organic compounds is formed. One group of these which has attracted considerable attention
    is the trihalomethane or haloforms (THMs). They are formed from the interaction of chlorine
    with certain organic compounds, such as hurnic and fulvic acids, which are usually present in
    coloured surface waters. The principal trihalomethanes are chloroform,

    - J/8 -
    bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. There is evidence that these
    compounds are carcinogenic.

    Toe EC Directive gives a guide level of,0.001 mg/I for organochlorine compounds which do
    . not come :;i~: the definition of pesticides·... It also states that 'haloforrri should be as low as
    possible'._··;:~· ·:: .. -·. :::::

    The most effective ways of reducing THMs in drinking water are to reduce organic levels
    before disinfection with chlorine and to restrict the use of chlorine for prechlorination.

    3.8 . OTHER PARAMETERS ·. · ·

    3.8.1 pH .. I

    ' ·.- . . ~·
    The pH value :or hydrogen ion- concentration is a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity
    (basicity) of a water. It is one of the most important parameter in water chemistry since many
    .. of the
    . .
    processes
    ! .. .;.
    involved
    .... .. . .
    in. water
    -
    treatment are pH-dependent. ·
    . - .·
    The pH of most natural waters are in the range 4 to 9 with soft, acidicwaters frornl'gelam"
    areas having low pH values and hard waters which have percolated through limestone having
    high pH values. Waters of low pH tend to be more corrosive and if the pH value is very low a
    water can have a sour or acidic taste.

    'I11e recommenclecl value for pH of a treated water is .berween 6.5 to 9.0 as stipulated in the
    National Guidelines.

    Generally, Malaysian river waters haveprl values of less than 7.0 with 60% of them having a
    value between 6.5 to 8.5. Although the pH value of water can be easily adjusted prior to and
    during treatment by the use of alkalis; using raw water of pH less than 5.5 would increase cost .... ·
    unnecessarily.

    All treated water should be "conditioned" before it is sent into the distribution system i.e. its
    pH should be adjusted to just above its calcium carbonate equilibrium value.

    3.8.2 BIOCHE1\tllCAL OXYGEN DEMAND

    Biochemical Oxygen Demand is .cornmonly used as an indicator of organic pollution.


    Microorganisms utilise the dissolved oxygen for the biochemical oxidation of the pollutants.
    For the purpose of drinking water the BOD of raw water should not exceed 6 mg/L Generally,
    the following classification can be made to assess the degree of organic pollution in a water
    source,

    lillP (mg!!) CLASSIFICA TIOl'i

    0 - 4 clear
    4 - 8 ~nildly polluted
    8 - 12 moderately polluted
    > 12 grossly polluted

    . 3f) -

    --· ·-·---··----------------------
    ·-·,,. .,.
    '. ·:. -: .: '

    ,/
    /
    3.8.3 ALUMINIUM
    ./~ \ __ ..

    The most usual -source ·of aluminium in drinking water· c~ ·.,. "."'. ·.
    utensils, tanks or pipes or from incorrect dosing' of
    alumini~ ;·:-~
    treatment works. Ideally a water going into supply should;
    aluminium as Al.
    ,·:·

    3.8.4 AMMONIACAL COMPOUNDS -, \


    ',

    Ammonia is one of the forms of nitrogen found in water and is usually exp1\ : .
    mg/1 N. Free ammonia. which is the same as free and saline ammonia or a.f!'_1!16\,_ · ·~l\'.l.
    >< \ {i/\:.·\))J./
    is the form most usually found in water. It is so called because it exists either in\._.·'·-v·-.._ .. \:':'(\_:. -_-=::?)::>:;_/
    or as saline ammonium ion depending on the pH value. Albuminoid ammonia is the, . t~,> '{:\)(-~·;:r\~{:
    fraction liberated from organic material in the -~ate~-:b_y_s~f~r __
    .... '.
    :t~~,1~~4 o_~~-~~O~-t. ,:~'\)_:~~--\{){X:tt.
    . .
    }·\· .
    _: _~ . .. , ~ ,~·. i:·.:.· .. ·,··.•,·····,·
    Arrunoniaca1 compounds are found in most: natura1 :. waters:': .. Tuey 'originate"fromt ;,;~.if~i}.~l: · :,=-·
    . . ·••• :
    1·
    •
    \?:{:~J·F·.t
    ""-·. :· ,.,.,1, .. '/J":
    sources, some of which are completely harmless, for example decomposing vegetation. · De · · \. l>::{:t: ,{
    well wate:s c~ contain high le:els of free_ ammonia caused b1
    the reducti?~'?f riitr~t~;s: .either·,,. ' :\.~2/:.:.·:-x
    by bacteria or by the surrounding geological strata: Ammonia can also indicate pollution of •· :\. f :;:
    water body, by either sewage or industrial effluent ~tt/ 1

    . . c, ~"

    The ammount of ammonia in a raw water is of importance in determining chlorine doses for '~,.:~
    ft
    disinfection. In treated water, ammonia levels of up to 0.5 mg/1 are acceptable. Ammonia is
    effectively removed by chlorination or. biological treatmenl \
    3.8.5 . CHLORIDES

    Chlorides are compounds of chlorine with another element · They are present in nearly all
    natural waters and the range of concentrations can be very wide, but most combinations are
    with sodium (NaCl, 'common salt') and, to a lesser extent, with calcium and magnesium. They
    are one of the most stable components in water, with concentrations being unaffected by most
    natural physiochemical or biological processes.

    Generally excess chlorides indicate pollution either from sewage or saline· intrusion. The
    source of the chlorides is· an important factor and local knowledge is required. A water may be
    unpolluted but has a high chloride content due to its passage through certain geological stratas.

    A variation in chloride content is worthy of investigation. If this is accompanied by an increase


    in ammonia and nitrate content, pollution is indicated and this requires immediate checking.

    The acceptable standard for drinking water (Table 3.2) is 250 mg/1. As water treatment
    processes to remove salinity is expensive, it is recommended that a raw water. source of low
    chloride level be considered.
    1Jl ·
    ·· ·

    F. •.
    if
    it~
    ~i
    l
    ~
    ,~
    ....
    '1,

    - 3/10 -
    J
    ~
    '
    r.i
    i,.; ;
    r-.,
    l ' 3.8.6 HARDNESS

    Water hardness is a measure of polyvalent cation 'contents, preaominantly of calcium and


    magnesium, but also include. strontium. barium etc, in terms .of CaC03 equivalent in mg/l.
    Total. hardness consists of carbonate or temporary hardness ~d. non-carbonate or permanent
    hardness ... Temporary hardness .is precipitated by. boiling and- forms. the scale found inside
    kettles. Permanent hardness calcium
    is. due to and magnesium sulphates and chlorides - which
    ... ~....;.
    ! . are not precipitated by heating. ·. f,. comparison of hardness levels may be given as follows .
    { 1
    !. l

    Range (mg/I) Hardness level


    (''·'1-.
    ( ;
    .; ..
    .0 - so Soft
    50 : 100 Moderately soft .
    i .,
    f. :
    100 - 150 Slightly hard
    ii 150 - 200 Moderately hard
    200 - 300 Hard
    \
    Over 300 Very Hard

    r·-·!
    f Waters softer than 50 mg/1 tend to be corrosive. A hardness level of 100 mg/I as CaC03 is set
    as a compromise between corrosion and incrustation properties.

    Most river water in Malaysia is soft with less than 60 mg/1 of hardness although some 10% of
    them may have hardness of more than 100 mg/1. The design standard to aim for is 100 mg/l
    while in raw water for conventional treatment hardness of up to 500 mg/l. is permitted.
    Hardness within the limit permitted is removed by conventional treatment; greater
    concentration will involve water softening process.

    3.8.7 IRON

    Iron is found in most raw waters in numerous forms: in true solution, as a· colloid, in
    suspension, or as a complex with other mineral or organic 'substances. It can impart a bitter
    taste when present in large amounts, making· the water unpalatable.

    Iron is generally present in the soluble ferrous state and water containing a lot of iron takes up
    oxygen on exposure to air. The iron is likely to be precipitated in ferric state, causing brown
    stains on laundry and plumbing . fixtures. Even small amounts of iron can lead to the
    accumulation of large deposits in a distribution system. Besides being unacceptable to the
    consumer, such deposits can give rise to iron bacteria which in turn cause further deterioration
    in the quality cf the W!!~! ~y producing slimes or cbjectiocablc odours.

    Levels of iron in a large percentage of Malaysian river waters are in the range_ of 1 to 5 mg/L
    High levels also exist in some ground waters. Levels higher than 0.3 mg/1 are expected to be
    treated. Currently treatment process involved prechlorination and/or aeration followed by
    adequate coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and pH control. However iron
    concentrations great.er than 1.0 mg/1 may be costly to remove due to special processes being
    required.

    Highest desirable level for total iron is set at 0.3 rng/1 as the recommended standard.

    - 3/11 -

    -----
    3.8.8 MANGANESE

    Manganese resembles iron in its chemical behaviour and occurs in natural waters, btit n~rmally'
    in· lower· concentrationsthan iron. Manganese can be a ·troublesome. 'element even when
    present in small qu'antitiesJ Itcan deposit out from water in. the presence 'of oxygen or after
    chlorine has been 'added, coating' the interior of the distribution systems with "black 'slime.
    These slimes occasionally" slough off, giving rise to consumer. complaints: Large quantities of
    manganese are toxic, but a water requires treatment on grounds of taste ~nd aesthetic quality
    long before such levels are reached. · ·

    In general a lesser amount of !'!"1~g?-'!~S~ (:'9.-~~ be t0!e!"~t~d i.~ 2 s1..~pp!J system t.~~~ ircn because,
    1

    although the deposition of manganese is slow, it is continuous. The recommended standard


    should be 0.1 mg/1.

    A large percentage of the manganese in raw water in Malaysia can be removed by conventional
    treatment. 'In certain areas 1™n04 has been utilised to remove persistent high level of
    manganese.

    3.8.9 SULPHATES

    The concentration of sulphate in natural waters can vary over a wide range from a few mg/I to
    several thousand ing/l. Sulphates can come from several sources such as the dissolution of
    gypsum' ind other "mineral deposits 'containing. sulphates, from seawater intrusion, from the
    oxidation of sulphides, sulphites, and thiosulphates in well aerated waters. Industrial effluents
    where sulphates or sulphuric acid have been used would also increase the sulphate content in
    water. Sulphurous flue gases discharged to atmosphere in industrial areas often result in acidic
    rain water containing appreciable levels of sulphates.

    Sulphates in domestic water contribute the major part of the non-carbonate, or permanent
    hardness. High levels can
    impart taste and when combined with magnesium 'or sodium can
    have a laxative effect Bacterial reduction of sulphates under anaerobic condition can produce
    hydrogen sulphide, which is an objectionable gas smelling of bad eggs. This can occur in deep
    well waters and the odour rapidly disappears with efficient aeration.

    111e raw water limit for economic treatment is 400 mg/I.


    t~.
    ~\
    3.9 TYPES AND FREQUENCY OF EXAl\tONATION

    'There are three types of water examination which are being practised: (a) residual chlorine,
    (b) bacter.iological and (c) chemical examination.

    3.9.1 RESIDUAL CHLORINE

    Residual chlorine tests are normally carried out several times daily (at least twice) on final
    water at the treatment plant before it enters the distribution system. By correlating the amount ;

    and type of residual chlorine in the final water with the result of its bacteriological examination, :i
    : l'.!
    it is possible for each plant to determine the chlorine residua] required to ensure production of ;
    :

    t
    - 3/12 - J
    .1.- -4.,
    ·=~!,,
    ~
    __. l
    wate~ that is free, or essentially free from coliform bacteria. A chlorine residual recorder may
    be installed for continuous monitoring especially at big plants.
    r
    l
    I
    i
    3.9.2 BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

    Treated water as it.enters the distribution system should be examined regularly.


    !

    . The frequency of sampling depends on the extent of the distribution network, in view of the
    possibility of post treatment contamination . within. the .distribution. For example, with
    distribution serving over· 100~000 people at. least a weekly sample may be needed. Such
    frequency ~):'.~-~o_t·be practicable i?. ~ep"9f:e_·.~~as .'Y.hile in smaller or less densely populated
    .
    areas with less than 5,000 people, monthly sampling may. be adequate. The following . sampling
    frequencies in relation to population density are recommended.

    PopulatiQn served . min. no. of samples Max. interval between


    f .
    successive samplings
    i
    l . less than 20,000 1 sample/5,000 pop./month One month
    20,001 - 50,000 1 sample/5,000 pop./month Two weeks
    50,001 - 100,000 1 sample/5,000 pop.Zrnonth Four days.
    over 100,000 1 sample/10,000 pop./month One day
    1·
    i1
    j
    Sampling frequency may have to be increased during rainy weather due to the possibility of
    increased contamination.

    Effective treatment followed by chlorination or another form of disinfection, will normally


    provide water free of coliforms, however polluted the initial raw water may be. In practice this
    means that no random sample of 100 ml of water will reveal the presence of coliforms. Any ;
    f
    sample taken at the inlet to the network not conforming to this standard should call for an
    immediat.e inspection of the purification processes and sampling method. However, when t
    I

    \ examining chlorinated water, the samples assumed to be positive must always be.subjected to !
    an appropriate confirmation test. !
    l
    I
    ;
    ;

    3.9.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EXAMINATION i


    l
    I \
    t Regular samplings and examinations of raw and treated water are necessary to monitor the f
    I
    i. . quality of the water and the adequacy of the treatment. 111e frequencies of examinations are as
    listed in Tables 3.1 and 3.2.

    - 3/13 -
    .. ·.

    \
    /
    ,- ,e} : .
    ,·
    ,,,-..JP.l· ~'I> ·,f\. .. ff'

    RECOMMENDED RAW WATER QUALITY CR~ERIA·AND.1\/'U~: v.P \ . .- .: . .I\


    '
    ------,--------' ---,-__;_;··~,;;.;;..:_··· ·. . ~-'"' -v -, /~ti;.
    )' -,
    -, <;,\:>)) \/.-_:_:{_: .;:·_:}_;:·:. ·:;:·.-·.:_'. :
    ··\.\/\{(
    \.::_:-:_·_;·:(.·:i\_:

    L
    . :-.

    COLUMN! COLUr- ,· \ \, · :':-::-.·.>_._·... .


    '< '\ ..::,
    ,, l----'---_;_---1-----------..;... . ·--.... -, >,..,
    \
    PARAMETERS ACCE?TABLE VALUE · · FREQUENCY~·
    ~
    BE MONITORED
    . .

    - . Surface Ground >:

    5000
    ',
    ., . w I M
    .I
    1000 '· ·w M
    300 w M
    5.5 - 9.0
    . w M

    TOTALDISSOLVEDSOLIDS 1500 M Y/4 Y/4


    CCE ! 0.5 M Y/4 Y/4
    BIOCHEMICALOXYGEN DEMAND 6 .. M Y/4 Y/4 ..
    CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND 10 M Y/4 Y/4
    CHLORIDE 250 M Y/4 Y/4
    AN!ONlC DETERGENTMBAS LO M Y/4 Y/4
    AMMO~(ASN) 0.5 M Y/4 Y/4
    NITRA 1E (AS N) 10 M Y/4 Y/4
    TOT AL NTTROGEN N ( -N03) 1.0 M Y/4 Y/4
    rRON (AS Fe) LO M Y/4 Y/4
    FLUORIDE ....
    1.5 ·M Y/4 Y/4
    HARDNF...SS 500 M Y/4 Y/4

    MERCURY 0.001 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL


    CADMIUM 0.005 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    SELENIUM O.Ql Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 WHO!
    ARSENlC 0.05 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 WHO!
    CYANIDE 0.1 . Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    LEAD 0.1 Y/4 Y/4. Y/4 MAL
    ··CHROMIUM .. 0.05 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 WHO!
    SILVER 0.05 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    COPPER 1.0 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    MANGANESE 0.2 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    MAGNESIUM 150 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    SODIUM 200 Y/4 Y/4 Y/1 MAL
    ZINC 1.5 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 WHO!
    SULPHATE 400 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 WHOI
    MINERAL OIL 0.3 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    PHF.-NOL 0.002 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 WHO!

    BlOCIDES: TOTAL 0.1 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4


    ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES:
    ALDRIN/DIELDRIN 0.00003 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    CHLORDANE 0.0003 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    DDT 0.001 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    lfEPTACHLOR & HEPTACHLOR
    EPOXIDE 0.0001 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    HEXACHLORODENZENE 0.00001 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    LINDANE 0.003 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL
    METIIOXYCHLOR O.Q3 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL

    HERBICIDES:
    2,4-D 0.1 Y/4 Y/4 Y/4 MAL

    RADIOACUVITY:
    GROSS a 0.1 y y y MAL
    GROSS~ 1.0 y y y MAL

    - 3/14 -
    .· .... ,.,
    · '\: -:<.:'
    ._:,:J
    ·1 w INDICATES PARAMETERS TO BE MONITORED AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK
    . . -.·:-.·
    .,.:''
    IND I CA TES P A.RAMETERS TO BE MONITORED AT LEAST ONCE A MONTH
    !
    ,' ' M
    :. ·
    ·.,. Y/4 INDICATES PARAMETERS TO BE MONITORED AT LEAST ONCE IN 3 MONTI!S
    r y INDlCA TES PARAMETERS TO BE MONITORED AT LEAST ONCE A~.

    WHO! REFERS TO WHO tNTI!RNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WA1ER 1963

    WH02 REFERS TO WHO GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY VOL 1 & 2 1984

    MAL REFERS TO VALUES ADAP'IED FOR MALAYSIAN O)NDillONS

    NOTE: Colloctioo of. aamplu ol both raw and treated water for examination for toxic substances should be carried out more
    Crcqu¢111ly if values above lbc ao::q,tablc values are known to be present in the source of ropply, or where such potcnri.a.1
    pollution exists. ·

    ;
    \

    - 3/15 -
    TAB,.

    DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND FREQUENCY OF MO NITO RING

    .coUJMNI
    COLUMN II

    PARAMETI'.RS FREQUENCY TO DE MONITORED

    STANDARD · TRE.A TMENT SERVICE DISTRIBUTION WEU/SPRING SOURO>


    PI.ANT oimzr RESERVOIR SYSTEM
    OUl1Ef

    MICROBIOLOGJCAL:

    : 1DT AL L"'OLIRJRM MPN METI!OD: w w M 2Y WH02


    SHOULD NOT EXCEED
    10 MPN/lOO ml.
    SHOULD Nm' BE
    DETECTAJJLE lN 2
    CONSECUTIVE SAMPLES.
    TIIROUGHOlJf A YEAR.
    95% OF SAMPLES
    SHOULD NOf DElECT .,
    COLIFORM IN 100 ml

    MEMBRANE FILTER
    fi1..
    ML'THOD: t,
    ARITIME11C MP.AN OF t"
    ALL MOITTHLYSAMPU:.S r l
    . 'i
    t:
    IS 3 COWNIES/100 ml
    NOT MORE 1HAN 4 r•·· ..;,
    COLONffiS/100ml IN2
    CONSEClJI1YE SAMPLES.

    FAECAL COLIFORM ABSENT IN 100 ml w w M 2Y f'


    SAMPLE !_.

    FAECAL STREPTOCOCCI ABSENT WN WN WN WN BRinSH


    QOSTRIDIUM PERFRJNGES · ·ABSENT WN WN WN WN
    VIRUSES ABSB-IT WN WN WN WN WH02
    rsorozox ABSENT WN WN WN WN NZ
    BELMINTHS ABSENT WN WN WN WN NZ

    PHYSICAL· GROUP I

    TIJRBIDITY 5 w w M 2Y WH02
    ml.OUR 15 w w M 2Y WH02
    pH 65-9.0 w w M lY MAL
    FREE RESIDUAL CT!LORINE NaT LESS TI!AN 0.2 w w M 2Y WH02
    O'.)Mil!NED Rr'5!DUAL CHLORINE NOT LESS THAN 1.0 w w M 2Y l

    - 3/16 -
    TABLE 3.2 (CONTINUED

    DRINKING WATER QUALITY SfANDARDSANDFREQUENCY OF MONITORING


    .;. i;'. .. ,,· -:

    ,r .. , .......... -..f- ... ,... .. ,, . . .... ... . ..


    :· _!_~,' :
    ' .. -~ ....
    OOWMNI : ,.
    .<;oWMNm
    ~- -~~ '!~f, COLUMNil

    ·~ . ,.-' .... -~- ----- ........... ,--., .. _._.... ---~~- --- . . .


    ·····-

    .I
    . ·-··
    PARAMEI'ERS ::· . .::;1 .. . . _ :·: .; ~ ..: ·c~;:·~::~- :~~ .:: . .:-,t FREQUENCYTO DE MONITORED
    .
    ..

    .. . - .·.. .. ' ..
    - .... \.1,.!.: : •.;.,
    ·-·······.-;, .::· ; :~ ; ·; · S!'.'\NDARD . : .: .TREATMENT SERVJC1!. DlSTRIDUI'ION WFl.lJSPRING SOURCE
    ... .. . . . PlANr OUlUT RESERVOIR SYSTEM
    Oun.ET
    ... .,
    "
    •'
    '
    INORGANIC· GROUP Il

    TOTAL DISSOLYEO SOLIDS


    CCE
    lOOJ
    0.5
    - M
    M
    M
    M
    Y/1
    vn
    2Y
    2Y
    WH02
    WIIDl
    CHLORIDE 2.50 M M Yfl 2Y WH02
    'ANIONICDETE~ENT MBAS 1.0 M M vn 2Y WBOI/AUS
    AMMONIA (AS · 0.5 M M Y/2 2Y WHO!
    ·NITRATE 10 M M Yfl 2Y WH02
    IRON 0.3 M M Yfl 2Y wmn
    FLUORIDE 0.9 M M Y/2 2Y MAL
    HARDNESS 5(X) M M Yfl 2Y WH02
    ALUMINIUM_ .. 0.2 M M Yfl 2Y WT:102
    MANGANESE 0.1 M M vn 2Y WH02

    GROl.JPID

    MERCURY 0.001 Y/4 Y/2 y 2Y waoz


    CADMIUM 0.005 Y/4 Y/2 y 2Y WH02
    SEI..ENNM O.QI Y/4 Y/2 y 2Y WH02
    ARSENJC 0.05 Y/4 Y/2 y 2Y WH02
    xn y
    CTANJDE
    LEAD
    CHRIMIUM
    0,1
    0.05
    0.05
    Y/4
    Y/4
    Y/4
    Y/2
    Y/2
    y
    y
    2Y
    2Y
    2Y
    WH02
    WH02
    WH02
    I
    ' I
    SILVER 0.05 Y/4 vn y 2Y CANADIAN l
    COPPER 1.0 Y/4 Y/l y 2Y WH02 i
    MAGNESIUM 150 Y/4 vn y 2Y WHOJ l
    'ZJNC
    SODIUM
    .. .5
    200
    .. .. Y/4
    Y/4
    Y/2
    Y/2
    y
    y
    2Y
    2Y
    WH02
    WH02
    !
    SULPHATE 400 --· Y/4 Y/2 y ... 2Y WBD2 t
    MLNERALOil, OJ Y/4 Y/2 y 2Y WH03
    PHENOL 0.002 Y/4 Y/2 y 2Y WH02
    GTLOROFORM O.Q3 Y/4 Y!l y 2Y WH02

    '
    L.

    - 3/17 -
    l .
    l .
    frdrnz-
    TABLE 3.2 (CONTINUED)

    DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND FREQUENCY OF MONITORING

    ....
    COWMNI ·• COWMNID
    COWMNlI

    • ,#•

    ..
    PARAMETERS FREQUENCY TO Bll MONITORED

    .. ,.
    .,.... STANDARD., ·., TREATMENT SERVJCll DISTRIDUDON WELlJSPPJNG SOURCE
    PlANT Ol.J'ILlIT RESERVOIR SYSTEM
    ....
    -· oururr ..

    GROUP IV

    BIOClDES : TOTAL OJ Y/4 WN WN WN CANADIAN


    ORGANOCHLORINEPESTIODES:
    ~RIN 0.00003 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
    CFll.ORDANE
    DDT
    \ 0.()()3
    0.001
    Y/4
    Y/4
    WN
    WN
    WN
    WN
    WN
    WN
    WH02
    WH02
    EFYIAGILOR &. llE.PTA<liLOR
    EPOXIDE 0.00'.)l Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
    IlEXACID.OROBEN?ENE 0.00001 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
    UNDANB. O.oo.J Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
    METEOXYOILOR om Y/4 WN WN WN WH02

    HERBlODES:
    2,4-D OJ .. Y/4 WN WN WN WH02

    GR CUP V • RADIOACTIVITY
    GROSS a 0.1 y WN WN WN WH02
    GROSS jl LO y WN WN WN WH02

    w INDJCA TES PARA!'rfr."'1ERSTO BE MONITORED AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK

    M INDJCATES· PARAMETERSTO BE MONlTOREDAT I.EAST ONCE A MONTI·!

    Y/2 INDICATES PARAME11~ TO BE MONITOREDAT LEASTONCE IN 6 MONTHS

    y INDJCA'JT:<.SPARAMETERSTD DE MONOTORED AT LEAST ONG: A YEAR

    2Y J.NDJCATES PARAMETIRS TOBE MONITORED AT LEAST ON a IN 2 YEARS

    V..'N lNDICATES PARAMETERSTO BE MONOTORED WHEN NECESSARY

    WHO) ;NDICA1T~ WHO JNTERNA·noNAL STANDARDS FOR DRINKING WATER 1963

    WH02 INDICATESwno GlJJDELINP.SFORDRJNKlNG WATER QUALffY 1984

    WH03 INDJCA'IBSWHO INTER.NATIONAL STANDARDS FOR DRINKINGWATER 197 J

    INDI CATES RESEARCHPAPERS

    AUS INDJCATFS AUS1RALIAN STANDARDS

    Note Any toxic substances not fated there shall be deemed ll3 not allowable in drinking water.

    - 3/l 8 -
    J
    I

    REFERENCES

    A C Twort, F M Law and F W Crowley (1986), Water Supply, Federal Publication Ltd.,
    Hong Kong.

    WHO (1971), International Standards for Drinking Water, WHO Geneva.

    WHO (1983), Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, WHO Geneva.


    The Institution of Water Engineers (1961). Manual of British Water Engineering Practice, W.
    Heffer and Sons Ltd., Cambridge.

    Robert L Sanks (1978), Water Treatment Plant Design, Butterworth Publishers, U.S.A.

    James Montgomery (i985), Water Treatment Principles and Design, John Wiley and Sons.

    Ministry of Health, Malaysia (1983), National guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Ministry
    of Health, Malaysia.

    Ministry of Health, Malaysia (1983), Manual on Drinking Water Quality Surveillance, Ministry
    of Health, Malaysia.

    Consultant Group of Water Quality, Institute of Advanced Studies, University of Malaya


    ( 1986). Water Quality Criteria and Standards for Malaysia .

    .. . . . ······. ., .

    - 3/19 -
    \
    \\
    \
    \

    \,
    SECTION 4 ~ GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATION

    4.1 INTRODUCTION

    In Malaysia, groundwater is the next most important water resource after surface water.
    Potential aquifers may be found in the following forms:

    (a) Alluvium (Unconsolidated sediment)

    In this geologic formation the aquifer occurs in layers of sand and gravel. A good aquifer is
    capable of supplying more than 45 m3 of water/hour/well. In some parts of Malaysia there are
    aquifers capable of producing as much as 100 m3/hour/well.

    (b) Hard Rock

    (i) Consolidated Sediment:

    * Limestone/Dolomite

    The aquifer in this type of formation occurs in openings form as a result of chemical
    dissolution and in fractures in the rock body. A good aquifer of this type is capable of
    producing more than 30 m3/hour/well_

    * Sandstone/Siltstone/Conglomerate/Shale and their metamorphic equivalent rocks · ·

    The aquifer occurs in rock fractures, bedding and voids between grains. A good
    aquifer is capable of producing more than 20 m3/hour/well.

    (ii) Igneous Rock (mainly granite)

    TI1e aquifer in this type of formation occurs in rock fractures including joints and faults.
    It is not considered a good aquifer and the discharge rate seldom exceeds 10
    m1/hour/well.

    (iii) Volcanic Rock

    As in the igneous rock, it is the secondary porosity in the form of joints fractures and
    faults that constitutes the aquifer. Discharge rates seldom exceed 10 m3/hour/well
    Thi<: fnnn,;itinn ,~ n0t
    - ---· - -·-----·-~-- -- ---·
    <> onrvi "r,n;ff'r
    - ov-- --;.~--·

    A simplified hydro geological map of West Malaysia is shown in figure _4. L

    - 4/1 -

    --------···--· -----·--
    4.2 SYSTEMATIC GROUNDVVATER RESOURCES INVESTIGATION

    4.2.1 GENERAL
    c-

    Generally groundwater investigation is costly due to the need for extensive subsurface study
    and collection of other data which requires drilling and other costly operations. A systematic
    approach is necessary in order to reduce cost of groundwater exploration. Figure 4.2 shows a
    flowchart for a systematic groundwater resources investigation.

    4.2.2 DESK STUDY

    The desk study involves collation of available data related to occureoce of groundwater. .A...s a
    guide, one carrying out a desk study should look for available data in published or unpublished
    forms as listed below:

    (a) topography of area;

    (b) geology of the area including structures, stratigraphy and lithology;

    (c) subsurface water data such as:

    (i) location of wells, observation holes, springs and other relevant data; '
    (ii) groundwater table and piezornetric levels;
    (iii) water quality of existing wells.jind
    (iv) aquifer data - recharge, discharge and contributing area.

    (d) surface water data such as:

    (i) rainfall distribution;


    (ii) surface water flow in the vicinity; ·and .. ·

    (e) available aerial photographs giving information on the pattern of geology, soils,
    vegetation and Janel use.

    Collation of the preceding data should be carried out as complete as possible. These data arc
    s:ignificant in planning for further investigation. If the area has been studied in detail
    previously, production wells can be constructed without doing any field investigation.

    4.2.3 SURFACE STUDY

    T11e objective of surface study is to verify all data collated under the desk study and to obtain
    further data regarding groundwater resources. It is very important to carry out this study
    before proceeding with further investigation as outlined in figure 4.2. 'This study covers field
    investigation and geophysical exploration as described below:

    - 4(2 -
    SIHPUFl£0 HYOROG£0LOC,ICH HAP Or
    P(NlttSULAR HALAYSiL

    £,'
    00'

    ,. s·
    2
    oo·
    "'I

    ~I
    I

    .J'
    er

    ~ LIMES 10!~f., Fr oc tur e d and kor slili~d


    liiill p-oc!uct,vc wclis CJrnerolly ond kar stiried
    >- 27rn3/hr.

    Gl SKAl.E,S4NOS10NE.COt,GLOM£HATf:(Md the",r
    ,·
    (X)',
    LJ rne tornor pruc eqv"1volef'IS)AND VOLCANICS: grovr.dwolcr
    usv9i!y in 1oin1s or tro c lure s 9merolly 41 lo l8.2m3/hr.

    [ZJ IC,£1¥..)US 1?00,S (mainly grc"itic ); qroundwot cr vs.uolly in joints


    ··· l,·,c lroc\ures o: w e ctn e r cc io"c.9cnc1clly 4J 'D 11.1.m3/h1.

    · FIGURE 4.1 A SIMPLIFIED HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF WEST MALAYSIA


    (After Chong F.S. 1975)

    - 4/3 -

    ---- ---------·---··-
    r i9i.Jt·i::' L, . c: : r·Jv<,vc:rxi,t for c Sy:.1c:--r1::;;,: C,!o.nc~.~·· . :.·:.
    Resource hvc::itiy.itior.

    I AREA !DENT lF!CAl ION I . ir


    ft·
    DES,t< STLOY
    (Dalo colloticn]
    ir,:,

    SURFACE ·STUDY

    SUB-SURFACE STUDY

    ~TORY BOREHOLE or~~~---~ _r


    1
    l fr
    ~~~~!~l~og~
    o. Geophysical loV lr.
    /DATA EVA~TON/
    'f
    p
    'f·
    t

    I
    T YES . NO
    ............
    .,'·
    i
    r---~----··-
    TEST WELL
    CONSTRUCTION I '

    _· _L~_·
    TEST WELL
    OEVELO?McNT
    _L~---
    PUM?iNc, TEST
    c. k;-.Jifer lest
    -

    I
    [NO
    J
    b. Wei! lesl

    1
    1--!J

    f\jQ
    Next YES_1
    priorit'j -->-

    T Yes
    ~TlON W~LL
    ~~-SmUCTIO\i
    r RECO'-','..E}.tJ;'>.TlO~ OF
    1PlNG~1EST 1.So/e yield
    -------
    ell lc s t ----),----·- 2. f.,!..:iinlcnancc -)----.·/ END f
    3. Monitoring

    FIGURE 4.2 FLOWCHAHT FOR A SYSTEl\1ATIC GHOUNDWATE!( RE~OURCE


    . Lt\1\'ESTlC A'J'l0!\1
    (a) Field investigation

    Field investigation should be carried in the proposed area and its vicinity (unless
    our
    impossible) to confirm all desk study data. Works to be carried out in the field are to
    include:

    (i) geological mapping - if there are no published or unpublished geological maps


    available;

    (ii) water table survey - the current depth of water table should be measured for every
    existing well in the study area;

    (iii) water sampling for water quality analysis. The well water should be pumped out at
    least for 2 hams continuously before obtaining a representative sample;

    (iv) recharge potential - indcntify the possible recharge potentials to the aquifer;

    (v) evaluation of river discharge at the study area; and

    (vi) selection for. geophysical exploration of the potential location of occurcnce of


    groundwater based on the results of the above surface study.

    (b) Geophysical exploration

    Geophysical exploration is a scientific measurement of physical properties of earth materials


    for groundwater investigation. Geophysical methods detect differences or anomalies of
    physical properties in the earth crust. A few of the more popular geophysical methods are
    seismic and resistivity; Seismic method is best put to use for determining bedrock surface
    elevations and hence thickness of unconsolidated sediments. Ancient stream channels
    deposited with thick permeable sand and gravel can be located by seismic method. Electrical
    resistivity is the property most commonly measured and this is described in the following
    paragraph. · · · · · ·· ·· ·

    Electrical resistivity surveying is the geophysical prospecting operation m


    which measurements
    of earth resistivity am made from the ground surface. The relative values of . electrical
    resistivity can be interpreted under certain conditions, in terms of the general geology of the
    subsurface to limited depth, Various types of earth materials generally exhibit certain ranges of
    resistivity values. Factors influencing these values include: ·

    (i) chemical quality of the formation water, porosity, density, pore size, water content of

    (ii) the formation resistivity which varies inversely with the dissolved solids content of the
    groundwater.

    Table 4.1 provides a representative guide to electrical resistivity ranges of various sediments
    and rocks.

    Apparent earth resistivity is determined by measuring the voltage drop between two interior
    electrodes when current is passed through the earth between outer electrodes (figure 4.3(a).

    - 4/5 -

    -----··- -··
    The most common methods to determine the apparent resistivity of earth rn,
    Schlumberger and Wenner configurations shown in figure 4.3(b).

    4.2.4 SUBSURFACE STUDY

    Subsurface study entails the drilling of exploratory boreholes, geological logging, geophysica,
    logging, testing for water quality data evaluation, drilling of test wells, further testing for water
    quality and pumping test The purpose .of the study is to collect subsurface data required for
    the evaluation of aquifer hydraulics and characteristics and for the subsequent design of
    production wells. The data that should to be obtained from this study include:

    l
    (i) thickness, characteristics and sequence of zones which contain groundwater and types
    of formation;
    l
    t
    (ii) fluctuation of groundwater level in the aquifer;
    f
    (iii) groundwater quality and quantity; and f
    j

    (iv) hydraulic nature of aquifer.

    The various activities which constitute subsurface study are described below:

    (a) Exploratory Borehole Drilling

    'The objective of this exploration is to obtain data described in the above paragraph. The
    diameter of exploratory wells is normally lOOmm. In the case of rock formation, if the
    exploration area is found to have potential, the test well or production well may be constructed
    by enlarging the exploratory well thus saving cost.

    For a minor well project (eg. Police Station Water Supply) in which the cost of production
    well drilling may be the same as that of exploratory well, it is advisable to construct the
    production well directly instead of an exploratory well first and followed by a production well.

    A summary of drilling methods is described in Table 4.2. The choice of methods mainly
    depends on the geologic formation. An experienced driller should be capable of selecting the
    most suitable method before mobilization.

    Drilling must be carried out as vertically as possible so as to avoid the following from
    occuring:

    (i) difficulty in pump installation;


    (ii) increase in the cost of maintenance; and
    (iii) reduction of discharge.

    The verticality aimed at is to have a deviation of not more than 50mm for every 100 metre
    depth.

    - 4/6 ·
    )'( i c.) Ete::lri::cl Ci,cuit ~o: ·Resistivity Geophysical Study and Electrical Field

    ' 8ATTEP.Y
    ---l! 1!1~-----, A>-----.

    ( Cvrrenl Ileclrode

    C - Current Electrode
    P - Potential Electrode

    ...... ····· . ···-··

    ( b) Electrical Lrronge~rnt Commonly-· Used m Resistivity Method

    -----,1,1,f-----~

    I r-b-l I

    r- ---l -----1
    II
    -
    Schlumberger Arrongeme~l_

    Note ab and L are distances between electrodes

    flGURE 4.3 RESISTlVlTY

    - 4(7.

    -- -·-----
    .........

    .. -·:.·.:· - ·-
    Table 4.1 The Electrical REsistivity Ranges of Various Rock T_-·

    Rock Type Resistivity (m)

    Consolidated shale 20 to 2xl04

    I to 6.4xl09
    Sandstone
    50 to lxl07
    · Limestone
    20
    Unconsolidated wet clay
    1 to 100
    Clay
    10 to 800
    Alluvium and sand
    3x 102 to. 106
    Granite
    10 to 2x I 08
    Quartzite (various)

    10 to 2.5x10
    Marble (dry)
    20 to· lx 10
    Schist

    Below water table


    ''
    .
    !'" •
    i..... ~--
    Ingneous and metamorphic -
    ';::
    :;.
    100 to 10,000 !. ~
    '
    consolidated sediment
    10 to 1000
    unconsolidated sediment
    1 to 100

    -
    [I .
    ..

    - 4/8 -

    . ----.
    (b) Geological Logging

    (i) SJlJ.nnhnp of Formation Material~:

    All fonnation materials should be taken at every metre or at every change of formation. In
    sand or gravel formations, at least 2 kilograms of the sample should be taken for gradation
    analysis. An example of a gradation analysis is shown in Figure 4.4.

    For hard rocks, at least 1 kilogram of the rock sample should be taken at each metre depth or
    at every change in the rock formation. Drilling must be stopped temporarily when samples are
    taken from rotary drilling. For clay material, at least 0.5 kilogram should be taken for hand
    specimen analysis. For all types of formation materials, samples must be put in strong plastic
    bags or timber cases. Only sand and gravel materials are sent for gradation analysis. Hard
    rocks and clayey materials are kept for inspection until the project is completed.

    (ii) Log gin g

    The purpose of logging is to get the actual picture of the geological conditions prevailing in the
    exploration borehole and the study area. These data are important and necessary in designing
    the production wells.

    Logging is carried out by checking the samples and well-cuttings collected during drilling of
    exploratory wells. An example of a geological log is shown in Figure 4.5.

    It covers the following:

    * geological characteristics and formation types;


    * thickness of strata as compared to borehole depth; and
    water table.

    (c) Geophysical Logging

    This is a scientific method used to detect the physical structure of boreholes, types of
    formation and other formation characteristics. Some of the geophysical activities commonly
    carried out are as follows:

    (i) Resistlyity Loecine


    A resistivity logging probe is lowered to measure the electrical resistivity of the surrounding
    materials in the- boreholes, The results is ~!ottp~ as :1. resistivity leg ?.S shown ;,., Figure 4.S.
    The results a.re affected by porosity, water quality, quantity and temperature.

    Shale, clay and saltsand will give low values; freshwater sand gives from moderate to high
    values; cemented sandstones and non-porous limestones give high values.

    (ii) Radiation Logging or Gamma Ray Log[!ing


    Radiation logging involves the measurement of fundamental particles emitted from unstable
    radioactive isotopes. All types of rock emit natural gamma radiation. .lJJ general, the natural

    - 4f) -

    - ----·------ -··· ----------------------------


    gamma act! vity of clayey formations is significantly higher than those of qr
    r
    carbonate rocks.

    (iii) Caliper Locging

    A caliper log provides a record of the average diameter of a borehole. TI1is logging aids ,
    identification of lithology and stratigraphic correlation.

    (d) Test Well construction

    Construction of test wells involves the following procedures:

    (i) Desi w and Construction


    The design and construction of test wells will generally follow the methods as for production
    wells described under item 4.5.

    (ii) Well development


    The purpose of well development is to remove the finer materials from the aquifer, .thereby
    cleaning out, opening up or enlarging passages in the formations so that water can enter the
    well more freely. This is an essential operation in well construction so as to achieve maximum
    economic life. Well development techniques vary and these include bailing, swabbing,
    pumping, surging, use of compressed air, hydraulic jetting and addition of chemicals.

    111e development techniques for a screened well are listed as follows:

    * Over-pumping - this technique involves pumping the well at a higher rate than it will . ~
    be pumped when it is put in service.

    * Surging by the up-and-down motion of a surge block attached to the bottom


    of drill stem or cable tool.

    * Surging with air - to develop the weU by compressed air with an air compressor
    connected to an air pipe into the well. The operation is repeated
    along the screened section until finer materials are removed.

    * High-velocity jetting
    this technique is suitable for a screened well with a large percentage [
    of openings. A high velocity stream of water is applied upon the well ~-
    screen.

    * Bailing this is the simplest method of developing a small diameter well and is
    normally carried out in the upper portion of the well using a large
    bailer. By noting the quantity of water bailed and corresponding
    drawdowns, the improvement of well yield as bailing progresses can
    be monitored.

    -4/10-
    j

    - ----·-· - -------- ------------------------1~


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    TABLI~ 4.2 METHODS OF DRILLING JN GROUND\VATER lNVESTIGATION

    - 4/l l -

    -·-~--
    FlGLP-E ~ · L : AH EXANPLE OF GRADATIOH AHALYSIS CURVE

    Sompl, t!c-:;cr,;:;\io11 : . ~u::,on9ulcr c;ucr:::; 9rovcts - cc;uilcr zooc


    Semple vri~i11 : e.7-ll.2 m - bt'low9rovr.d lc-;d

    I I I !;f 111

    ~·

    1 I
    I
    I

    I
    o.so.50.11 :.o \.L. 2 2.ll ~.6 5 20

    .I particle diameter· (mm)


    · ( A ~iC'·,c s i:: cs )

    I ·
    tl. ...'d1c:n ·
    <_; r o,r. si:· C'
    0 5r·
    ~ 'J = J. 7 rr. rn

    I !:.! !t.1c1,vc. 9rc1n


    . .
    s,~c
    010 : l.7mm

    l)11ilotrnil'/. . .
    coct :..:;,!'nl De,"
    __ ..::!. :. 2 .J
    o,O

    FIGURE 4.4 AN EXAl\1PLE OF GllADATION ANALYSIS CUI~VE

    - 4/ 12 -

    ••• •••••••··v,-.•••·-·•·--....-.··m-.••·· -,,•,-;••r•J/~I'·"''"-'•''••..-(."'·'."-"'""".,..,...-.-,., ... ,...;,,-.,,


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    ......)
    0
    ·----·-------~--------·--·------··-----
    L;! J lr0lJ1Ht;-::}J 1•t)))o l ,.-Jh'I':

    -----------{

    tu ) , " .. ) ,.. ,, l_:i:-·-:.. 1 . :.:.. ·"'- · -· · . . --·.· .. -.' , ... -·:<· . -:··-:···:·:·:·:·:·:·:-.-: .· :··:1,1.,_-1\ .. 11.1,.ur,., .11, ,, •• ~1,1,,,. .• 1,r..1~1111 •• ,i".1..,n~·:I
    (:..~.. ---- 1:· . :\':'.:.' 'f ,-:-r;-:.;,~'.~·-.·);".~
    ,.. --- -,-r-,-,·r----~--. -,-r...._,.-.-,,-,-, -,- ... ,,-.J,--,---,--~--i-r-r- ... ~r-.=- ,; -~ . .--,
    .... ·~;,.. ,.', :.::. ~;.::.,:: ,.',."'.-: ;,:.:: ;,: '.-,,:.:.;.: ..,/.:.~-'.-:·. •'• •'•'·• /-'(•':• 11, ~···•, r~'~t ;:f.-JIJ:~(U;'..,[~J':~J l,
    -r-« . . .... , I "I
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    1,1 n1..,ln

    Fl(; lJIZE 4.5 TY PJC/\L CEO Loe; !CA I, AN l) CEO Pl l YSlC:\l, LOCS FO lZ A
    1\-l l~L/\ i; t\ l\ 1\S l N W !·: LL (CS X:/J)

    . '1/1] -
    * Swabbing it is similar to surging but is fitted with by-pass valves for its
    downward stroke. Hence, while the surge 'plunger i..s strongly active
    on both the upward and downward stroke, 'the swab is only active on
    the upward stroke.

    In practice, one or a combination of the above techniques is applied. However, high-velocity


    jetting is generally the most effective technique.

    Well development techniques for an open well are listed as follows:

    * all techniques listed above can be used especially the high-velocity jetting techniques.

    * chemical addition - i.e adding HCL, sulfuric or muriatic acid to water in the well m
    limestone or dolomite formations and rock containing silicates.

    adding polyphosphates e.g. (}.faP02)6 in wells in sandstones followed


    by surging.

    (polyphosphate helps dissolve drilling and natural mud).

    * explosives gelignite is normally used but a more satisfactory approach is to use


    an RDX!fNT explosive mould. The objective is to accomplish
    fracturing that radiate outwards from the borehole to act as conduits.
    thereby increasing the secondary porosity of the formation.

    To determine the acceptance limits of well development, the material contents in well water
    should be analysed when carrying out well development. Well development must not be
    stopped until fine materials or solids that have settled are less than 20 ppm by weight using the
    Imhoff cone.

    (iii) Pumping Test

    A pwnpi.ng test is one of the most useful means of determining the hydraulic properties of
    water bearing layers or aquifers. 111e pumping test comprises the aquifer test and the well test

    The objectives of the aquifer test are to determine the following:

    * bulk transmissivity and storage coefficient of the aquifer:


    * the presence and influence of hydrological boundaries.
    * the quality of groundwater being abstracted.

    111e above objectives can be met by a continuous pumping test and recovery test. ·

    Both pumpmg tests involve measurement of drawdown in the well mid in at least one
    observation well near the well and measurement of pump discharge rate against time.

    - 4(l 4 - I

    j),
    The pumping test measurements to be taken during an actual pumping test are as follows:

    * measurement of the water level (rn).


    * measurement of the discharge rate (m3/h) at various time intervals.

    Water level should be measured from as many piczorneters as possible and in the pumped well
    The measurements must be taken as accurately as possible.

    C' The ~..Q_uifer test comprises the following:

    * Pumping test
    * Recovery test

    For the Continuous Pumping Test, the discharge rate must be constant from the beginning up
    C'
    i
    l to the end of the testing. Therefore the arrangement for this aquifer test must permit the
    ! ~

    following controls and measurements:

    * constant pumping rate;


    * accurate measurement of drawdown and recovery in piezorneter and .pumped well; and
    * accurate record of time each measurement is taken.

    There is no fixed duration of time for the continuous pumping test and recovery test.
    Nevertheless it is recommended that pumping be carried out until a steady flow situation or
    equilibrium is reached. 111e common practice is for the continuous pumping test to be carried
    out for not less than 72 hours and the recovery test shall commenced immediately after
    pumping is stopped. The recovery test is continued until the original water level is reached ..

    The time intervals between water level measurement in the pumped well as well as in the
    piczorneter are shown in Table 4.3 and Table 4.4. These should be adjusted to suit local
    conditions.

    R~QYITv Test is performed by measuring the increase in water table as soon as pumping is
    stopped.The recovery time period interval recommended is similar to the one for continuous
    pumping test by taking -t = 0 when the pump is stopped. An Analysis of the Continuous
    Pumping Test and Recovery Test has to be carried out.

    As mentioned earlier, the parameters which can be obtained from the aquifer test are:

    * bulk transmissivity (T), or hydraulic conductivity (K) in the case of an unconfined


    aquifer; and

    * storage coefficient (S)

    The analysis to determine the bulk transmissivity and storage coefficient of the aquifer can be
    carried out by a few methods. 111c method or methods to be used depend on the types of
    aquifer (confined, semi-confined or unconfined) and the state of flow (steady or unsteady).
    The various methods of analysis are as shown in Table 4.5. The example of pumping test
    . curve is shown in Figure 4.6.

    - 4/15 -

    -··--------------------------------
    Table 4.3 Time intervals between level measurement in the pumped well

    Time since pumping Time intervals


    started (minutes) (minutes)

    0-5 0.5

    5 - 60 5

    60 - 120 20

    120 - until end of test 60

    Table 4.4 Time intervals between water level measurement in piezometer

    Time since pumping Time intervals


    started (minutes) (minutes)

    0 - 10 1

    10 - 20 2

    20 - 40 5

    40 - 100 10

    100 - i80 20

    180 - to end of test 60

    - t,/)6 -
    II
    ?J

    8
    o
    ,.,

    [
    I
    8
    l
    ,._
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    r····.
    i
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    L!...~--

    FIGURE 4.G CONTlNUOUS PUl\'lPING TeST CUR VE

    -4/17-

    - - - ---·----- . ......___ --·· ---·


    Table 4.5 ~ Methods of analysis for the continuous pumping test

    Type of Aquifer Steady I unsteady Analysis


    state of flow Method used
    ----·-·-··-----

    Confined steady I unsteady Theim's Method


    Aquifer unsteady Theis Method
    unsteady Jacob's Method

    Semi-confined steadv De Glee Method ·•


    .:.:.!
    Aquifer steady Hantush Jacob's Method
    unsteady Walton _Method
    unstead . Ha.ntush Method

    Unconfined steady state of Traditional Method


    Aquifer flow

    For the recovery test, Theis Recovery Method can be used for analysis results.

    For details of method and examples of application, refer to "Analysis and Evaluation of
    Pumping Test Data Third edition, International Institute for Land Reclaimation and
    Improvement ILRT: Netherland by Krusern .an C1.P. and DeRcder" or other standard text
    books.

    A Well Test method commonly used is the step-drawdown test. The arrangement for this
    method of well test must permit the following controls and measurements:

    * constant pumping rate for each step of pumping;


    ciccurate measurement of clrawdown of pumped well; and
    * accurate record of time for every step of pumping.

    The well test should be carried out for each test well and production well. The test is to be
    performed in not less than 5 steps of pumping such that the discharge for the first step and _
    each subsequent incremental discharge should preferably be equal to the quotion of the
    expected yield divided by the number of steps, for example, if the expected yield is 100 cn.m/hr
    then the step of pumping shall be 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 cu.m/hr. During the test the
    drawdown is measured until it is substantially stabilized or for a minimum of 90 minutes before
    the next higher discharge is applied. The duration for each step of pumping should be equal.

    The typical curve of step pumping test is shown in Figure 4.7.

    - 4/18 -

    -----···· ----------··· ---------·


    fQ.LJ.he Evaluation of Stc~-Drawdown Test. the basic equation used for the prediction of
    purnping test is:
    ~ # .. ~-

    Sw = BQ + CQ2, eqn, (4.1)


    i" ·-.
    I
    i
    ;
    Where Sw = Total drawdown in the well (each step).
    B = Aquifer loss coefficient
    : ;
    Q Weil discharge (each step).
    c Well loss coefficient,

    The Well Loss Coefficii;au represents friction losses within the well caused by friction between
    the water bearing zone and the pump inlet

    By plotting Sw/Q versus Q (Figure 4.8) and fitting a straight line through the points plotted,
    the well loss coefficient 'C' is given by the slope of the line. The general relation of well loss
    coefficient to well condition is shown in Table 4.6.

    ,,·;
    Table 4.6 Well Loss Coefficient
    !
    i Well loss I
    coefficient 'C' We11 condition
    ·l
    l (min.2/m5) __ I
    ;· < 0.5 Properly designed and developed.
    !
    i
    (
    0.5 to 1.0 M.ild deterioration or clogging
    r-
    {
    i 1.0 lo 4.0 Severe deterioration or clogging

    > 4.0 Difficult to restore well to original capacity

    The AQuifor Loss Coefficient 'B'represents laminar flow losses as the water moves through
    I .
    the formation.The coefficient 'B' is given by the intercept of the graph on the specific
    l drawdown (Sw/Q) axis as shown in Figure 4.8.
    i .•

    j
    Tbe Re.commended We11 Yicld is then given by equation (4.1) once the allowable drawdown is
    il determined.
    .

    Ihe Well Efficiency, 'E' is given by


    t. E = BQ
    ------------------------ eqn, (4.2)
    BQ+CQ1

    - 4/19 -

    ---·--
    ~I
    Q
    v ~

    0
    0
    a,

    c
    -~
    0 ;,
    2 0

    t
    G

    8
    -.;>

    0) •
    o'\
    c
    E

    E"
    -
    ~, I

    I
    o,
    w
    ,_
    V)

    JI
    J
    <

    0
    ~

    ,---------''
    .
    i
    f
    8
    f
    l
    I

    rr~
    Ge; 11 ;I
    ! ~ ( ·,
    l--='-~---r-"'-1
    0
    ·,-----~------,
    .... ..., ..,
    --

    - FlGUHE 4.7 STEP-DHA \tVDO\\'N TEST PLOT

    - 4/20 -
    ~i:;

    :l
    _.-ar.d .
    .,._,
    \;
    \l
    l
    i
    :

    'i
    \
    \

    ,.._ c
    i" . . . .

    - 0
    -0

    "'~
    .,,
    ~a,
    L I C=(Sw/0)/0
    ,...,E ____J
    'o
    6
    c::,
    -..
    ;S:
    en
    :,-..

    ...,
    u
    '-B
    0..
    0
    .....
    w 7..
    ·-
    ...,
    </)
    "' 0..

    L____..~- 1c,oo
    . l~f\O 3/rl oy
    Well Disc orgt',Om

    i;
    ,.
    FI GORE 4.8 STEP-DRA WDOWN PUMPING TEST ANALYSIS TO EVALUATE
    "WELL LOSS (Grnph Sw/Q versus Q)

    - t,/2 l "

    -----
    In an established well, the 'E' value will decrease due to the clogging of screen or grav
    ' '·
    Well efficiency is very useful to monitor the long term behaviour of the well. It shou, .··--e·
    checked at least once a year.

    ( e) Groundwater Quality Ana]ysis


    -·~.
    Following pumping test, analysis of groundwater quality must be carried out to ascertain the
    suitability of the groundwater before the construction of production wells. For that purpose,
    wat.er from the t.est well must be taken only at the final stage of the continuous pumping test or
    the step-drawdown pumping test, The water quality analysis shall determine the chemical,
    biological and physical parameters as V\i~teG iii Secticn 3 - '.1.'i!~: Q:.:2.!i~)'4 However, scrne of
    the elements such as pH, specific electrical conductance, iron content, temperature, colour,
    taste and odour should be tested at the site in order to have an immediate assessment of the
    water quality.

    4.3 DESIGN OF PRODUCTION "'ELLS

    4.3. l GENERAL

    ... As a rule, production wells should be constructed only· after all surface and subsurface data
    indicate the availability of groundwater of acceptable quality and quantity. An accurate and
    suitable design is very important in order to obtain optimum yield and ensure a long lifespan of
    production wells,.

    · Factors to be considered in the design of production wells are summarized as follows:

    (i) thickness, characteristics and sequence of materials underground;


    (ii) ... size andgradation of materials from aquifer;
    (iii) aquifer hydraulics;
    (iv) groundwater quality; and
    (v) the required well discharge. ·

    4.3.2 TYPES OF PRODUCTION WELL

    Three common types of production wells are described as follows:

    (a) ScreeQfd Well (with naturally developed well)

    Some of the aquifer criteria which are suitable for using screened wells are:

    (i) aquifers comprising of coarse grains (sand/gravel) and well-sorted materials; and
    (ii) aquifer gradation-effective grain size

    dlO > 0.25mm

    or

    d60 > O.Smm

    · 4(22 -
    t- ..,
    . I
    t i
    i j This type of well is as shown in Figure 4.9 (i).
    ;
    {b) Gravel PackedWells (with artificial gravel pack)

    A gravel packed well is one containing an artificially placed gravel envelope surrounding the
    well screen. The conditions of aquifer materials in which artificial gravel pack are required
    include:

    * presence of a fine and uniform sand aquifer;

    * presence of a layered aquifer with alternating sand and clay layers; and

    * requirement for maximum yield from marginal aquifer.

    The principal functions of a gravel pack are as follows:

    * to stabilize the aquifers and minimize sand pumping;


    l i

    * to permit use of the largest possible screeen slot giving maximum open area; and

    * to provide an annular zone of high permeability which increases the effective radius and
    yield of the well.

    * to maintain laminar flow condition around the well and keep the hydraulic head loss to
    a minimum, thus increasing well efficiency.

    The typical design of a gravel packed well is shown in Figure 4.9(ii).


    ' .
    ~ \ (c) ~o x\'ells
    This type of well is suitable for a stable formation which is made up of hard rock, for example.
    l l. .
    in limestone, shale and sandstone. Groundwater will flow into the well directly without
    l
    passing through. a screen. However, the well may be screened or cased if unstable aquifer
    layers are encountered. An example. of a typical open well is shown in Figure 4.9(iii).

    ~
    f
    ' '

    [ .1

    \,

    - 4(23 -
    4.3.3 COMPONENTS OF A PRODUCTION WELL

    The main well components should be properly designed and selected to achieve optimum yield
    and long lifespan. The components are as follows:

    * well casing
    * well screen
    * • formation stabilizers
    * gravel pack
    * well head

    (a) Well Casine


    Well casing serves as lining to maintain an open hole from ground surface to the aquifer.
    There are two types of casings, surface casing and pump chamber casing.

    Surface casing, normally made of steel, is installed from ground surface through the upper
    strata of unstable or fractured material. Th.is type of casing serves several purposes as listed
    below:

    * supports unstable material during drilling


    * reduces loss of drilling fluids
    * facilitates installation or removal of other casing
    * facilitates installation of a sanitary seal; and
    * serves as a reservoir for a gravel pack.

    This casing is installed temporarily during drilling. TI1e recommended minimum diameter of
    surface casing is lOOmm more than that of pump chamber casing for naturally developed wells
    and open well; 200mm more for gravel packed wells.

    Pump Chamber Casing is permanently installed to provide structural support for collapsible ..
    ;..

    natural material to house the pump and prevent entry of unwanted low quality water into the
    well.

    The criteria for pump chamber casing design are as follows:

    (i) uPVC class 'D' or 'E' casing is to be used unless strength requirement makes it
    necessary to use steel casing.

    (ii) The diameter of casing should be sufficient to house the pump of capacity available in
    the market. Minimum diameter of casing is 50rrun bigger than the diameter of pump,
    and 1 OOrrun bigger if the pump position is more than 1 OOm deep.

    (iii) The top of casing shall be at least 0.5m proud of the ground level.

    - 4().6 -

    ··-·--·-.-.·~--~· .... ··--·· ..


    '
    (iv) The length of casing below the ground level should be sufficient to estimate height of
    water table during pumping test. It also depends on factors listed below:

    current water table


    minimum water table ever recorded
    long term fluctuation level of water table
    possibility of recession of water level during pumping.

    Table 4.7 shows the recommended minimum diameter of casing.

    Table 4.7 Recommended Minimum Diameter of Casing

    q
    ··1.
    Discharge Q (Vs) Pump chamber Casing
    Diameter (mm)

    < 3.0 100

    1.0 - 14.5 150

    8.5 - 25.0 200

    . .... .. . .. ...
    . . 24.0 - 44.4 250
    . ..

    The position of the pump should always be submerged in water and above the screen (if any)
    or rock wall (for open wells) and at least 0.Sm below the minimum water level.
    I,
    •_;
    (b) Screen
    \, · . The purposes of a screen are as follows:
    I' i
    ' * to stabilize the sides of a hole;
    * to keep sand out of the well; and
    * to facilitate flow into and within the well.

    The screen may be made of uPVC slotted pipes or stainless steel wire-wound screen type. To
    select a suitable screen requires underground investigation data, analysis of formation and
    1 ..
    water sample, and also effects of corrosion and incrustation.
    i
    I
    tI,. .(
    In consolidated formations where materials surrounding the well are stable, groundwater can
    enter directly into an uncased well. ·
    ''
    t.
    The criteria for well screen design are as follows:

    (i) The material should be resistant to corrosion and incrustation by mineral deposits.

    - 4(27 ·

    Pru
    (ii) Screen diameter should be selected on the basis of the desired yield from the well and
    the thickness of aquifer.

    Table 4.8 gives the recommended minimum diameter for various capacities. Th.is diameter may
    be increased to obtain acceptable entrance velocities if necessary, and smaller diameters are
    sometimes specified in the interest of economy.

    Table 4.8 ~ Recommended Minimum Screen Diameters

    Discharge Minimum nominal


    m!~es/ sec.) n:,;,,,roato
    -
    .. fmml
    .. _.....,_ - _ _._.... \•.,.,..._..,"'I

    < 3 50

    3 ~ 8 100

    8 · 22 150

    22 - 50 200

    (iii) Length of screen (Ls)


    Jt,.
    r
    [
    In uniform aquifers (unconfined) experience has shown that screening the bottom f.
    one third of the aquifer provides the optimum design. i.
    1-:
    I
    •t
    In uniform aquifers ·curi.co.nfined) 70% to 80% of the thickness of the water
    bearing zone should be screened.

    In non-uniform aquifer, screening is located in the strata with the best aquifer
    •t
    '

    materials while the strata with poor materials shall be blanked.

    (iv) Optimum Screen Entrance Velocity


    ..
    1
    To minimize well losses and screen clogging, entrance velocity should be kept within
    the specified Limit To express velocity in terms of screen size, the following equation
    can be applied.

    Vs = Q c
    ---------- cqn. (4.3)
    r
    CnDsLsP
    .•·
    1
    t

    Vs = Optimum screen entrance velocity


    Q Well discharge
    ·C = Clogging coefficient (o.s)
    Ds - Screen diameter ....i
    I

    t
    '
    +--
    - 4/28 - ti_ .
    !?-1-,
    ·- ---------- ----•I.
    Ls = Screen length
    p :::: Percentage of open area
    (available from manufacturer's specification)

    The recommended optimum screen entrance velocity is 1.83 m/min. Walton proposed
    that in non-reactive waters the entrance velocity should be linked to the hydraulic
    conductivity in accordance with the table given below. For groundwater with
    encrustation potential, it is recommended that the entrance velocity be reduced by one
    third. Well discharge (cu.m/min.) should be controlled so as to prevent entrance of
    groundwater through the screen exceeding the recommended optimum entrance
    velocity.

    Outimum Screen Entrance Velocities (after Walton)


    Hydraulic Conductivity Optimum entrance velocity through screen
    (cm/sec x 10-3) slots
    (cm/sec)

    ·< 23 1.0

    23 1.5
    ....
    46 2.0
    . .

    93 3.0

    139 4.0
    ..
    186 4.5

    .... ..
    232 5.0
    . . ·····-. ·····

    278 5.6

    > 278 6.0

    Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer can be estimated from the well-known Hazen
    relationship.

    K ==

    where D10 is the effective grain size in nun and K has the units of cm/sec.

    (v) Size of screen slot for naturally developed well.

    : The choice of slot size in a screened well depends on the Uniformity Coefficient (Uc) of
    l: ;
    aquifer formation as shown in Table 4.9 below.
    \.' Lt
    i
    ;\ . i.
    - 4/29 -

    r
    4.3.5 PUMPING TEST

    The procedures and criteria involved in pumping tests for production· wells are similar to those
    described for the test wells under item 4.2.4(d).

    4.3.6 PUMP SELECTION

    The criteria and standards for the selection of pumps should generally follow those described
    under Section 12 - Mechanical Equipment and Installations, of this publication. Nevertheless,
    the choice of size and type of pump for groundwater investigation also depends on the
    following factors:

    * diameter and depth of casing


    * fluctuation of water table during pumping
    * suspended materials in groundwater
    * pH of water

    4.3.7 POSITION OF PUMP

    The suitable position of a pump should be determined to reduce maintenance cost Figure 4.10
    shows the most suitable pump position.

    TI1e following have to be considered before the installation of purnpsets.

    * the current position of water table is static;


    * the minimum position of water table ever recorded;
    ~I;
    * the long term fluctuation of water table;
    * the possible maximum drawdown when the required pumping is carried out; and ·;: -~·
    s-._ j
    * disturbance to the water table as a result of pumping at nearby wells.
    t

    f.
    4.4 LONG TERM MONITORING -...~ ~
    ;:
    --
    ~
    J
    To ensure a long life span of the wells, the discharge of the well should not exceed the '

    recommended yield. 'The well efficiency should be checked at least once every 12 months. - 1,i
    TI1e wells should be rehabilitated if the efficiency has decreased and the water quality has
    deteriorated.

    'r

    - 4(32 -
    \i SECTIONS - WATER DEMAND
    t~; ·- ~ .. - ·- .

    5.1 WATER DEMANDFOR URBAN SUPPLIES


    ,1:.
    ,
    i.
    ·:' i 5.1.1 GENERAL

    H
    fl:.-. f Water demand is based on population served, per capita consumption, service factor, industrial
    and other special demands. In estimating water demand, various other factors should be taken
    ,'i I
    into account directly or indirectly. These other factors include unaccounted-for-water,
    J,
    ···., l
    unsatisfied demand, increase in per capita consumption over time due to improvement in living
    standards, increase in service factor over time and maximum day demand.

    5.1.2 PLANNING HORIZON AND ST AGED DEVELOPMENT

    The study of water demand for any urban water supply scheme should cover a period of at
    least 20 years with projections made at 5 year intervals. Planning on a horizon shorter than 20
    years will not allow the planner to take full advantage of the potential of the _water source
    selected or to make provisions for full and economical development . of infrastructure,
    ···l
    ;
    treatment facilities and distribution systems. On the other hand, planning on a horizon longer
    than '.2°0 years may introduce a great deal of inaccuracy due to the lack of information of long
    term development of the area served. In the Malaysian context and with the circumstances
    applicable to most- urban centres in the country, a planning horizon of 20 years is the optimum
    and should be used unless circumstances justify a shorte;
    or longer planning horizon.

    Although the planning horizon of any scheme is 20 years, for economic reasons
    implementation of construction of facilities may be staged or phased in two or more stages
    especially for the bigger schemes. In the staging of construction, the stage 1 facilities should
    j
    be adequate to meet the 'water demand for a minimum period of another _ten years.
    Notwithstanding this recommendation on staging of water supply development, a scheme may
    be implemented· in one stage if considered desirable. or deemed necessary or the water source
    a
    has the potential only to cater for period slightly longer. than 10 years based on the water
    demand projection.

    5.1.3 BASIC FORMULA FOR WATER DEMAND ·ESTIMATION

    The basic formula for water demand estimation to be used is as follows>

    Wdn = (Pa 'x c x F) + DD

    where Vv"d0 = water demand at the end of year "n",


    pn :::: projected population at the end of year "n",
    c :::: per capita consumption at the end of year "n",
    F = service factor at the end of year "n",
    Dn = additional demand at end of year "n".

    - 5/1 -

    !"'------··---·~" ,·.-.. ·-. ~.· .· ' ...


    5.1.4 POPULATION PROJECTION

    The population projection should be carried out at 5 year intervals to cover a 2o year period.
    In making assumptions on growth rates, reference should be made to historical data based on .
    previous census and the Demographic Section of the Economic Planning Unit of the Prime
    Minister's Department (EPU) should also be consulted. If an assumed population growth rate
    is not expected to be sustained throughout the 20 year planning period, different growth rates
    may be assumed for different parts of the period. It should be noted that it would not be
    practical to expect changes in growth rates in 5 years. In the case of historical data indicating
    negative growth rates for any particular part of the study area, the increase in water demand
    there would be due solely to increases in the service factor and per capita consumption.

    Projections of population should be made on a muk:im by mukim basis and hence water
    demand estimation should be made on such basis. In projecting population growth a high and
    low growth rate should be assumed. Based on this assumption, two water demand curves will
    be generated. The median of these two water demand curves should be used for water demand
    estimation. ·

    The following formula should be used for population projection for water supply planning
    purposesr-

    =
    projected population at the end of year "n ",
    population at the beginning of the year zero,
    r = assumed population growth rate,
    n = number of years.

    5.1.5 PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION

    Per capita consumption should be classified under three categories. The guideline below gives
    a range of per capita consumption for each of the three categories:-

    urban - 230 to 320 litres/head/day,


    semi-urban - 180 to 230 litres/head/day,
    rural - 135 to 180 Iitres/head/day.

    By urban is meant communities with population exceeding 10,000 in number. Semi-urban


    means areas at the periphery of urban boundries where living standards and water usage is
    between urban and rural standards. In selecting a figure to be used in the estimation of water
    demand for an urban area for year zero, the planner should take into consideration the present
    size of the urban centre, the existing per capita consumption, the degree of unsatisfied demand
    and the per capita consumption of other similar sized urban centres without suffering from a
    high degree of unsatisfied demand.

    Per capita consumption should be increased at 5 year intervals until year 20. The target to be
    set for year 20 will depend on the projected size of the urban centre. In selecting the target per
    capita consumption for the year 20 consideration should be given to the same factors affecting
    the selection of the appropriate per capita consumption for year zero (see paragraph above). If

    - 5/2 - j1,..
    . .-_;,,
    mukims can be clearly classified as urban, semi-urban and rural categories, different per capita
    conswnption should be assumed for different muk:ims to fit into the general formula for wa"~;
    demand estimation on. a rnukim by mukim basis. If a certain mulcim is very big. and consists of
    a range of classification (say 70% urban and 30% rural), a weighted average per capita
    consumption should be assumed for that mukim.

    The guideline given under this paragraph on per capita consumption is deemed to include
    normal commercial and industrial use, domestic use and unaccounted-for-water losses. If there
    is provision in the development plans for specific industrial areas, additional water demand for
    such use should be added to the estimation .. (See paragraph 5.1.7 for estimation of industrial
    demand.)

    5.1.6 SERVICE FACTOR

    The service factor reflects the potential percentage of population served. A service factor of
    0.9 means that the distribution system covers adequately 90% of the area and the population
    located in that area can get easy access to public water supply. A 0.9 service factor does not
    necessarily mean that 90% of the population have service connections. In estimating the water
    demand the existing service factor for urban and rural areas should be assumed for year zero
    and the service factor. should be increased at 5 year intervals until it reaches the target service
    factor in year 20. The planner should use his judgement in selecting the target service factor
    for year 20 taking into consideration Government policy and the expected water supply
    development budgets in future development plans of
    the State Government Table 5.1 below
    gives an indication of average service .factors State by State for the whole country but for
    planning of a particular water supply scheme serving for example a district, service factors
    selected for urban and rural areas vary from muk:i:m to rnukim. The planner should use his
    judgement in selecting targets for service factors for estimation of water demand.

    5.1.7 PROVISION FOR ADJ?.ITIONAL WATER DEMAND

    111e term "D/ for additional water demand in the basic formula for estimating of water
    demand outlined in paragraph 5.1.3 above is to cater for new developments such as an
    industrial estate to be set up in the· district, army camp, institution of higher learning and
    I,
    ': resettlement scheme or a new town expected to be populated by migrants into the district It :is
    !; also to cater for extension of supply outside the original study area.
    ( .
    I The other terms of the said basic formula are deemed to cater for housing developments in the
    \
    \ district as occupiers of new housing developments are expected to come from the existing
    population of the district.

    Where the study area has specific industrial estates, a separate allowance for industrial demand
    should be made. Wherever possible, estimation of demand should be made of individual
    industries especially of heavy industries such as breweries, soft drink manufacturers, paper
    mills and textile mills. Where the industrial area is meant for light industries and details of such
    industries are not known during the planning stage, water demand may be estimated on an
    acreage basis.

    - 5/3 -

    ··-·-·-···-------
    . TABLE 5.1 SERVICE FACTORS

    Urban Rural
    State 1985 ·1993 2000 1985 2000 2008

    Joh or 0.92 0.99 0.99 0.61 0.78 0.85


    Ke<lah . 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.58 0.92 0.95
    Kelantan 0.65 0.82 0.99 0.30 0.50 0.70

    Mel aka 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.82 0.85 0.95


    N.Sembilan 0.89 0.99 0.99 0.75 0.86 0.95 ·-~:1 w@.·.'.:
    - r11
    Pahang 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.65 0.80 0.90 Ji~:

    Perak:
    Perlis
    P.Pinang
    0.98
    0.93
    0.98
    0.99 ·
    0.99
    0.99
    0.99
    0.99
    0.99
    0.75
    0.50
    0.85
    0.80.
    0.93
    0.87·
    0.90
    0.95
    0.95
    j 11 . liihi

    .. l
    Sa bah 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.38 0.55 0.75 i-
    t
    Sarawak 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.33 0.40 0.70 i
    Selangor 0.95 0.99 0.99 .. . . 0..73. . 0.80 0.90 1 i, .

    Terengganu 0.85 0.92 0.99 0.40 0.82 0.95


    i, iL
    l
    '
    t .

    tr :
    Malaysia 0.93 0.99 0.99 0.58 0.74 0.86

    The following may be used as a guideline for estimating industrial demand:-

    • light industries .· :- 22,000 litres/hectare/day,


    • heavy industries :- 45,000 litres/hectare/day

    5.1.8 ·,. MAXIMUM DAY DEMAND

    The daily demand varies slightly due to the weather and festive seasons. In most states, daily
    water demand increases slightly in the months of January and February. During festive
    seasons, experience has shown that in some urban centres, there is a change in demand due to
    shutting down of factories while there is an increase in demand in rural areas and smaller urban .(
    centres due to people leaving the big urban centres for their home towns or villages. T11e
    maximum day demand is usually expressed as a percentage of the average annual daily supply.
    111e maximum day demand is deemed to be catered for by the provision on design operating
    hours of a treatment plant for an operating period of 16 to 22 hours a day.

    . WI

    .1 ~),:i: ..

    - 5/4 -

    ··--······------------
    m.
    ; 5.1.9 UNACCOUNTED-FOR-WATER (UFW)·
    ...
    .
    .. Unaccounted-for-water (VFW) or non-revenue water (NRW) as it is sometimes called, is the
    .
    difference in quantity between the production and the total of all metered supplies. The main
    ~' components that make up this UFW include leakage in the system, overflow at reservoirs, main
    bursts, unmetered fire fighting use, theft by illegal consumers, malfunction or non-functioning
    of water meters and meter reading irregularities. Except for one or two items, most of the
    causes of UFW losses can be controlled. A percentage of UFW higher than 25% has been
    considered by international lending agencies as high and remedial measures are required to be
    taken to bring this within the acceptable limit A high UFW does not necessarily mean a high
    leakage in the system. Hence it is considered erroneous to allow an assumed VFW as an
    additional water demand when estimating water demand. In the recommendation in paragraph
    5.1.5 on per capita consumption, a reasonable UFW loss of 25% is included.

    5.1.10 UNSATISFIED DEMAND

    Unsatisfied demand means that there are consumers in the area not able to obtain continuous
    supply at satisfactory pressures. This is due either to throttling of supplies in the system or the
    system is not adequate to deliver and dist.Iib.ute water to consumers at satisfactory pressures.
    Often in such a situation, the per capita consumption as reflected in the records is very low. If
    the consumers' demand is satisfactorily met or in other words, there is no unsatisfied demand,
    the per capita consumption would be much higher. .If. the per capita consumptions outlined in
    paragraph 5.1.5 are adopted, then unsatisfied demand is automatically taken care of.
    Estimation of water demand for year zero· using figures given in paragraph 5.1.5 invariably will
    show a higher water demand than existing demand in .year zero. · This jump in demand
    (\
    ~· :
    represents the unsatisfied demand.

    5.2 WATER DEMAND FOR FELDA SUPPLIES-·

    5.2.1 GENERAL

    Water demand is based on planned population to be served as indicated by Felda, per capita
    consumption and other institutional demands .. Planned population to be served is derivedfrom
    the number of settlers and Felda staff families which the scheme is designed to cater for. No
    allowance is made for population growth as the grown-up children of settlers will have to find
    employment outside the scheme and settle down elsewhere. Studies carried OU~ by Felda
    indicate that the population of Feld a villages remain fairly constant over time and that for water
    -supply planning purposes, it is reasonable to assume that the average number of persons in a
    family is 6.3.

    Experience has shown that, in Fe1da villages, there is considerable wastage of water especially
    in the early stages of settlement when water supply is free. For planning purposes a per capita
    I consumption of 180 litres/head/day has been found to be reasonable.
    'l
    Institutional water demand includes those of schools, clinics, markets, of-fices and suraus.

    Note: FELDA :- Federal Land Development Authority

    - 5/5 -

    r·i --- --.- ·-· .. ·---:-~-


    5.2.2 BASIC FORMULA FOR WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION

    The basic formula for water demand estimation in Felda supplies to be used is as follows»

    Water demand = No. of settler and Felda staff families x 6.3 x 180 + institutional demand

    If details of institutional demand required are not indicated by the client Department,
    assumptions will have to be made based on similar schemes previously carried out

    5.3 WATER DEMANDFOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY


    SUPPLIES

    5.3.1 GENERAL

    Regional Development Autority (RDA) urban centres cater for settlers of RDA development
    plantations and sometimes also for settlers of Felda plantations. Infrastructures and amenities
    in RDA urban centres are designed to cater for ari ultimate planned· population. Estimation of
    water demand in· such RDA urban centres should be based on the ultimate population to be
    served and the per capita consumption and also institutional demand. If the population to be
    served includes the Felda population, water demand estimation for the Felcla population should
    be in accordance with Subsection 5.2. In estimating the water demand of the RDA population,
    a per capita consumption of 230 litres/head/day is assumed. Institutional demand should be
    estimated based on actual requirements set out in the town structuralplan 'submitted by RDA.

    5.3.2 BASIC FORMULA FOR WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION

    The basic formula for water demand estimation for RDA supplies is as follows:-

    Water demand = demand by Felda population+ demand by RDA planned


    population+ institutional requirements

    where the RDA water demand = ultimate planned population x 230.

    5.4 - WATER DEMAND FOR HOUSING ESTATES

    5.4.1 GENERAL

    Water demand is based on the number and type of housing units set out in the estate structural
    plan submitted by the housing developer. For planning purposes.the following water demand
    have been agreed to as being reasonable by all the State Water Authorities in Malaysia-

    Low cost houses 910 litres/unit/day


    Single storey terrace houses 1360 litres/unit/day
    Semi-detached/double storey 1590 litres/unit/day
    terrace houses

    Shophouses (2 storey) 2730 litres/unit/day


    Shophouses (3 storey) 4090 litres/unit/day
    Shoph.ouses (4 storey) 4550 litres/unit/day

    - 5/6 ·
    Bungalows/shophouses (single storey) 2270 litres/unit/day
    Light industrial workshop 1590 litres/unit/day .
    Schools 45 litres/head/day.

    5.4.2 BASIC FORMULA FOR WATER DEMAND ESTIMATION

    'The basic formula for water demand estimation for housing estates is as follows:-

    Wat.er demand = summation of demand of each type of unit


    multiplied by the number of units
    ··, . .:.
    ' 5.5 EXAMPLES ON THE USE OF WATER DEMAND FORMULAE

    5.5.1 WATER DEMAND FOR URBAN SUPPLIES

    rooulation oroiectiou
    Assume that from historical data based on previous census and after consultation with the
    Demographic Section of the EPU, the population growth rates for the mukims in the study
    area is as given below:

    Upper limit Lower limit

    Mukirn A 3.0% 1.5%


    Mukirn B 2.8% 1.3%
    MukimC* 2.5% 1.2%

    * Mukim C consists of two distinct areas; one which contains 70% of the population
    where the population growth rate may vary from the upper limit of 2.4% to a lower
    limit of 1.1 % and the other which contains 30% of the population where the population
    growth rate may vary from the upper limit of 2.8% to a lower limit of. 1.3%. Therefore ....
    the weighed average growth rate for Muki.rn C is an upper limit of 2.5% and a lower
    limit of 1.2%.

    It is further assumed that the growth rates are applicable up to the year 2008. Then from the
    formula "P11 :=c Po(l + r)0" of paragraph 5.1.4, population for Mukim A for year 1988 based on
    the upper limit of population growth of 3.0% = 73 (1 + 0.030)8 = 92.5. Thus thefigures in
    Tables 5.2 and 5.3 are calculated.

    I\ .
    I
    I
    t
    \
    l

    I i
    I
    - sn -

    ~-~-----
    TABLE 5.2 - POPULATION FORECAST
    BASED ON UPPER LIJ\1IT
    OF POPULATION GROWfH R.ATE

    population forecast in 1000


    Area 1980* 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

    MukimA 73.0 92.5 107.2 124.3 144.1 167.0


    MukimB 34.0 42.4 48.7 55.9 64.2 73.7
    MukimC 24.0 29.2 33.1 37.4 42.4 47.9

    TABLE 5.3 - POPULATION FORECAST BASED ON LOWER LIMTI'


    OF POPULATION GROWTH RATE

    population forecast in 1000


    Area 1980* 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

    MukimA 73.0 82.2 88.6 95.4 102.8 110.8


    Mukirn B 34.0 37.7 40.2 42.9 . 45.8 48.8
    MukimC 24.0 26.4 28.0 29.7 31.6 33.5

    * population census

    ~uila consumption
    It is assumed that Mukirns A and B are urban while Mukim Cvis largely rural. From analysis of
    existing data, water consumption in Mukims A, B and C arc 200, 190 and 100 litres/head/day
    respectively. However it has been established that the Mukims suffer from water shortage;
    there is a substantial unsatisfied demand in the said Mukirns. Analyses of mukims of similar
    size, stage of developernent, standard of living and type (urban/semi urban/rural) give
    corresponding figures of 260, 260 and 135 litres/head/day. It was decided that the latter
    figures be used in the calculation of water demand for the Mukims in question. Also it is
    envisaged that Mukims A and B would eventually develop into an area like Petaling Jaya in
    Selangor where the per capita consumption is 300 litres/head/day. Mukim C, however, is
    assumed to develop along the lines of Gombak, Kuala Lumpur where the per capita
    consumption is 150 litres/head/day. Table 5.4 below shows the forecast of what the per capita
    consumption is like at 5 year intervals for the 3 Mukims up to the year 2008. Year 1988 is
    assumed to be year zero in the study.

    - 5/8 -
    "':

    TABLE 5.4 - FORECAST OF PER CAPITA WATER CONSUMPTION

    Per capita consumption in litres/head/day


    Area 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

    Muk:imsA &B 260 270 280 290 300


    Muk:im C 135 138 142 146 150

    Service factors
    'The service factors to be used in the calculation of water demand for the 3 Mukirns are as
    given in Table 5.5 below. These service factors have been selected taking into consideration
    the rough guide given in Table 5.1 of paragraph 5.1.6 of these notes (the Mukims are assumed
    to be in Selangor).

    TABLE 5.5 - FORECAST OF SERVICE FACTORS

    Service factors
    Area 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

    . . 0.99 .......
    Mukims A &B 0.97 0.99 0.99 ·0.99
    Mukim C 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.84 ·o.9o

    Water demand
    Knowing the population to be served, the per capita consumption and the service factor, and
    using the formula WdD = (Pn x C x F) + Dn from paragraph 5.1.3 of this Section, the water .
    demand can be calculated; eg. · · · ··

    Water demand for Mukirn A for year 1988 = 92,500 x 260 x 0.97 = 23.3 million litres per
    day (MLD).
    '

    /l
    i
    However in addition to normal development and growth, Mukim A will have a 500 acres light' ·
    industrial estate fully developed by year 1993. Hence, in year 1993,
    'i .

    \i
    1 :
    Water demand.= 107 ,200 x 270 x 0.99 + 500 x 9000 (see paragraph 5.1.7) = 33.2 MLD.
    i~ .

    't
    \
    t

    )
    - 5/9 -

    h . --· . - .... , '


    TABLE 5.6 - WATER DEMAND BASED ON UPPER LIMJT OF
    ~-- POPULATION GROWfH RATE

    Water demand in million litres/day (MLD)


    Area 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

    MwcimA 23.3 33.2 39.0 45.9 54.l


    Mukirn B 10.7 13.0 15.5 18.4 21.9
    Mukirn C 2.9 3.5 4.2 5.2 6.5

    TABLE 5.7 ~ WATER DEMAND BASED ON LOWER LIMIT OF


    POPULATION GROWTH RATE

    .. Water demand in million litres/day (MLD}


    Area 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008

    37.4
    Muk:imA
    MukimB
    20.7
    9.5
    28.2
    10.7
    30.9
    11.9
    34.0
    13.1 14.5" ...
    . 1[p~--
    MukirnC 2.6 3.0 3.3 3.9 4.5

    Based on Tables 5.6 and 5.7 above, two water demand curves can be drawn and the median
    values for water demand given in Table 5.8 below obtained.

    TABLE 5.8 · DESIGN (MEDIAN) WATER DEMAND

    Water demand in million litres/day (MLD)


    Area 1988 1993. · '1998 2003 2008
    ·. . .

    Mukim A 22.0 30.7 35.0 40.0 45.8


    MukimB 10.1 11.9 13.7 15.8 18.2
    MukimC 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.6 5.5

    Total 34.9 45.9 52.5 60.4 69.5

    5.5.2 WATER DEMAND FOR FELDA SlWPLIES


    [

    k given by the Felda authorities, the number of settler and Felda staff families to be catered 1
    for in a regional Fclda water supply scheme is inclicated in Table 5.9 below.

    - 5/10 -
    TABLE 5.9 - NUMBER OF SETTLER AND FELD A STAFF F AMILIBS
    _ ...
    ·-
    No. of No. of : Total
    Scheme settler Felda staff No. of
    families families families

    Village A. 1223 64 1287


    Village B 400 80 480
    J~ Village C 800 80 880
    'l' -

    Felcla however has not given any indication of the public facilities that will be provided in the
    villages. Assume that each village will be provided with the following facilities.

    Public No. Consumption Total


    facilities per unit
    (litres/day) (litre sld_~y)
    (', Ii
    i 'f Primary school 1 23,000 23,000
    [J Secondary school 1 23,000 23,0.00.
    Suran 1 5,000 5,000

    Kindergarten 1 500 500


    Community hall 1 500· 500
    Petrol station 1 500 500

    Women's institute 1 500 500


    Felda office 1 500 500

    PNF 1 500 500


    Clinic 1 500 500
    Co-op 1 500 500

    Total: 55,000

    Using the formula given in paragraph 5.2.2;

    water demand = no. of settler and Felda staff families x 6.3 x 180 + institutional demand
    then water demand for Village A = 1287 x 6.3 x 180 + 55,000
    l .. ,
    = 1.46 + 0.06 = 1.52 MLD

    Hence total water demand is as given in Table 5.10 below.


    li .:

    . \
    i .

    - 5/ 11 -

    ,.......--~-
    \
    ··-- ·---·. ·--------- ---
    . ,. ;

    \.,'
    Ir.
    i~--

    TABLE 5.10 - TOTAL WATER DEMAND

    Schemes Domestic Institutional Total


    demand demand
    (MLD) (MLD) (MLQ.)

    Village A 1.46 0.06 1.52


    Village B 0.54 0.06 0.60
    Village C 1.00 0.06 1.06

    !
    i.
    i, ..
    [
    I

    . -~~
    :.';

    .' i!;
    :

    - 5/12 -
    --·,:;
    _____ ,1.1
    SECTION 6 - WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

    6-.1 ·, OBJECTIVES OF WATER TREATMENT --

    I '. The main objective of treating water intended for public water supplies is to produce a supply
    of water that is chemically and bacteriologically safe for human consumption. The supply must
    also be aesthetically acceptable, free from apparent turbidity, objectionable taste and odour.

    6.2 DRINKING WATER QUALITY TO AIM FOR

    To attain the objectives stated in Sub-section 6.1 above, public water supplies must meet
    certain quality standards. The aim of this Manual is to recommend practices in water treatment ·

    .
    .. plant design which would produce water which conforms to the requirements of the acceptable
    values of Table 3.2 of Section 3 - "Water Quality" .

    6.3 RA\V \VATER QUALITY SUITABLE FOR CONVENTIONAL TREATJ\.'IENT

    Most Malaysian natural waters are not able to conform to the requirements for the acceptable
    values set out in Table 3 .1 without treatment. Thus raw water will need treatment before the
    water can be used for human consumption. Certain of the substances found in raw water are
    very difficult to remove white others may be prohibitively expensive to do so. Further, too
    large quantities of even commonly found substances can add substantially to the cost o.f .
    treatment. Table 3.1 of Section 3 - "Water Quality" provides a guide as to the maximum
    acceptable physical, chemical, radiochemical and microbiological qualities of raw water which
    will be suitable as a source for conventional treatment. In this text, conventional treatment is
    defined as including the processes of screening, grit removal, aeration, coagulation,
    flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, fluoridation, conditioning/pl-I correction and disinfection.

    6.4 WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

    As stated in Sub-section 6.3 above, most Malaysian natural waters need treatment before they
    can be supplied to consumers. The various processes that are commonly used for water
    \. . . treatment in this country are given below. (Table 6.2 at the end of this Sub-section
    ~ summarizes the water treatment processes and the objectives of each process.)
    I
    r. ~
    6.4.1 RAW WATER STORAGE

    The primary function of raw water storage in water treatment is to create favourable
    conditions for self-purification; i .. e. for sedimentation and the reduction of bacteria due to the
    influence of environmental conditions and the chemical action of the oxygen. dissolved in
    water. It aiso heips in smoothening· out fluctuations between the raw water flow and demand
    . ii by acting as a buffer .
    -~
    ;,U.
    !
    l~~- 6.4.2 SCREENING (COARSE AND FINE)
    .11
    ;t.
    One of the more important steps in surface water treatment is the removal of suspended or
    t
    \ floating matter to protect the treatment plant equipment from damage. Since suspended or
    \ .... ·
    e
    ~ floating matter in water may rnnge in size from floating sticks and branches down to very fine
    '! "
    ;
    particles which cause turbidity, it is usual to remove the larger floating solids by simple

    ii
    j - 6/ l -
    l

    ~----·--·
    )
    "straining" by coarse and fine screens, and the suspended matter in the grit chambers and
    sedimentation tanks. Details for the design of screens can be obtained from Section 7 -
    "Intake works, raw water pump sump and raw water pumping mains".

    6.4.3 GRIT REMOVAL

    After screening, the finer but denser, mainly inorganic suspended matter is removed by
    allowing the water to pass slowly through a chamber where it settles down to the bottom; the
    aim being to remove grit so as to prevent wear of machinery and unwanted accumulation of
    heavy inert matter in pump sumps or in flocculation/sedimentation tanks. It is usual to design
    these grit chambers to settle out only those suspended particles that are larger than 0.2 mm in
    diameter and have a specific gravity greater than 2.65. Information on the detailed design of
    grit chambers can be obtained from Section 7 - "Intake works, raw water pump sump and
    raw water pumping mains".

    6.4.4 CHEMICAL PRE-TREATMENT '1%.f

    fi"
    ili

    Chemical pre-treatment is used to· control the growth in water of micro-organisms which
    it·:•.
    release taste- and odour- producing substances or of those organisms which when killed, may t~ ·:
    i
    decompose and produce· taste and odour. The chemical most often utilized for this purpose is
    copper sulphate, in doses ranging from 0.12 mg/I to 0.3 mg/l. The dose required is influenced t
    f
    by the type of organisms and their number, the temperature, alkalinity and carbon dioxide
    content of the water. tt ')ti~
    I
    t
    6.4.5 AERATION t. ~fj
    ! it:,
    ~
    The primary function of aeration in water treatment is to provide oxygen from the atmosphere
    i~
    for the oxidation of dissolved iron and manganese to their insoluble form and to liberate carbon ·'f~:·'
    &:
    dioxide and hydrogen sulphide thereby reducing corrosiveness and removing odour. The other
    benefit of aeration is, it increases the dissolved oxygen content in water thereby causing it to .
    have a sparkling appearance and '.'fresh" taste.
    ..'
    f%.·
    The content of each gas in the atmosphere and in water rs in equilibrium. Gases will be ;.,
    t.
    liberated when their concentration in water is higher than at equilibrium. Conversely, gases ij._\
    will be absorbed by water when their concentration in water is below that at equilibrium.
    These processes of absorption or liberation, called aeration in water treatment, are very slow
    unlesslarge water surfaces arc exposed or unless the water is agitated.

    There are two main aeration methods; water into air and air into water. The water-into-air
    aerator is designed to produce small droplets or thin sheets of water exposed to the
    atmosphere. The air-into-water aerator creates small bubbles of air that rises through the
    water being aerated. Some aerators operate by a combination of both methods. ·

    Cascade aerators arc the most common type of aerators used in water treatment in this country
    due to its simplicity and reliability. However, its relative effectiveness of carbon dioxide
    removal is only 50% as compared to 90% for spray aerators.

    D~tails for the design of aerators can be obtained from Section 8 - "Aerators and mixing
    devices".

    - 6/2 -
    6.4.6 PRE-CHLORINATION

    Pre-chlorination is chlorination prior to filtration. The objectives of pre-chlorination are:-

    1. it allows a prolonged contact period for very effective disinfection of heavily polluted
    waters,

    IL it oxidizes soluble iron and manganese to their insoluble form in order that they may be
    precipitated out,

    11 l. it bleaches colouring matter, and

    !V. it neutralizes free ammonia in the water.

    Pre-chlorination will also prevent the growth of algae in flocculation and sedimentation tanks
    and the chlorine in the settled water wit! destroy slime organisms on the filter media and
    thereby prolonging filter runs. However, pre-chlorination has the major disadvantage of
    requiring more chlorine than post-chlorination and of not being suitable for waters containing a
    high organic content because chlorine reacts with organic matter to produce trihalomethanes
    which are carcinogenic. . Pre-chlorination is not common in Malaysia because of these
    disadvantages.

    6.4.7 CHEMICAL MIXING

    The principal objective of chemical mixing is to obtain rapid and uniform dispersion of a
    chemical throughout the mass of water being treated. Inadequate mixing of coagulant or its
    aid can impair the formation of a good floe in the flocculation tank and would result in poor
    plant performance or wastage of chemicals or both.

    l Mixing can either be by hydraulic or mechanical means. Hydraulic mixing makes use of the
    turbulence created due to the loss of head across an obstruction to flow such as a mix.ing
    flume, orifice plate, taper or weir. Hydraulic mixers are simple, reliable and particularly
    suitable where there is available head. The head loss in such mixing devices is usually between
    0.25m to 0.40m. However, the efficiency of mixing drops if the works throughput varies
    widely or the flow contains clay particles. The most popular device for mixing chemicals in
    treatment plants in Malaysia is the mixing flume.

    Further details on the design of mixing devices can be obtained from Section 8 - "Aerators and
    mixing devices".

    6.4.8 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

    Coagulation and flocculation are principally preparations of a water for sedimentation and
    filtration at economically high rates of flow.

    On mixing of coagulant to water followed by agitation, complex chemical and physicochemical


    reactions occur leading to the formation of microscopic particles, a process called coagulation.

    - 6/3 -
    ·-~

    This is followed by more gentle agitation of the water causing the microscopic particles to
    agglomerate or be flocculated into settleable floe.

    Coagulants used in water treatment normally consist of positive charged ions which work on
    the negative charges of the particles to be removed. Some coagulants· contain ions with more
    positive charges than others. Those consisting of trivalent ions (ions having three positive
    charges, such as aluminium Al" 3 and· iron, FE .. 3) are more effective as coagulants. The most
    commonly used coagulant in water treatment in Malaysia is aluminium sulphate (usually called
    alum, Ali(S04)J Ferric sulphate FEiCS04)3 is also used but less frequently because it is highly
    corrosive and requires special facilities for storage and handling.

    When either of these two coagulants dissolves and ionizes in water, it forms the trivalent ions
    of aluminium (A 1 3) or iron (fE+3 ). These ions react with the alkalinity present naturally in
    +

    the raw water or the alkalinity added to form jelly-like floe particles of aluminium or ferric
    hydroxide. The floe that is formed is made up of small particles (micro floe) which still have a
    positive charge from the coagulant added. They continue to neutralize negatively charged
    particles like those of colour and turbidity. Finally the micro floe particles begin to collide and
    stick together (agglomerate) to form larger settleable floe particles.

    There are many physical and chemical factors that affect the success of a particular coagulant,
    including mixing conditions, pH, alkalinity, turbidity and temperature of the water. The
    optimum pH range for coagulation of turbid waters is usually 5.7 to 6.5. Both alum and ferric
    sulphate are affected by the alkalinity of the raw water. An effective floe will not form if the
    alkalinity in the water is not high enough. Increases in turbidity, temperature and mixing
    energy can also improve coagulation.

    The coagulant and dosage selected for a particular water should be based on the "jar test".
    The "jar test" evaluates the actual performance of different coagulants at various
    concentrations in a particular water. Table 6.1 below shows four common coagulants with
    "typical dosage ranges.

    TABLE 6.1 - COMMON COAGULANTS AND DOSES

    Coagulant Typical Dose Range


    ~

    AJuminium Sulphate, Al2(S04)3 10 - 50


    Ferric Sulphate, Fei(S04)3 IO - 50
    Ferrous Sulphate, FeS04 5 - 25
    Sodium AJuminate, Na Al 02 5 - 30

    Note:
    1. Aluminium sulphate is the most commonly used coagulant in water treatment in
    this country.
    11. Ferric and ferous sulphate are not often used.
    111. Sodium aluminate is added together with alum as a coagulant to reduce the
    .dosage of alum in the treatment of water.

    - 6/4 -
    J
    Most waters in Malaysia have insufficient natural alkali to react with alum. In such cases,
    chemicals are added to react with the alum to form aluminium hydroxide floe. The chemicals
    usually used are ffnie: and sodium carbonate (commonly known as soda ash). However, if the
    alkalinity in the water due to calcium carbonate is less than about 30 mg/I, lime must be used to
    supply the deficiency in calcium. Further, soda ash is more expensive and more corrosive than
    lime, thus is not often used.

    In addition to lime or soda ash, synthetic organic polymers are also used as coagulant aids.
    The advantages of using polymers are:- ·

    1. it improves floe formation, yielding larger, denser floe and reduces sludge considerably,
    11. Jess aluminium/iron coagulant need be used resulting in a saving of chemical costs,
    111. it reduces carry-over of fine floe from the sedimentation tanks,
    iv. it increases filter run and thus plant output, and
    v. residual coagulant in the final effluent is reduced.

    Both anionic and nonionic polymers, in doses of 0.1 mg/l, have proved effective flocculants in
    association with alum.

    The agitation required for flocculation is usually provided by either hydraulic or mechanical
    means. For detailed design of flocculation tanks, refer to Section 9 - "Flocculation and
    sedimentation tanks".

    6.4.9 SEDIMENTATION

    Sedimentation is the process during which settleable floe is deposited and thus reduces the
    amount of suspended particles that must be removed by the filters. Besides removing
    suspended and colloidal matters, it also removes bacteria and viruses. Studies have shown that
    virus removals ranging from 90% to 99% can be achieved in carefully operated coagulation
    and sedimentation systems. However, viruses removed by adsorption on floe in this fashion
    .1
    I are usually not inactivated but remain viable. Thus, the sludge often contain high
    j
    concentrations of enteric viruses and may require further treatment to inactivate or destroy
    them before disposal.

    Basically there are three types of sedimentation processes, namely:-

    i: plain sedimentation - plain sedimentation is the process of letting the suspended solids
    and other impurities in the raw water settle to the bottom of the sedimentation tank by
    gravity alone. No chemicals are added to the water.

    11. chemically assisted sedimentation or clarification - this is a process in which chemicals


    are added to raw water and through thorough mixing, the suspended solids and other
    impurities coaleses or coagulates to form floe which settle to the bottom of the
    sedimentation tank.

    111. sedimentation using contact solid clarifier - chemicals are mixed ii. the primary mixing
    and reaction zone by the swirling action of water created by vanes· attached to the
    1 revolving rotor-impeller and the settling of solids occur at the bottom of the clarifier.

    I l
    !
    - 6/5 -
    In general, the most often used process is chemically assited horizontal flow sedimentation and
    the following explanations are based on that process.

    Water generally flows through a tank as an irregular flow. Thus the intention of sedimentation
    is to create conditions in which the flow is as uniform as possible for a long enough period to·
    permit the maximum practicable amount of floe to be settled before the water reaches the
    outlet end of the tank. The following are the parameters which influence sedimentation:-

    1. size, shape and weight of the floe,


    11. viscosity and temperature of the water,
    m. detention period of the tanks,
    iv. effective depth of the tanks,
    v. their areas,
    vi. surface overflow rate,
    v11. velocity of flow,
    vin. inlet and out let design.

    Floe is light in relation to its size and may be feathery or of pin-head shape, shapes which is not
    conducive to rapid settling. Thus, the aim of flocculation is to produce denser, firmer floe
    which will. settle at · much higher rates. Settling rates are markedly influenced by the
    temperature and hence the viscosity ofwater; for instance the settling rate at 30°C is 2.3 times
    f
    · faster than that at 0°C.
    t.
    j
    The detention period of a tank is the time required to fill the tank and provides a measure of !
    the "flowing through period". In fact, the efficiency of a tank is determined by the ratio of the
    observed "flowing through period" and the theoretical detention period, a ratio known as the *!'
    "efficiency of displacement" which should be at least 30%. The other aspect of the detention
    period of a tank is its depth and surface area. Sedimentation tanks with horizontal flow are
    most effective when their area is as great as possible but there is a practicable limit the depth
    can be reduced to.· In practice, sedimentation tanks are normally not made shallower than
    about 3 metres; shallower tanks would require frequent sludge removal and would present
    prob] ems of scour oft he sett led floe.

    The surface overflow rates of sedimentation tanks arc based on the settling rate of floe. Well
    formed dense floe settles at about 3 m/hour and the surface overflow rate should not exceed
    half this value; that is 1 .5 rn/hour or 36 m3/m2/day. In practice, however, lower rates are
    selected to provide a factor of safety.

    Finally, the velocity of approach to the outlet weirs should be low enough to avoid carrying
    over fine floe on to the filters.

    Information on the detailed design of sedimentation tanks can be found in. Section 9 -
    "Flocculation and sedimentation tanks".

    6.4.10 FJLTRA TION

    Filtration is a process not merely to "strain" out the suspended particles larger than the pores
    between the filter media but also to remove colloidal clay, colouring matter and bacteria that
    are smaller than the pores. The removal of these substances involve complex processes.

    - 6/6 -

    -
    The factors which have a major influence on these processes are>

    1. size and size distribution of the filter media,


    ii. size, shape, weight, and concentration of the suspended particles,
    111. rate of filtration, depth of filter bed, composition of bed and available head loss,
    iv. temperature and viscosity of the water.

    The filter media, being the heart of a treatment plant, must be selected with the greatest care.
    The efficiency of filtration depends to a great extent on the size of grains of the media.
    AJthough a finer media would be more effective in the filtration process, it has a higher
    resistance to the passage of water through it and it cannot be used economically except in slow
    sand filters. Moderately sized media may be used in rapid gravity filter beds but must be
    washed more frequently than coarse filter beds and are more difficult to maintain free of mud
    balls and clogged areas. A filter media is defined by its "effective size"; the "effective size"
    being that size that 10% of the grains by weight are smaller and 90% are larger than it.
    ;·

    I Another characteristic of the filter media that influences its efficiency is the uniformity of the
    J
    size of its grains. Such uniformity is indicated by the "uniformity coefficient", which is the
    ratio of the sieve size passing 60% of the media to the sieve size passing l 0% of it.

    The depth of sand in a filter bed is to provide a factor of safety; the minimum depth being not
    less than 0.6 m.

    The composition of the filter bed also plays an important part in its efficiency. The filter bed
    I may be of single media, double media or even of tri-media depending on the characteristics of
    t '~
    I the settled water. The single media bed is the most common in this country.
    i
    'i.
    I
    I
    Basically, filters can be classified into two main types; namely slow sand filters and rapid
    ;1, gravity filters, with pressure filters being included in the category of rapid gravity filters. Slow
    i sand filters consist of fine sand beds which allow water to flow through at a slow rate with the
    '1. coarser suspended particles being caught on or near the surface of the bed to form a very fine
    j
    f • porous layer having a large total surface area of channels or pores, whereby adsorption of
    l' impurities in the layer and in the underlaying sand is facilitated. The large surface area and
    slow filtration rates ensures surface contact and adsorption. Rapid gravity filters is designed to
    receive coagulated and settled water; adequate pre-treatment, therefore, is essential for
    effective rapid gravity filtration. In these filters colloidal material and bacteria are adsorbed on
    the gelatinous Doc and are removed with the Doc.

    The advantages of slow sand· filters as compared to rapid gravity filtrcs are:-

    1. there is no coagulation facilities,


    ~ ;
    II. equipment is simple, easy to operate and maintain,
    lll. suitable sand is readily obtained,
    IV. the effluent is less corrosive and more uniform in quality than chemically treated water,
    and
    v. they give effective bacterial removal.

    - 6/7 -

    - ... :-... - -· .. ---.-,..;;:, .. ---,--~ .. -·--- -- --·------- ---


    Their disadvantages are as follows:-

    1. they require a larger area and higher capital expenditure,


    11. they are Jess flexible in operation,
    111. they are not suitable for raw waters having turbidities over about 10 NTU for
    prolonged periods, unless pre-treatment will reduce such turbidities in the water,
    iv. they are less effective in removing colour, and
    v. they give poor results with water with high algal content, unless pre-treatment is
    practised.

    In general, the advantages of slow sand filters justify their use for small plants treating
    relatively clear raw waters.

    Details of the design of filters can be obtained from Section 10 - "Filters". 1r •


    t
    16.4.11 ADSORPTION

    Certain colloids with their large surface areas are very effective in adsorbing or adhering to
    molecules of gases or liquids or of dissolved substances with which they come into contact.
    For example, the colloids of activated carbon will adsorb colour colloids, taste and odour
    producing substances.
    '
    ·l
    l
    The activated carbon may be dosed into water as a suspension or the water may be passed
    through beds of granular activated carbon. Unfortunately, granular activated carbon filters are
    costly that the usual pracice is .to use powdered carbon prior to filtration. Application of the
    activated' carbon before coagulation favours floe formation, permits the use of higher doses
    without unduly affecting filter runs, and aids in removing odours from the decomposition of
    sludge in sedimentation· tanks. Application to the settled water, however, may result in cost
    savings as a given amount of carbon is more effective when deposited on the filter media.
    Doses of activated carbon normallyused ..vary from 3 .0 to 15.0 mg/I; the higher doses arc only
    needed during periods of serious taste and odour difficulty.

    6.4.12 FLUORJDATION

    Generally, Malaysian waters do not contain enough fluoride naturally. So fluoridation is used
    to raise the amount of fluoride in public water supplies so that children consuming it will
    develop sound teeth with a high resistance to tooth decay. The aim of fluoridation is to
    ·_[
    maintain a level of about 0.6 to 0.9 mg/I of fluoride in water that is distributed to consumers.

    Sodium fluorides, sodium silicofluoride, fluosilicic acid and ammonium silicoiluoride have been
    used for fluoridation. Fluosilicic acid and ammonium silicofluoride being highly toxic, require
    special handling and thus are not often used. Sodium silicofluoride is cheaper and has a greater
    content of fluoride than sodium fluoride and is thus the chemical of choice for fluoridation in
    Malaysia.

    - 6/8 -

    · '[
    '
    6.4.13 DISINFECTION

    In the disinfection of water, the objective is to destroy bacteria through the germicidal effects
    of a disinfectant. Gaseous chlorine or chlorine compounds are almost universally used in the
    !i .
    disinfection of public water supplies because of the limitations of other methods like ozone
    ma;
    ···--i

    bromine and ultraviolet light. However, for certain heavily polluted raw waters, ozone
    :;"j
    e- have to be used even though it is much more expensive and the process for its production is
    complex.

    With chlorination, the free residual chlorine is the more active disinfectant. Thus, the chlorine
    dose should be sufficient to react with the organic substances, ammonia, iron, manganese and
    other reduced substances in the water and at the same time leave sufficient excess for it to be
    uncombined, that is as free chlorine. In Malaysian practice, it is usual for the free residual
    chlorine in reticulation systems to be a minimum of 0.2 rng/1. The other aspect of chlorination
    to be aware of is that there must be adequate time of contact for the chlorine to interreact with
    the constituents in water. The minimum theoretical contact period is l O to 15 minutes but the
    usual practice is to allow at least half an hour.

    6.4.14 CONDITIONING

    Basically, the aim of conditioning is to deposit a protective coating on metal pipes, fittings and
    ~ ...
    ~ ·,Ir
    .c plumbing to prevent corrosion and, on AC. pipes and the concrete linings of steel or ductile
    ;:
    :
    ,':
    ~ iron pipes, to prevent the leaching of lime from cement. The three methods of doing this is by
    j the use of sodium hexametaphosphate, sodium silicate and lime or soda ash.
    method which produces a carbonate coating, is the most favoured one.
    The lime/soda ash
    ·~"":-
    1
    1j
    ...
    e- In the lime/soda ash method, the pH and alkalinity of the water is adjusted by the addition of

    n
    <>
    lime or less frequently soda ash, to slightly beyond the calcium carbonate equilibrium value of
    the water so that calcium/sodium carbonate is formed on the surface to be protected .

    . . 6..4.lS . .SUMMARY

    The water treatment processes discussed above and the objectives of each process are
    summarized in Table 6.2 below.

    - 6/9 -
    TABLE 6.2 - WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

    Process Objective

    Raw water storage To aid sedimentation, to reduce bacteria and to help in


    smoothening out fluctuations between the raw water flow
    and demand by acting as a buffer.

    Screening - coarse To remove floating debris such as twigs, leaves and even
    animals that can foul or damage equipment, from entering

    - fine To remove aquatic plants and small debris that can clog or
    foul other processes.

    Grit removal To remove grit so as to prevent wear of machinery and


    unwanted accumulation of heavy inert matter.

    Chemical pre-treatment To dontrol the growth of micro-organisms that affect taste, it


    odour and colour.

    Aeration To provide oxygen for the oxidisation of dissolved iron and


    l
    j
    i
    manganese to their insoluble form, to liberate dissolved gases l
    like carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide and thus reducing
    corrosiveness and removing odour and to increase oxygen
    content thereby imparting a sparkling appearance and a
    "fresh" taste to water.

    Pre-chlorination To .. reduce... bacteria. in highly polluted raw water, to


    precipitate dissolved iron arid manganese in raw water, to
    prevent algae growth in sedimentation and filter tanks, to
    neutralize excess ammonia content and finally, to destroy
    slime organisms on filter sand thereby prolonging filter runs.

    However; pre-chlorination should be avoided if a raw water


    contains high organic content because chlorine reacts with
    organic matter ( decayed vegetation) to produce
    trihalorncthancs which arc carcinogenic.

    Chemical mixing To disperse coagulant and coagulant aids evenly throughout


    the water.

    Coagulation and flocculation To prepare a water for sedimentation and filtration at


    economically high rates of flow by agglomerating suspended
    particles and colloids into settleable floe.

    Sedimentation To remove settleable particles, bacteria and viruses.

    Filtration To remove finely divided particles, carry over floe and


    micro-organisms.

    - 6/10 -
    Process Objective

    J{ Adsorption To remove colour, taste and odour from water when their
    presence is so excessive that conventional treatment will not
    suffice.

    :1
    'I
    Fluoridation To raise the amount of fluoride in water so that children
    consuming it will develop sound teeth with a high resistance
    ;
    .. I
    . to decay.
    .I
    . l
    )
    Disinfection To kill micro-organisms which still rernam in water after
    filtration.

    Conditioning To deposit a protective coating on pipes, fittings and


    plumbing to prevent corrosion of metal pipes and fittings and
    '.
    •:
    to prevent the leaching of lime from the cement of A.C. pipes
    and the concrete linings of steel and ductile iron pipes and
    ~.' fittings.

    ',.
    6.5 SELECTION OF TREATMENT PROCESSES

    The treatment processes a water undergoes before it can be used for public water supplies
    must be based on the substances/elements it contains. The type and range of values of these
    substances/elements and their suitable treatment should be studied over a number of years so
    that seasonal and yearly variations would be revealed and accounted for.
    ····· , ... "

    The studies the water should be subjected to, preferably at two weekly intervals and on all
    days/periods of abnormal weather, are:-

    1. chemical and bacteriological analysis of samples of the raw water,

    II. after some preliminary results from the studies mentioned in (i) above have been
    obtained, tentative treatment processes for the raw water are selected. These processes
    are then tested out on samples of the raw water using the "jar and marble tests".

    However, only pre-chlorination, mixing, adsorption, coagulation, flocculation,


    sedimentation, filtration, disinfection and conditioning can be simulated by the "jar and
    marble tests". The types and approximate range of dosages of chemicals required for
    pre-chlorination, adsorption, coagulation, disinfection and conditioning can be obtained
    from these tests.

    lit. samples of treated water resulting from the studies in (ii) arc tested chemically and
    L biologically for compliance to the requirements of Table 3.2.
    \

    - 6/11 -

    L._·
    The tests specified in (iii) above should be carried out not only on the treated water
    from the "jar test" which appears the clearest and with the most rapid settling .time but
    on, if money permits, especially during the beginning stages of the investigations, the
    treated water from the next three or four "best" tests so as to build up a body of
    knowledge of the water for use during the final decision making.

    Although it should be borne in mind that the simulations of the various processes in the "jar
    and marble tests" are not very precise as these tests are carried out according to a standard
    procedure and not related to the design of the various relevent components of the treatment
    plant, the studies can be used as a basis for the selection of the most economical method of
    treatment that will produce a water complying with the requirements of Table 3.2.

    Having selected the treatment processes required as per paragraph above, the system should be
    compared to the few standard configurations of treatment processes given below that have
    been widely used.

    1. "Chlorination only" system - In this system, the water is subjected to chlorination only
    before it is distributed to the consumers. The chlorination may be by liquid chlorine or
    by chloride of lime.

    This "Chlorination only" system requires that the raw water quality must meet,
    currently and in the foreseeable future, the criteria set for treated water in Table 3.2
    with coliform organisms below 50 MPN/100 ml or that the water is for a temporary
    supply.

    11. "Slow sand filtration" system - This system is used with or without plain sedimentation.
    When a water has a maximum turbidity of less than 10 NTU and coliform organism of
    less than 10 MPN/100 ml, the water may be treated by slow sand filtration only.
    However, if the water is of maximum turbidity ofbetween 10 NIU and 30 NTU,
    coliform organisms of less than 10 l\1PNII 00 ml and BOD less than 2.0 rng/l, then plain
    sedimentation must be added to slow sand filtration for effective treatment of the water.

    Ill. "Conventional treatment" system - This "conventional treatment" system consists of


    aeration, mixing, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, rapid gravity filtration,
    chlorination, conditioning and fluoridation. This system is most suitable for treating
    raw waters which are of quality better than that specified in Table 3 .1 but are not
    suitable to be treated by the systems specified in i. and ii. above.

    Then a decision can be made whether to adopt the standard configurations or amend them to
    suit the results of the study.

    REFERENCES

    Cox, Charles R. (J 964) Operation and Control of Water Treatment Processes. World Health
    Organization.

    McJunkin, F. Eugene (J 982) Water and Human Health. U.S. Agency for International
    Development.

    - 6/J 2 -
    I

    SECTION Z - INTAKE WORKs:·RAW WATER PUMP SUM.£


    AND RAW WATER PUMPING MAIN

    7.1 CRITERIA
    -
    L~
    ;
    7.1.1 QUANTITY OF WATER TO BE ABSTRACTED AT INT AKE

    The quantity of water to be abstracted at an intake for a conventional treatment plant with
    sedimentation tanks and rapid gravity filters depends on.-

    (a) the output required of the treatment plant (Q),


    (b) the water required for in-plant use, usually 5% of the output required of the treatment
    plant, and
    (c) water required for other uses (q); for example water for washing band screeens, water
    for sand ejection, staff quarters, etc.
    (d) a factor of safety for indeterminate factors such as hydraulic structural consideration.
    This should be of the order of 50% of the required output; also allowance which is
    included in the 50% of the required output must be added for pump losses and
    - i
    r ~
    .
    I
    fluctuations (deterioration) after initial services; losses through screens and strainers
    etc.
    ! :
    i :
    i
    Thus, quantity of water to be abstracted at an intake= 1.55Q + q.

    If filter washwatcr and sludge from the sedimentation tanks are treated and the supernatant
    reused, the allowance for water required for in-plant use may be reduced to 2%; hence,

    quantity of water to be abstracted at an intake = 1.52Q + q.

    In general, for smallplants .. the costfor filter washwater recovery outweighs the advantages
    and thus this practice is limited to large scale plants in this country.

    7.1.2 RELIABILITY OF SOURCE

    For a surface water source, the intake should be located such that it can abstract the amount of
    water specified in Paragraph 7 .1.1 above from a 1 in 50 year 7 day minimum flow. The low
    flow computations shall include flow requirements of other users.

    7.1.3 RAwWArERQUALITY

    The quality of water at the proposed intake should be studied over an extended period so that
    seasonal and yearly variations in the quality can be ascertained and accounted for in the design.

    Table 3.1 of Section 3 - Water Quality lists the desirable physical, chemical, radiochemical
    ;
    f
    'i.
    : and microbiological levels of raw water which will be suitable as a source for undergoing
    I
    conventional treatment for potable supply. If the quality of a raw water conforms to the
    ! drinking water quality standard given in paragraph 6.2 of Section 6 - Water Treatment
    \
    lI - 7 /1 - -

    L
    i-- .. ~.. . ....
    ·-:-:--::-,---~--~-.~- ·- ..
    Proce:;ses and it is envisaged that the quality is unlikely to deteriorate due to maximum
    abstraction in the forseeable future, then it can be supplied to consumers, after treatment.

    7.1.4 INTAKE AQUEDUCTS

    Intake aqueducts shall be able to discharge the amounts stated 111 Paragraph 7.l .l ; that is
    1.55Q + q or l.52Q + q as the case may be.

    Open cha1U1els - the design of open channels involves the selection of suitable sectional

    The channel section given below will minimise constructional cost resulting in what is
    commonly known as "the most economic section" /2.. For the given section:

    area of flow (A):= (b + Ny)y,


    wetted perimeter (P) = b + 2y (1 + N2)0.s, and

    the maximum discharge will occur when:

    b + 2Ny = 2y (1 + N2)o.s
    If the channel is rectangular, then N = 0, b = 2y
    When seasonal variation of water level at the intake .is large, a dry weather flow section
    · formed by sheet pile walls or precast "L" sections may be incorporated. This would avoid
    having to lower the whole channel bed. The dry weather flow section should be sized such
    that self cleaning velocity is reached to prevent siltation at low flows.

    The maximum mean velocity of flow in a open channel of concrete or mortar shall be limited
    to ·0.6rn/sec and its minimum to 0.3rn/sec. TI1e velocity should not be too slow (i.e. 0.3m/sec)
    to prevent deposition of sediment and not too fast (i.e. 0.6m/sec) to cause hydraulic instability
    for raw water pumping. The mean velocity of flow is defined as the quantity of flow divided
    by .the area of flow ... The formula used for calculating velocity is Manning's Formula.

    V = m1.P:i1/3.. rn/sec
    n

    where m = hydraulic radius = area of flow


    wetted perimeter

    i = energy gradient, and n is as given in table 7 .1

    Under all conditions, i is the energy loss per metre length and for open channels with very
    small slopes, it may also be defined as the slope of the energy gradient, For uniform flow, i is
    also the drop in the channel per metre of length, or sin 0, and for very small slopes, it becomes
    nearly equal to the slope of the channel, tan 0. 0 is the angle of the channel bottom with the
    horizontal.

    - 7/2 -

    _J 1
    '
    t
    . ····~

    Iable 7.1 ROUGHNESSCOEFFICIENTCn)

    Type of Surface n

    Concrete:
    ~
    -.
    J
    culvert, straight and free of debris 0.011
    culvert, with bends, connections, and some debris 0.013
    cast on steel forms 0.013
    cast on smooth wood forms 0.014
    unfinished, rough wood forms 0.017

    Excavated or dredged channels:


    earth, after weathering, straigth and uniform 0.022
    earth, winding, clean 0.025
    earth bottom, rubble sides 0.030
    L,-~ ......__ ___,
    The bed slope is sometimes constrained by the topography of the land in which the channel is
    r·i . to be constructed.
    i
    I ·,

    ' ~
    ';
    Conduits - the flow in conduits may be under pressure or partially full only and should be at a
    self-cleaning velocity of 0:76- to 0.92m/sec. so that debris and silt cannot be trapped inside.
    When conduits are flowing under pressure, the velocity of flow can be calculated from Hazen-
    William's formula which is:-

    V =:.P.35464 C (D)=(H!L)~
    where V = mean velocity of flowinm/sec,
    ·_-,. C = 105 for reinforced concrete pipes,
    r
    f-,
    D = internal diameter in m,
    H = bead lost in m,
    L:::: distance in m.

    while for partially full flow, Manning's formula should be used.

    If for some reason self-cleansing velocity cannot be attained, pipes of extremely large
    diameters (at least 1 m) should be used so that they are easily accessible for cleaning. Access
    openings at convenient intervals should be provided for access and ventilation during
    maintenance.

    7 .1.5 GRIT CHAM.BER

    The object of grit removal is to eliminate from the raw water the gravel, sand and other

    l mineral particles which would otherwise form deposits in channels and piping, to protect
    pumps and other equipment against abrasion, and to avoid overloading subsequent treatment
    stages ..

    - 7(3 -

    .. . .. -
    , ... _ ....
    For rural water supply schemes in Malaysia, grit chambers are designed based on the following
    criteria»

    a) 111e smallest particle size to be settled is 0.2 mm.

    b) The mean horizontal velocity to be used in calculating the minimum cross-sectional


    area of flow in the grit chamber is between 50% to 60% of the entraining velocity for
    0.2 mm clia. particles. The entrained velocity for 0.2 mm dia. particles (at 30°C water
    temperature) is 0.27 m/sec.

    c) The maximum horizontal velocity to be used in calculating the length of the grit
    chamber is 120% of the mean horizontal velocity adopted in (b) above.

    d) The depth of the minimum cross-sectionof flow will be derived from the 1 in 25 years
    lowest water level.

    e) The length of the forebay will be decided in each case to suit the river bed profile and
    the lowest water level adopted under (d) above.

    · · · · f) · If more than one duty and one standby-pump is to


    be installed in an intake then more
    than one pump may be housed in each pump compartment, which must be properly
    proportioned hydraulically.

    g) If more than one pump is to be housed in a compartment, allowance must be made in


    flow calculations to enable all pumps in that compartment to operate simultaneously.

    h) . The weight of suspended solids which will be actually deposited in the 'grit 'chamber
    shall be assumed at 200 mg per litre of water abstracted by the pumps.

    i) The grit accumulation section of the grit chamber shall have a capacity sufficient to
    hold grit collected over 7 days of 24 hours operation per day.

    7.1.6 FLOATING BOOMS AND SCREENS -r


    Floating booms are provided as a first line of defence against ingress of floating meterials or
    plants entering the intake works. Floating booms may be fabricated from HDPE pipe sections.
    Jf made from other materials, the combined bouyancy of the device should be checked to
    ensure that it floats.

    Bar screens are used:-


    to separate physical solids that are likely to create problems in subsequent treatment
    stages.

    to protect the plant against the entry of large objects likely to cause blockage m
    different parts of the installation.

    - 7 /4 -
    Screens are distinguished by the spacing between the bars as follows:-

    fine screening, with spacing from 3 to l Ornm


    medium screening, with spacing from 10 to 25mm
    coarse screening, with spacing from 50 to 1 OOmm.

    The mechanisation of bar screens does not depend solely upon the size of the plant The need
    to reduce the number of manual cleaning operations may justify the choice of mechanised
    screens.

    Fine screen mesh made of minimum 2 mm diameter stainless steel wire should be fitted to
    frames for ease of removal for cleaning. It is common now in large plants to use one of the
    many proprietary forms of mechanical screens which are constructed on an endless band or
    drum principle and cleaned continuously by combs and jets of water.

    Provision for cleaning coarse screens and removal of debris should be constructed in the form
    of access walkways located 1 metre above normal water level such that personnel can readily
    reach down with rakes and grabs to clear the screens.

    l : . · In general, the average velocity through the bars should lie between 0.60 and 1.00 m/s and
    may rise to 1.20 or 1.40 m/.s at maximum flow. -If the selected minimum flow rate is likely to
    permit settling out in the screen area, stirring or other means should be provided to prevent
    this from happening. Bar screens cause headlosses from 0.05 to 0.15 m (2" to 6").

    7.1.7 PUMP SUCTIONS

    t It is always preferable to site a pW11p so that negative pressures do not develop on the suction
    •;. pipe. ·Negative pressure tends. to ·cause falling pump performance and also prevent the pump
    from automatically primed. In this respect a pump a dry ·in ·weJ.f
    located low enough to have a
    positive pressure on the suction is better than one located above the water level using a
    r ·. footvalve (non-return valve). Where footvalves are installed, they must be of high quality (of
    stainless steel) or be kept well maintained or they may tend to stick. The diameter of pump
    suction pipes is usually larger than the delivery pipe to reduce friction losses. Suction pipes
    should be kept short and airtight Strainers should be specified as having a total area of
    opening at least double that of the suction pipe.

    7.1.8 PU1\1P SUMP VOLUMES

    If the inflow into a pump sump is greater than the pumping rate as is normally the case for
    intakes, from studies of intake pump sumps built previously that are operating successfully, the
    minimum pump sump volume between start and stop levels shall be equal to a detention period
    of 1.5 minutes.

    - 7/5 ·

    I -:-: -~··
    The minimum sump volume for one duty pump (fixed speed) shall be determined from the
    following formula fl.:

    v =I..ili1
    4
    where:

    V = minimum sump volume between start and stop levels,


    T :co cycle time in minutes (time between starts) which should be based on the
    recommended 10 to 15 starts per hour,
    Qp=c: pumping rate.

    AB for a single pump unit, minimum sump volume between start and stop for a multi-pump
    system is as given for one duty pump (fixed speed) but additional capacity is required to allow
    a vertical distance of 150 mm between the start or stop levels of consecutive pumps.

    7 .1.9 RAW WATER PUMPING MAIN

    .. Jn computing the friction loss in raw water pumping mains of sizes less than 600 mm diameter
    ;the 'C' value in Hazen-William's formula to be used should be 125 to 140 for plastic pipes and'
    .: 90 to 110 for steel or ductile iron with cement mortar linings.

    The 'C values should be taken as long term friction factors to allow for siltation and
    deterioration of the mains. For mains 600 mm diameter or larger, the initial 'C value when the ·
    pipes are new can be as high as 140 or more. Hence it would be prudent to use a higher 'C
    value to compute the design flow so that the motor selected would not be undersized. The
    flow should be l.05Q or l.02Q (as the case may be) as per Paragraph 7.1.1 while the
    maximum and minimum allowable flow velocities should be 1.5 and 0.5 m/sec., respectively.
    Velocities of 0.9 to 1.2 m/sec will in general provide an economically sizedmain. Allowance
    for undulations and minor losses should be as in Section 14 - Water Dlstribution Systems,
    7.2 STANDARDS

    Raw water for public water supplies can be classified into two categories; namely surface and
    ground waters.

    7.2.l REQUISil'ES OF SURFACE WATER INTAKES

    111e following are the requisites of surface water intakes»

    a) ability to produce the required amount of water even during the design drought,
    b) built at such a location as will ensure the abstraction of good quality water which shall
    be safe from pollution of any sort. In addition, the location shall be convenient for
    maintenance and shall have enough space for future expansion, if required,
    c) will cause the least possible effect upon the safety of the embankment or upon flood
    flow from the view of water level, amount and condition of the river,

    - 7/6 -

    j,
    d) provisron of instruments for measuring water levels and quantities _and also for
    monitoring water quality if necessary,
    I e) protection from the entry of stray animals and trespassers by the provision of fencing
    and lighting.
    -.1.
    .{ 7.2.2 SITE CONSIDERATIONS FOR RIVER INTAKES

    l Toe choice of a site for an intake is an important part of the scheme. It involves the following
    considerations:-

    a) the site shall be free from change of stream centre, rise or fall in the river bed level with
    a calm and slow flow,
    b) the site and its surrounding shall be of good geological formation and safe from
    landslides and scouring. However, if no better sites can be found, sites of poor
    geological formations may be used but piling, bank and intake toe protection in the
    form of gab ions, metal block pitching or sheet piling have to be used.
    c) the quality of water at the site shall be suitable for the production of potable water,
    shall be safe from pollution and the intrusion of saline water.
    d) the site shall be of easy access . and spacious so that future extensions can be
    accommodated.
    · e) .. · · Iocation of any existing or proposed regulation or diversion structures and/or flood
    mitigation works as these may affect the quantity of water to the intake.
    f) the site shall be as near as possible to power supply source to minimise capital
    contribution to the Electricity Supply Authority (TNB) for cable laying.

    7:2.3 RIVER JNTAKE WORKS

    The design of a satisfactory river intake works -can be surprisingly difficult especially in the
    case of flashy rivers with wide variations in river depths. A conventionalsolutionis to build a
    weir across the river to raise its level, with a gated side intake just upstream. 'The weir is
    normally incorporated with desilting gates in the form of stop logs or penstocks. A large
    diameter concrete by-pass culvert may be placed -paralled to the river to completely by-pass
    flows at the weir. In large rivers weirs become prohibitively costly and other methods are
    . sought.
    I
    i
    \
    t. Given below are the different types of intakes commonly used for drawing water from rivers in
    j Malaysia:-
    i
    l .

    ! a) Side Intake to a Wet Well with Submersible Type Pumps.


    l,

    Side intakes are used for treatment plants of up to very large sizes. The intake structures are
    generally fitted with coarse bar screens. Intakes of plants of capacity greater than 25 .MLD are
    also fitted with finer mesh screens.
    !~. ..
    b) As in (a) above but using other pwnping systems

    ---- -·· ----·----


    r
    ·1-~

    The intakes may be connected to.-

    i) Dry wells located in the riverbank with horizontal or vertical centrifugal pumps located
    below minimum river. water level. Electric motors may be close coupled or with
    extended shafts to place motors above flood level. Switchboards are located above
    flood level
    OR

    ii) Wet wells with vertical turbine pumps with motors and switchgear located above flood
    level.

    Designs shall consider the relative maintenance requirements for systems (a) and (b)(i) I (b)(ii)
    above.

    ••
    if
    r ~-=;

    ;g

    .t

    . ,,
    §.
    '/,i
    ~!i..
    ~'.:

    }f
    .t
    - 7/8 -
    r
    f, MEAN Ar-«JAL
    TRAVELLffi I Al FRAME

    fLCXJO · LEV£L L:
    ( MIN.l

    MEAN ANNUAL
    LOW FLOW SLOT
    LEVEL +~00
    'l
    l 0·
    I()
    4- h
    ::1

    J a,

    1000
    T
    SU0t,€R Sl8LE
    PUMP

    i -.. ·.· . -~ .-.· ..... ·~ .,;..._.

    . . .t' C.L PENSTOCK

    COARSE
    SCREEN--,-,
    PLAN
    (2 ovr r , 2 STANDBY l

    .
    r

    I· L .,jj . Lt.!

    PLAN ( I DUTY, I STAN09Y)

    v : I DUTY, l STANDBY 2'DUTY, 2 STANDBY NOTES;


    t
    "
    /'· '. TYPE FLOW a h d L B h d L
    <M'/l!:) - TIIE INTAKE
    SHOULD BE SITED
    \. IA 0- 50 900 300 115 1200 ON otrrsmt, AND
    •
    .- '
    . END OF BENDS IF .. · · ·
    1B 50- 100 1050 400 -200 2000 1600 300 130 ]300 POSSIBLE .
    ; :
    ~'!' ' lC 100- 150 1250 500 250 2500 1750 400 ]80 1800 - TIIE lITTAKE
    SHOULD DE
    ID 150- 200 1400 500 300 3000 1750 500 235 2400 DESIGNED TO
    RESIST SLIDING,
    IE 200- 300 1750 600 350 3600 OVERTURNING
    ANO FLOTATION
    IF 300- 400 2050 600 400 4100 FORCES
    ..
    JG 400 - 500 2250 650 450 4650

    IH 500- 600 2300 650 500 5000


    - L1 & i_,, TO surr
    .. ., .......
    C,..AJ~
    ---
    IVJ L.05V ,w 550 5500 A5 ron DIMENSIONS or-
    I Dun', I STANDDY PUMP MODEL
    IJ 700- 800 2850 700 575 5350

    IK 800- 900 3050 800 600 6150

    IL 'J(f) -1000 3200 800 · 650 6500

    IM l<J(JJ. J200 3500 1100 700 7150

    IN 1211). 13(}() 000 HOO R60 l\7.:'iO

    FIG. 7J. - SIDE INTAKE WITH SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS

    - ?f) -
    , ..---·-,- Hotor

    Spindle
    De 1 i very -""'f ....._____.c....
    P ipe -~----m __J.+

    ". .{Li? ..

    SIDE INTAKE WITH VERTICAL SPINDLE PUMPS

    (c) COLLECTION WELL

    The wells are approximately 1 min diameter, set in a river bank and fed throughinfiltration
    systems. They are generally used for small supplies and often have a restricted flow during the ifl.! ~

    dry season but have the advantage that the quality of water produced can be better than the
    - i: ~;_;:. i

    liver water. This type of intake has to be sited in an aquifer of good permeability,

    (d) DIRECT PUMPED EXTRACTION FROM THE RIVER

    Centrifugal pumps are located on a river bank above design flood level but with the maximum
    suction lift not more than 4.6 metres and with suction pipe supported by piers in a· suitable part
    of the river channel. This is a simple low cost solution for rivers with little variation in water
    level and where only a small part of the flow is extracted. It is often used for temporary
    intakes.

    A variation of the above is for the pumps to be set on pontoons with flexible short lengths of
    suction and delivery pipes to cater for wide variations in river levels.

    - 7/10 -
    Suction
    Pipe----..!1

    L--1-J
    I (
    , , I

    ~--/
    ~ , ,, ..
    "7,:,-;-oof-r-
    Pump
    Plinth
    Oel ivery
    Pipe

    l nf i ] tr a t 1 on r.--1---- Foo tva l ve and Strainer


    . .. P'ipe,

    COLLECTION WELL INTAKE

    (e) WEIR SET ACROSS A HILL STREAM OR SMALL RIVER.

    This type of intake is suitable for a small stream or river with shallow flow. Water ·is · · · ·
    'I.i extracted, either by pumping or by gravity, from the pond behind it. Generally the intake pipe
    I
    is fitted with a strainer. Grit removal systems are usually included as the ponding allows the
    )l
    coarser grit to be ponding allows the coarser grit to be. settled. Only suitable Tor small
    i supplies.
    :, 7.2.4 COMPONENTS OF A RIVER INTAKE WORKS

    ) The intake works on a river may consist of the following components>

    (a) river bank and intake structure protection,


    (b) provision of a structure across the river to raise the water level,
    (c) intake structure,
    \ (d) aqueducts or suction mains connecting the intake structure to the pump station
    'l
    i structure or sump,
    l . (e) pump station.
    I
    I

    -7/11-

    . ··-· --,_ ~ ....... -.


    7.1.5 and 7 .2.9. They shall be provided in duplicate at all installations; in case this is not
    possible, single chambers should be partitioned by a wall or a bypass be provided.

    The design shall include facilities for removal of silt and 'sand in grit chambers e.g. sand
    pwnps, iso1ating penstocks, access for equipment and trucks.

    7.2.8 AQUEDUCTS CONNECTING THE INTAKE STRUCTURE TO THE PUMP


    SUMP

    An intake aqueduct shall be defined as the artificial channel or pipework that conveys water by
    gravity from the inlet structure to the pump sump. Aqueducts are usually of two types,
    namely open channels and conduits.

    Conduits adequately designed hydraulically are the preferred type to use wherer-

    (a) the aqueducts are sited in a flood or high fluctuating flood level Iocality as silting of an
    open channel would cause problems.

    (b) the geological formation may not be suitable for the deep open cuts or the open cuts
    required may be too wide due to the gentleslopes required.

    The open channels are commonly constructed of concrete of the section as shown in Figure
    7.1 below. The conduits are normally of precast reinforced concrete pipes. If the conduits are
    not designed for self-cleansing velocity then twin conduits are usually provided to allow shut
    down of one for cleaning and maintenance purposes.

    EIGlIBE 7.1

    < JJ"··
    ;
    . fa-~.:.

    '· f/
    ,.;
    !::~

    7.2.9 PUMP SUMP DESIGN

    The design of the pump sump will have a major influence on the arrangement of the pump
    station. It should therefore be:-

    i) .. · Integrated with the total pump station concept


    ii) Hydraulically efficient and matched with pump suction requirements.
    In the design of pump sumps the following factors should be given due considcration.-

    - 7/14 -

    _...
    ·•• --·~ .... -·-""'"~···--·-···"..._., .... .,..,., ._,.• ,r •... -~ ...1 ,, : ,•
    In the design of pump sumps the following factors should be given due consideration.-

    a) pump swnps shall be of such form as will ensure uniform and steady flow with
    maximum average velocities of about 0.6 m/sec. for flow into a pumping station and
    less than 0.3 m/sec. for the approach to bellrnouths,
    b) the kinetic energy associated with changes in level, whether down a slope, step or a
    weir, should be dissipated well away from the final approach to the sumps,
    c) obstructions such as supporting pillars, should be streamlined to obviate flow
    separation near the intake section,
    d) areas where stagnant water occur should be filled in,
    e) pump sumps shall preferably be sized and arranged to allow each pump sump to be
    isolated for cleaning and maintenance without interruping the normal production of the
    pumping station; the minimum number of sumps being two,
    f) pump sumps shall be built as near the pumps as possible to shorten suction piping with
    minimum number of bends so as to reduce suction losses and may be jointed or
    separated from the intake structure; where horizontal bends are used in the suction
    pipework for double suction centrifugal pumps, a .minimum straight length of five (5)
    times the suction diameter shall be allowed for flow straightening to ensure even
    distribution of inflow to the pump suction,
    g) screens and grit ch<tffi.l)er:s should be provided to ensure longer pump life, the screens
    also serving as flow straightening screens,
    h) adequate lifting equipment should be provided to facilitate operation and maintenance.
    In this connection note that only if submersible pumps of less than 0.5 tonne and
    temporary structures are concerned can 'A' frames be used; in all other cases, monorail
    or gantry cranes have to be provided,
    • i) horizontal sections of suction piping should have a slight upward slope to the pump to
    . ~
    )
    avoid air pockets with flange type joints being recommended,
    i. j
    j) pump sumps should be of reinforced concrete and designed to BS 8007.
    1
    '· Further details on the design of pump sumps are given in Appendix. 7. l.

    7 .2.10 RA w WATER PUMPING l\1AINS

    Raw water pumping mains are usually of concrete lined steel or ductile iron or suitable PE.
    Alignment, depth of cover, provision and use of fittings etc. should be as in Section 14 - Water
    Distribution Systems. Sluice or butterfly valves used to isolate sections of raw water pipelines
    are spaced at greater-intervals than that on treated water pipelines; the spacing depending on
    the size and length of the raw water main but in any case should not be more th::1,! S k!:! ~ra:-t.
    An isolating valve shall also be provided in the main delivery pipework at the pumping station
    to facilitate maintenance work on the station pipework.

    7.2.11 REQUISffES OF GROUND WATER ABSTRACTION POINTS

    The following are the requisites of ground water abstraction points'-

    , . (a) ability to produce the required arnount of water over the long term,

    -7/15-

    ·- . ---..l,- -. ~. ----· --- - . ---~~- ----·-· --


    •, ·-· --- ·-.
    (b) builtat such a location as will ensure the abstraction of good quality water which shall
    be safe from pollution and saline intrusion,
    (c) µovision of instruments for measuring water levels and quantities . and also for
    monitoring water quality if necessary, .
    (d) protection from the entry of stray animals and trespassers by the provision of fencing
    and lighting.

    Further information on ground water can be obtained from Section 4 - Ground Water
    Investieation.

    . .

    - 7/l 6 -

    WiM1 M ¥¥
    REFERENCES
    ,fi
    ~.:.:I
    -- .... ~-

    i
    ..... t-;
    l. Prosser, M. J. The Hydraulic Desieo of Pump Sum,Ds and Intakes. British
    Hydromechanic Research Association, July 1977.

    2. Featherstone, RE. and Nallari, C. Civil Enitineering: Hydraulics - Essential Theory with
    Worked Examples. London: Granada Publishing, 1982.

    3. Japan Water Works Association Design Criteria for Waterworks Facilities. 1978.

    4. AC Twort, FM Law and F W Crowley, Water Supply, 1985.


    I·•.

    \I :'1
    Ii 5. Degrernont, Water Treatmen_t I-i.slndbook, Fifth Edition, 1979,
    i I
    i ;
    \ i 6. Malaysian Rural Water Supply Schemes, JKR Malaysia.
    ,, I .

    )'
    ! :
    l :
    ~

    - 7/17 -

    ~--· ...··~·-~ ... ·,·· ~;-·,··,··:c::...,·-c-:c:- .. --·· •


    APPENDIX 7.1 .

    PUMP SUMP FEATURES


    (Reference: The Hudraulic design of pump
    l
    .e:

    sumps and intakes by M.J. Prosser)

    .GOOD PUMP SUMP DESIGN


    The main aspects of a good, single cell pump sump design are illustrated below:

    1-~
    t
    It
    f
    •
    i
    l
    r

    r
    -IS~~-
    . I
    t D !
    x..,.-1 r-. -+-i
    t
    •t
    t
    •

    (a) bcllmouth near to sump floor; C should be approximately 0.5D to 0.75D. If C is less
    than 0.25D, the flow area under the lip of the bell is less than the flow area into the bell
    and the resulting deceleration causes unsteady flow in the beilmouth. If C is greater
    than D there is a tendency for the upward component of Dow into the bellmouth to
    become unstable and promote swirling flow,
    (b) intake close to rear wall; X should be approximately 0.25 D, t
    (c) flat sump floor',
    .
    (d) width about 2D; up to 3D acceptable,
    (e). · deep water; S large and at least greater than l.5D,
    (f) long approach from upstream obstructions; L large and at least greater than 4D,

    .-
    -7/18 - .
    -t·ir·
    ___Jl
    1 i
    i

    ~ I
    (g) mean approach velocity should be low;
    = Q should be less than 0.3 rn/sec,
    t V
    W(S + C)
    (h) simple or more complex fillets to fill in some of the dead space behind bellmouth,
    Keep distance of rear wall and other fillets from lip of bellmouth (i.e. X, y and Z)
    within the range 0.25D to 0.5D. The proximity of the end and side walls to the
    bellrnouth inhibits the production of swirling flow and vortex.formation.
    ;J
    I • where:
    l ~
    ': 1·
    .r,
    i X = horizontal distance from bellmouth to rear wall,
    j ! C = height of bellmouth above sump floor, for vertical intake,
    S = height of water surface above bellmouth,
    D = bellmouth outer diameter,
    L = sump length, with uniform cross-section; measured from rear wall to first major
    upstream change of cross-section,
    c··~
    j W= lateral width of sump,
    Vn= mean velocity in sump,
    Q = flow rate.

    In addition to the features given above, a good multiple pump ·sump design should conform to
    the following requirements:

    t
    i.
    l .'

    Zone I I I
    .
    j,

    t .: (Hultiple.Pump,
    Open Sump)
    !
    t .

    s
    1 ;

    -7/19-

    r-·-··--··
    For zone 1:

    (a) inlet to sump should be normal to the line of pumps,


    (b) inlet to sump should be along the line of symmetry,
    (c) Vin should be less than 1.2 m/sec.

    For Zone III:

    (a) B should be 2D to 2.SD, although satisfactory conditions can be obtained up to 4D if


    the increased spacing is required for access to the motors,
    . (t)) .. . opensump with some in-filling behind the pumps,
    (c) if the flow distribution is skewed or from the side, and when less than the maximum
    number of pumps are operating, splitters may be necessary. If splitters are to be used,
    E should be not less than 4D.

    where:
    Jr
    B = pump spacing, :.t
    W = width between splitters,
    T = thickness of splitters,
    E = length of splitters.
    UNSATISFACTORY P!.JMP SUMP DESIGN

    Some aspects of geometric design which can lead to poor pump sumps arc summarised below
    and illustrated in Figures 7.2 to 7 .8:

    (a) undersized penstocks and control gates or valves,


    (b) , . , abrupt changes in flow direction (e.g. sharp corners),
    (c) rapidly diverging passages (e.g. cliff users with too large an angle of divergence):
    (d) steep slope,

    - 7/20 -
    .
    J.
    •l,""'''..-,.-Af',n}•,•,••'•·-.--•,•'·('·.-·.,....,\
    (e) weirs with no provision for dissipating the energy of the falling nappe,
    (f) blunt pillars, piers and guide vanes,
    (g) any design, or mode of operation, which leads to asymmetric distribution of the flow
    into the sump,
    (h) inlet to the sump above the water level.

    Items (a), (b), (c), (f) and (g) may cause swirl at the bellrnouth, and in extreme cases may
    result in the formation of air-entraining vortices and submerged vortices. Items (d), (e) and
    (h) can produce aeration, while items (c), (d) and (e) can cause surging within the sump.

    T11e object of a sump and its approaches is to provide storage and good flow conditions to the
    pw11p. If the design incorporates some poor geometric features, undesirable hydraulic
    conditions may occur in the sump, such as those listed below:

    (a) jets (high velocity flows discharging into a stagnant or slowly moving body of similar
    fluid) are particularly undesirable when they impinge on support columns because
    large, unsteady eddies form as downstream wakes,
    (b) regions of separated flow,
    (c) high velocity flows (greater than 2 m/sec.),
    (d) unsteady flow,
    ( ,
    (e) large surface waves,
    I
    I (f) free falling fluid (e.g. the nappe of a weir).
    J
    I ,

    L ._,

    ,~~j
    --@-
    - _._ --

    FIGURE 7.2 - UNSATISFACTORY SUMP, LARGE SUMP


    RELATIVE TO BELLMOlJTH SIZE

    Positioning the intake in the middle of a large sump is not recommended. (However, the
    number of starts per hour may limit the minimum sump size so that a single pump may need a
    large surnp.) A sump which is large in relation to the bcllrnouth diameter is susceptable to
    large scale circulation within the sump with a high degree of swirl at the pump inlet and
    probably result i11 air entrainment due to vortex action.

    -7(21-
    The jets produced by the pipe inlet or pcnstock will cause very uneven flow distribution at the
    bellmouth even though the mean velocity is below the recommended 0.3 rn/sec. The
    bellmouth is correctly sited near the end wall of the sump, but the length is far too short to
    ensure the highly distorted velocity profile produced by the pcnstock will not affect the flow
    into the pump and cause excessive swirl.

    FIGURE 7.3 • UNSATISFACTORY SUMP, HIGH


    VELO CITIES IN JETS

    Pens t ock
    Pens tock
    tt

    -6 --f ~-=--o~I
    ,!~-L

    . . -.&-~--~---. iH
    'The short chamber in the side of a channel will cause violent swirl around the intake bellmouth
    unless Lis greater than 8D. I

    FIGURE 7.4 ~ UNSATISFACTORY SUMP, SIDE OFFTAKE


    . t
    j
    i-
    ~ ~m·
    FROM MAIN CHANNEL 1
    ! i
    ..
    :;-

    ;;;
    ~
    t
    fl

    -->- 0
    1
    . t
    --+---
    il-,;

    - 7/22 -
    The wakes from upstream intakes will have serious effects on the performance -of succeeding
    intakes.

    FIGURE 7.5 - UNSATISFACTORY SUMP, PUMPS IN


    LINE WITH FLOW

    I
    1-----1·-+----~l
    } : v __
    ;

    ---
    {
    I
    ,1.

    (Not recommended unless L > 8D, W > 3D and Vm < 0.3 m/sec.)

    Inlets to the sump in the form of falling jets, either over a weir (a) or over the end of a culvert·
    (b), will entrain air into the sump. If the intake is under the falling jet or close to it, air will
    ' '
    ~ i enter the pump.
    t :
    i
    I, FIGURE 7.6 - UNSATISFACTORY SUMPS, WATER
    FALLING FROM HIGH LEVELS

    l ;
    :i.,;
    I

    rr
    T ~--
    -~
    ...
    l~
    (

    j
    i

    p -- l~-~
    /

    ( 3) (b)

    - 7{13 -
    This shows an attempt to feed flow normally to the line of the pumps. Uniform approach flow
    cannot be achieved with the very wide angle of divergence from the inlet culvert to the sump.

    FIGURE 7.7- UNSATISFACTORY SUMP, LARGE DIVERGENCE


    ANGLE IN APPROACHES TO SUMP

    -$

    Not recommended for 0 > 20°. Side inlets are not recommended. 111e short splitters
    between each pump are not recommended.

    FIGURE 7.8- UNSATISFACTORY SUMP, SIDE INLET


    WITH SHORT SPLITTERS

    I
    .,
    ff
    -T ----,-..
    i·

    ~1 '.
    I
    ~-
    l ]

    ---
    -$- ~ -$- ~ -$- .t

    MQDTFJCATJONS TO JMPRQYE UNSATISFACTORY POMP SUMPS


    There are three courses of action which can be taken to improve an unsatisfactory pump sump
    design:

    (a) .. .increase the submergence. This is the simplest action in principle, but in practice it can
    be very .expcnsivc because it usually means a large increase in excavation and civil

    - 1(24 -
    engineering costs to deepen the sump. In the case of very poor flow conditions to the
    intake, the submergence ratio, S/D may have to be increased may times above the basic
    mnumum.

    (b) reshape the approach flow passages. It is possible to make significant improvements to
    an otherwise poor arrangement arising from a limited site for the pumping station.
    However, it is almost impossible to affect this reshaping without the aid of a hydraulic
    model.

    (c) use anti-vortex devices. Since the first signs of poor sump performance are usually the
    occurances of vortices at the intakes, it is sometimes satisfactory to add anti-vortex
    devices. Cones and splitters placed at the bellmouth can reduce swirl and submerged
    vortices. Grids and extension plates over the intake can reduce the tendency to form
    air entraining vortices. However, great care is needed in the design and specification
    of these devices if they are to be effective. Consultation with the pump manufacturer is
    essential and model tests are probably required.

    - 7/25 -
    :,#.-·,
    SECTION 8 - AERATORS AND MIXlNG DEVICES

    8.1 AERATORS

    8.1.1 GENERAL

    The objectives and theory of aeration, and the constituents of water affected by it are
    discussed in Sub-section 6.4.5 of Section 6 - Water Treatment Processe.s. Further, the criteria
    when a water needs to be aerated is presented in Sub-section 6.5.

    8.1.2 EFFICIBNCY OF AERATION

    The efficiency of aeration depends on the amount of surface contact between air and water,
    (l their time of contact and the type of aerator, and is generally measured by the increase in the
    i }
    ',l concentration of oxygen or by the decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
    I
    ; water. For example, cascade aerators can remove as much as 50% to 60% of carbon dioxide
    present in raw water.

    8.1.3 TYPES OF AERATORS

    As stated in Sub-section 6.4.5, the two main aeration methods are water-into-air and air-into-
    water. However, some aerators operate by a combination of both methods.

    Examples of water-into-air aerators arc:-

    (a) . cascade aerators (single or multiple drop)


    (b) multiple platform aerators, commonly known as circular cascade aerators, and
    (c) spray aerato~s_._ .....

    Raw
    Ila t er

    \Jater

    FIGURE 8.1 - CASCADE AERATOR

    - 8/1 -

    l ---
    \.later
    Basin

    P1atforms

    FIGURE 8.2 · MULTIPLE-PLATFORM AERATOR

    Nozzle
    \.later Nozzles
    Basin--
    \.la 11

    Feeding
    Pipe

    F1GURE 83 ·SPRAY AERATOR

    - 8/2.

    _ ,..; ..,,-.-.•--.·····'""···.-··.,., ,,,.. . ····,··.~···--..·.......c·...,·,,."·»··~ ..;···c..:•"'l


    .
    ,,
    Examples of air-into-water aerators are:-

    (a) venturi aerators, and


    (b) draft tube aerators .

    ... perforated Pipe

    I Air Supp l y

    Throat
    I
    Venturi

    Raw Aerated
    \.later I-later

    FIGURE8.4 - VENTURIAERATOR

    Air

    i
    'I
    -1- Aerated
    '., lfater
    ' 0

    Raw
    ~- \.later
    i
    l .
    \- .;

    i
    FIGURE 8.5 - DRAFT TUBE AERATOR

    \
    ~ - 8{3.

    L
    ;

    '.i
    .
    Examples of combination aerators are>

    (a) mechanical aerators and


    (b) pressure a era tors.

    .r=>»;

    Raw -=*-~
    \.later
    • ,,; Aerated
    \.later

    Mta+ AMtA>a3ii WWXH1MWIC tit(

    FIGURE 8.6 - ROTATING BRUSH

    8.1.4 CffiCULAR CASCADE AERATORS

    111e type of aerator commonly used by JKR is the circular cascade aerator. It is preferred
    because it is simple to operate and easy to keep clean. It is reliable and bas a long service life.
    Though it is not the most efficient, its efficiency is acceptable. · · · ...

    These aerators consist of three circular trays, stacked one above the other, with a central
    vertical feed pipe (see attached Drawing No. PBA. E/13/2/1) with the total height of fall being
    calculated from Garneson's !A formula which is:

    r == l + 0.5(a x b x h)

    where r = the ratio of the oxygen deficit just before the aerator to that just after the aerator.
    The "oxygen deficit" is the difference between the actual oxygen content and the
    equilibrium oxygen content for the water at that temperature and pressure,
    a = 1.25 in slightly polluted water,
    1.00 in moderately polluted water,
    0.85 in sewage effluents,
    b = 1.00 for a free fall weir,
    1.30 for a stepped weir, and
    h = the total height of the fall in metres.

    Water is introduced into the top tray through the central feed pipe and move down successive
    trays. Aeration occurs in the splash area. The collecting basin area is sized according to the
    loading rate of 49,000 litre/hour/m-.

    - 8/4 ~
    i

    l
    t
    (

    'l
    i
    i

    smm~ H

    ' .
    J1\_,_.,
    ' '-'--,.,~_..;.,-~-,,..~-.-r~-n-~-,.-'\./'~{

    .... PLAN
    J h·
    Ol!Al Of A£RATOR

    GEHlRAL ARRANGEMEITT OF AERAlOR


    ANO MIXIH.G flUMf.

    SECIIOH B-8 SE[lJOH C-C

    GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF AERATOR AND MIXING FLUME


    (Adopted from PBA.E/13/2/1)

    - 8/5 -

    -""!""--:--· - .. ·- -.;,··
    A side wall is.built around the collecting basin; the height of the wall being just high enough to
    prevent water from the lowest tray from splashing outside it but not too high as would impede
    ventilation of the splash area. A scour is also provided at the lowest point of the basin for
    cleaning purposes.

    Generally, the head required at a cascade aerator ranges from lm to 3m.

    8.1.5 EXAMPLE ON THE DESIGN OF A CASCADE AERATOR

    From samples taken, the dissolved oxygen content (DO) of a raw water is 4.5 rng/l whereas at
    saturation point at average temperature of 26°C and pressure of 755 mm Hg., the DO is 8.2
    rng/L For treatment requirements it is sufficient to raise the DO to 80% of that at saturation
    condition, ie. 6.56 rng/l,

    Applying Gameson's formula for slightly polluted water and a stepped weir:

    r = 1 + 0.5(a x bx h)

    where r = (8.2 - 4.5) I (8.2 - 6.56) = 2.256,


    a = 1.25
    b = 1.30 1·
    h = fall required in metres.
    i[
    l .
    2.256 = 1 + 0.5(1.25 x 1.3 x h), l
    0.5 (1.25 x 1.3 x h) = 1.256,
    thus, h = 1.55 metres

    The inflow to the aerator is 390,000 litres/hour.


    Taking the flow rate to be 49,000 litres/hour/m- then, the area of the collecting basin of the
    aerator:

    390.000 = 7 .95 m2 = 8 m2
    49,000

    Hence the minimum diameter of the collecting basin of the aerator

    = r _8_xA 1 0.3 = 3.2 m where n = 3.142


    l 3.142 J
    Adopt the aerator from Sg. Rarnbai/Merlimau, Melaka Water Supply Scheme.

    Overflow rate
    ;:: 390.000 x 4 = 44168 litres/hr/m2 (OK)
    3.142 x 3.3532

    · 8/6 -
    8.1.6 SQUARE SINGLE DROP AERATORS

    Single drop cascade aerators have been widely used in a number of treatment plants in this
    country. Where raw water dictates, a triple drop aerator is required these should be specified.
    A carbon dioxide stripper should be specified in lieu of an aerator on groundwater sources if
    free carbon dioxide is in excess of 40 mg/l.

    Table 8.1 below gives the design criteria and types of single drop aerators in use in this
    country.
    ir :!
    1-1-------
    -~1 ·1
    A

    8
    •I I
    E

    '
    rloccuLATOR
    ......
    LIME.
    I SQUARE. NOTCH WEIR

    I i -'"/""\ ,.f,.... ,,c:-L,-r u,,··d 1:c


    ·- - v '-·· ~ ~ . ._...._..._'-J
    t
    I

    vd
    TOP Of
    o
    11
    [L _

    OVERFLOW

    PLAN SE.CTI ON
    ALL DIMENSIONS ARE. INTERNAL

    TYPE LOW FLOW HJGH FLOW .,, ./


    m'/h m'/l1 A B c D II E

    AS 51 - 100 101 - 200 2300 1000 1860 400 1500


    --
    BS 101 - 160 201 - 320 2860 1440 2000 500 1500
    cs 161 -. 250 321 - 500 3600 2000 2190 600 1500
    DS 251 - 400 501 - 800 4600 2880 2200 650 1500
    ES 401 - 600 801 - 1200 .6280 4160 2200 650 1500
    FS 601 - 900 1201 · 1800 8160 5560 2280 700 2000

    DESIGN CRITERIA

    h :! 1000 d ~ 600 Vp = Max, 1.3 m/s Ye "' Max. 0.3 m's I~


    r i1'·

    FLOW OVER WEUl = 20 . JOO mlfhltn


    f
    a) LOW FLOW - FOR WATERS Wffl-102 < 5 mg/1 or iron> 3 mg/L
    '
    "!,· t
    b) HIGH FLOW · FOR WATERS WTill 02 > 5 mg/I or iron < 3 mg/L

    I
    i:
    I
    '!?.·.,

    TABLE 8.1 - SINGLE DROP CASCADE AERATOR


    t,!
    ll1
    :-
    i.i
    - 8/8 -
    I<:
    ~'

    ~..
    , / ...

    8.2 MIXING

    8.2.1 GENERAL

    ~l [ .

    r_.. f
    The objective of chemical mixing and the different types of mixers are discussed in Sub-section
    6.4.7. The types of mixers recommended for use in the different sizes of treatment plants are
    given in Table 8.2 below.

    t··-. IABLE 8.2 - TYPES OF MIXERS AND THEIR USE

    Capacity of plant Mixing Devices

    less than 25.0 ML.D mixing flume


    r
    j 25.0 - 45.0 MLD weir
    r·1 45.0 - 90.0 MLD
    .
    flash mixer
    more than 90.0 MLD mechanical mixer

    8.2.2 MIXU~G FLUME


    i
    I .
    \
    A flume is a constriction in the water channel such that critical flow at the 'throat' of the flume
    ,• is formed. Downstream of the throat the channel reverts to normal size and a small standing
    l
    wave or hydraulic jump is formed, providing the turbulence needed for thorough mixing of the

    \ I
    coagulants.

    ~ The standard JKR design for a mixing flume (Figure 8.7) which is based on a scale model.
    \ I
    .
    Because of the difficulty in reproducing an exact replica· of the throat with the same curvature
    I
    ! !·
    of the model, there is a danger the .dcsired hydraulic jump will not be formed or may be
    i .
    drowned. To avoid such an· occurence, the floor of the flwne is raised to or above the

    l designed water level for the flocculation tanks and the critical depth downstream of the throat
    is obtained by the use of timber stop boards shaved to the required height and placed

    I1,
    downstream of the throat, near the entrance to the flocculation tanks.

    l ·.
    ,;
    ~
    iI
    I

    j
    ! .. :

    \.
    . 8/9 -
    FIGURE 8.7 ~ DESIGN CRITERIA OF A MIXING FLUME

    - 8/10 -
    1
    Jl
    l ' Instead of using the standard JKR design, the prefabricated Parshall Flume may be used which
    l i
    would eliminate the problem of inadequate dimensioning of the standard JKR design.
    Jt
    l i
    ! i 8.2.3 WEffi
    ll
    r 1 Smethurst /J. states that water falling over a weir with a 300 mm overfall will provide adequate
    !r iI
    mixing. However, local practice, as found in the Sernenyih Treatment Plant in Selangor,
    I. requires an overfall of 600 mm to be necessary for good performance.
    !f
    \1
    ' 8.2.4 FLASH MIXER

    The mixing in this type of mixer is obtained by rotating a device with fins as shown in Figure
    8.8 below at a peripheral speed of 1.5 rn/sec. or faster; the value of G required being in the
    range of 3000 to 5000 sec' (formula for calculating the value of G is given in Section 9 -
    Flocculation ancl Sedimentation Tanks). The mixing basin should be so designed (with the use
    of baffles) that there would be no vortexing or rotation of the water nor of short circuiting of
    the flow. The mixing period is from 1 to 5 minutes depending on the quality of the raw water;
    where organic colloids are present in large quantities, mixing should be more thorough while if
    the water contains large sized colloids like clay, a shorter period would suffice. Generally, for
    water requiring good mixing, a one minute mixing period would be adequate.

    This type of mixer has the advantage of being able to change its rate of mixing to suit changes
    in water quality and quantity.

    . ······ .. ,

    FIGURE 8.8 - FLASH MIXER

    . 8/11.
    8.2.5 MECHANICAL MIXER

    Mechanical mixers use diffusion pumps for mixing the coagulants with water. Their basins are
    designed same as those for flash mixers. Figure 8.9 below shows a mechanical mixer, the
    dimensions given illustrate the typical proportions of this type of basin.

    ; 75 Rubber linin~ Pipe


    [Alurninium Sul fate reedin9J

    A'
    8
    .,..
    "'

    7
    ~ 75 Rubber linin9 Pipe
    {Alumln;um Sulfate reed1n9)
    t;.
    !
    i
    •
    i
    t
    r

    2~ I ]700
    ~I
    JOO
    A~A Cross Section
    ( Unit : rm )

    ..
    '
    FIGURE 8.9 - MECHANICAL MIXER
    :·.

    8.2.6 EXAMPLE ON THE DESIGN OF A MIXING FLUME

    Flow in model = 0.0006012 cumecs


    Flow in prototype .1
    ;::::
    0.1059 cumecs !

    Scale factor £ 1.5


    = Qu == 0.1052
    Qm 0.0006012
    == 176
    £ = 176°·4 = 7.911

    - 8/12 -
    fl
    Width of channel · = 0.09525 x 7.911 = 0.754 m
    Height of channel = 0.0762 x 7.911 = 0.603 m
    Minimum length before flume = 0.5334 x 7.911 = 4.22 m
    Minimum length after flume = 0.5334 x 7.911 = 4.22 m
    Upstream length of flume = 0.17656 x 7.911 = 1.40 m
    Downstearn length of flume = 0.1524 x 7.911 = 1.21 m
    Distance of start of flume to throat
    = 0.10036 x 7.911 = 0.79 m
    Length of throat = 0.07 62 x 7 .911 = 0.603 m
    Width of throat = 0.0381 x 7.911 = 0.301 m
    Depth of flow upstream = 0.04445 x 7.911 = 0.352 m
    Variation in height of cill for optimum mixing wave:
    max. height = 0.04445 x 7.911 = 0.352 m
    min. height = 0.0381 x 7.911 = 0.301 m
    '1: For critical flow at the throat,
    i' Q:B. = 1
    f
    I
    : - gA3
    if '' Where A = Bdc
    l
    !! '',. . B = 0.301 m
    i •
    de = critical depth
    i '
    !.! I
    ! de= r 0, 10592 x 0,301 j i.s
    t !
    l
    I, l9.81 x0.30l3 J
    r. : = 0.233
    Vc = critical velocity
    = ..Q. = 0. 1059
    Bdc 0.301 x 0.233
    == 1.51 m/sec

    H= specific head
    = de+ Yr. = 0.233 + Lil.:
    1 2g (2 x 9.81)
    y 0.349 m
    'i
    To find the velocity and depth of flow when water enters the channel:

    v :7. Q H = d + V2 A= Bd
    A 2g

    then H = d + .:i!.
    2gA2
    I .
    0.349 = d + 0, 10592
    2 x 9.81 x (0.754<l)2

    - 8/13 -
    0.349 d2 = d3 + 0.10592
    2 x 9.81 x 0.7542

    By trial and error, d = 0.342 m

    Comparing with the results from the model analysis and similitude>
    Difference in depth = 0.352 - 0.342 = 0.010 .
    Error = .QmQ x 100 = 2.84% (OK)
    C.352

    Inlet velocity = Q = 0.1059


    A 0.754 x 0.342

    8.3 COAGULANT DOSING POINTS

    To ensure efficient mixing, coagulants and their aids must be dosed at the correct points, in the
    correct order and as evenly as possible throughout the body of water.

    The-coagulants should be dosed at:-


    ': ,~!

    (a)
    (b)
    just before the throats of mixing flumes,
    the napes of the overflow of weirs,
    ir
    1 ..
    i

    (c) the inlet chambers of flash mixers, or


    the inlet chambers of mechanical mixers.
    l (#
    (d) l,i

    Generally, if lime or soda ash are used to aid in the production of better floe, these alkalis are
    dosed immediately before the coagulant, However, where a highly coloured water is being
    treated, the coagulant has to be dosed first, the colour complex flocculated and settled, then
    the alkali is added to precipitate out the floe in secondary basins. Polyelectrolytes should
    generally be dosed after coagulation has taken place. j._i.

    uPVC header pipes or stainless steel trough. with perforations or notches along their lengths
    are used for dosing coagulants and their aids to ensure even dosing. If lime is used, however,
    it is preferable for the headers to be halved so that the pipes can easily be cleaned if clogging
    occur.

    - 8/14 -
    REFERENCES

    1. Cox, Charles R. Owration and Control of Water Treatment Geneva: World Health
    Organisation, 1964.

    2. Sanks, Robert L. Water Treatment Plant Design for the Practicing Engineer. Boston:
    Butterworth Publishers, 1978.

    3. Smethurst, George Basic Water Treatment for Application World-Wide. London:


    TI10mas Telford Ltd., 1979.

    4. Twort, A.C. A Textbook of Water Suwly. London: Edward Arnold (Publishers)


    Ltd., 1963.

    ll 5. American Water Works Association. Water Quality and Treatment. McGraw-Hill


    :('\
    Book Company, 1971.

    6. Japan Water Works Association. Desi~n Criteria for Waterworks Facilities. 1978.

    '1. 7. Malaysian· Rural Water Supply Schemes, JKR Malaysia.


    j
    ,( ·.

    . .
    1 '

    ::

    !.. ;

    - 8/15 -

    t"; ·----
    !
    ~··
    -· ~
    I .

    /:·
    SECTION 2 - FLOCCULATION AND SEDIMENTATION TANKS
    9.1 FLOCCULATION TANKS

    9.1.1 GENERAL

    The objective of flocculation is to provide for an increase in the number of contacts between
    :, coagulated particles suspended in water by gentle and prolonged agitation. Agitation results
    in collision of the particles leading to the formation of floe large enough to settle in a
    sedimentation tank.
    t ·,
    !
    j
    !
    :
    9.1.2 VELOCITY GRADIBl\1T
    I '
    \j
    In all flowing or stirred water, differences in velocity and therefore velocity gradients occur
    t"i
    f i from point to point. Because of these clifferences, suspended particles in the water will be
    )
    l :' brought into contact

    Velocity gradients are induced by hydraulic or mechanical means. The common hydraulic
    flocculator is the baffle tank equipped with horizontal or vertical baffles whilst the common
    f.' mechanical device for flocculation is the paddle type which is mounted either horizontally or
    i . vertically in the flocculati.ng chamber.
    ! :
    ~ :

    I
    t ·. The basic principle in the design of flocculation tanks was published by Camp whereby the
    t . total number of particle collisions is proportional to "GT" where "G" is the mean velocity
    gradient (sec+) and T is the hydraulic detention time (seconds). Thus the rate of floe .
    r ; formation is directly. proportional to the "G" value; the larger the velocity gradient the shorter
    r ;
    i : the time required. However, very large values of "G'' may result in excessive shearing forces.
    This may, in fact, tend to shear floe particles, which as they grow larger will become weaker. ,·,
    f Therefore, flocculation should preferably proceed in stages with the values of "G" getting
    ) :
    .,1 lower as the water progresses in the tank. In the paddle-type flocculators this is usually done
    by decreasing paddle velocities through the tank..
    j '
    1 ;
    i i For the common coagulants of aluminium and iron salts the value "G" is usually in the rarige of
    12.5 to 30 sec'. with detention times varying from about 15 to 40 minutes on Malaysian
    I; i . waters. The value of "GT" would then be in the range of 11,250 to 72,000.
    I
    I 9.1.3 DESIGN OF FLOCCULATION TANKS .
    \ .
    f~. .:
    In designing flocculation tanks, several factors should be considered. They are.-

    (a) flexibility which should include alternative flocculant aid application and the capability
    to vary velocity gradient,
    (b) to minimise short circuiting, a minimum of three compartments in series should be
    i provided,
    l '
    (c) type of coagulant(s) used,
    (d) provision of space for future increase in the number of flocculation tanks when
    upgrading the treatment plant, and

    - 9/1 -

    I
    - ~ . ..,._T~-··~:.,:~---:--:-~: --~W'l"7.--- ~-·. - •• -------~---- ---··---
    (e) a minimum of two tanks to be built in any treatment plant

    9.1.4 SIZE AND SHAPE OF FLOCCULATION TANKS

    The size and shape of flocculation tanks are generally determined by the type of flocculation
    selected and the type of sedimentation process adopted downstream. The size of the
    flocculation tank is further determined by the required reaction time and the characteristics of
    the raw water.

    9.!.5 TYPES OF FLOCCl.T.LAT!ON T.A_1'7KS

    The types of flocculation tanks commonly constructed in water treatment plants in this country
    are:-

    (a) baffled channel flocculators which can be of the round-the-end type or the up-and-
    down type, and
    (b). mechanical flocculators.

    Adjustable baffles incorporated in baffled channel flocculators are simple and reliable, and yet
    provide the desired.degree of turbulence.

    Vertical-shaft flocculators should be so situated that they effectively cover the full mixing zone
    of a square or circular shaped mixing tank to achieve maximum efficiency.

    If an up-flow clarifier is selected (e.g. sludge blanket clarifier) the flocculation tank is of a
    cone-shaped frustrum located at the centre of the clarifier. The settling region is an inverted ' .
    ',
    cone shaped frustrum located radially adjacent to the flocculation tank. ' ""3:(
    ;}

    9.1.6 ROUND-THE-END-TYPE BAFFLED FLOCCULATION TANKS

    The round-the-end type baffled flocculation tanks, shown in Figure 9.1, is the most popular
    type of flocculation tanks constructed in this country. ·

    TI1is type of tank is usually sized for detention periods of 20 to 30 minutes depending on the
    quality of raw water. It is an effective flocculation system and capable of producing good floe
    if the flow rate is constant, However, its disadvantage is that it has a higher head. loss
    compared to other types of flocculation tanks. Furthermore, it provides less flexibility for
    control.

    The inlet design for this type of flocculation tank should be such that there is even· distribution
    of flow into each tank. Its inlet velocity should be in the range of 0.24 to 0.30 m/sec. As
    water leaves the flocculation tank, the floe formed must not be broken up and should be
    distributed uniformly into the sedimentation tank. The outlet velocity should not exceed 0.1
    m/sec.
    ' ... ~

    - 9/2 -
    rt
    ' li
    ·············· ··············-·······
    ............... , . .......•. , ••. , .. ..:..• y·--·~-.-.--·-··---~...,.¥
    --
    ............ , .•.,.,,.,-.,,v,,•1;·-.·--···;
    .
    •·
    i.

    I
    ····~
    l ;
    i
    Generally Malaysian surface water flocculators have optimum retention time of 25 minutes
    (1500 secs). The tank is sized to have three staged flow velocities (500 secs, per stage
    retention) and the flowing "G" values are used:

    Stage 1 = 25 sec+
    Stage 2 = 17 .5 sec'
    Stage 3 = 12.5 sec-'

    The three stages can be accornodated in two compartments if required.

    The depth of water in these tanks should not be less than 1 metre otherwise slight changes in
    'i . depth will cause large variations in the velocity of flow.

    Table 9.1 shows dimensions and design criteria for baffle flocculators used in some Malaysian
    rural water supply schemes.

    \' ',
    j .

    I .
    :. i

    , .
    1

    } .

    - 9(3.
    -~----t-------- ---------
    0
    rl ~t. STAGE. Ci.
    -<
    0
    d)
    ul
    w
    Of.
    CH E.}-l:'.l.lJ_ HAR D 'NO O O u,
    BAFflE..S
    _J_
    <
    I
    II
    Ir
    I

    UI
    i
    I
    i
    !

    SE.CTlON

    APPROX. BAFFLE
    H.OW SPACING DESIGN CRITERlA
    TYPE m'Jb A D c D E p

    l 0 · 50 3200 2400 1100 100 115 180 ENERGY GRADIENT -STAGE 1 25 S"'
    1 51 - -?O 3900 1500 1100 - STAGE2 11 s·,
    3 71- 90 4500 2oOO 2100 • STAGE 3 12.5 S•
    4 91- 110 5000 2700 2300 175 130 310
    5 111-130 5300 2900 2300 180 135 315 RFD:NTJONPERSTAGE SOOS
    6 131-150 5500 3100 2400 E should not be gru.L<:t lhAo l.()m
    7 151- 200 6000 3-400 2600
    8 201 • 250 6500 3600 1800 f:.Jcvzuioa of inlct pensrock may be
    9 251. 300 '1100 3800 2900 necessary lo achieve f= discharge
    10 301- 350 noo 4100 2900 340 420 700 con<litioru
    11 351 • 400 8100 4100 3100
    12 ..a,. -4.50 8800 4000 3100
    13 451 · 500 9100 4100 3300
    14 501- 550 9600 4300 3300
    15 .551 • 600 10000 HOO 3400

    TABLE 9.1 - BAFFLE FLOCCULATOR

    - 9/4 ·

    .......•,,•·····~r.-···-··~·,..r-•····-~~-- .. •>""•••:U''t:,-".c.·•,,..,.,.J,>-
    r;·.·.;
    t'
    :r
    !

    ? ··-~

    \
    I. _i

    i
    i .
    ±,i

    I nl et ·F1ow

    f .. ~
    l

    :
    I ;
    .

    Fi rs t
    I
    J
    1
    .:
    Compartment Second
    .. :
    Compartment Third
    ~
    . '
    l

    Outlet Flow

    FIG. 9.1 - PLAN VIEW ROUND-THE-END TYPE FLOCCULATION TANK

    - 9/5 -
    9.1.7 UP-AND-DOWN TYPE BAFFLED FLOCCULATION TANKS

    The up-and-down type of baffled flocculation tanks is almost similar to the round-the-end type
    baffled flocculation tanks except that the water in the up-and-down type flows up and down in
    between baffles.

    Figure 9.2 shows the up-and-down type of flocculation tank. This type of sedimentation tank
    is not popular in this country.

    9.1.8 :MECiiA.i~ICAL FLGCCu'I.,A roas

    The design parameters for mechanical flocculators are the velocity gradient ''G" and the
    hydraulic detention time "T". Representative ''G" values recommended in practice for
    horizontal shaft paddle flocculators and vertical shaft energy flocculators lie between 30 and
    80 sec·l. "G" values can be calculated from the following equation:

    G = f..EJ 0.5
    lvuJ
    .Wpere:-

    p
    = power input
    v = the tank volume
    ·u = absolute viscosity

    Generally, .a. diffuser. wall with numerous openings is required to prevent short circuiting of
    flow in flocculation tanks equipped with mechanical flocculators. To prevent floe breakage
    the flow velocity through the opernings of the wall should not exceed 0.1. m/s and the head
    loss should be about 8rrun. The top of the wall should be slightly submerged so that scum
    docs not accumulate behind the wall. An opening should be allowed below the wall to
    facilitate sludge removal after dcwatering the tank. If the flocculation tank is designed as an
    integral part of the sedimentation tank, the diffuser openings should be provided at the
    common wall between the flocculation and sedimentation tanks to ensure uniform flow
    distribution.
    ,
    .x
    ..

    The different types of mechanical flocculators commonly used are:-

    (a) shaft with paddles,


    (b) turbines, and
    (c) axial flow propellers.

    Shaft with paddles are rotated horizontally or vertically at low speeds of 2 - 15 rpm. Tip
    speed is limited to 0.3 to 0.7 m/sec.

    - 9/6 -
    ·,·[
    Inlet >--
    f":\ r>; r., --- Outlet

    '
    i
    l '

    ·
    l
    (
    1.
    ',
    .... ·-···

    <:» u <:» <:.


    --

    FIG. 9.2 - SECTIONAL VIEW SHOWING UP-AND-DOWN


    TYPE FLOCCULATION/TANK
    Turbines are commonly flat-bladed devices connected to a plate or radius arm. The. plate of
    flat blades is in the plane of the rotating shaft. The blades operate at 10 to 15 rpm with
    maximum peripheral velocities of 0.61 rn/sec for weak floe and 1.2 m/sec for strong floe. It is r:
    found that plate turbines are effective up to velocity gradients of 40 sec-1 but produce high ..
    !

    :.~- ~"'
    velocity currents at "G" values greater than 45 sec-1• Several researchers have found
    device to be the least effective type of mechanical flocculators.
    this
    :t
    Axial flow pro12ellers are shaped like a ship's screw. 111e pitched blades are inclined at 35
    degrees to the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation with a large hub area. The unit may

    rotation of 150 to 1500 rpm for "G" values up to 80 sec'. There is no limit on the tip speed.
    The advantages of these devices are their simplicity in installation and maintenance, and their
    production of uniform turbulence in the flocculator. .JJ
    H
    Figure 9.3 shows sketches of typical mechanical floccnlators.

    Tanks for mechanical flocculators are usually sized for detention periods of 20 to 30 minutes
    depending on the quality of raw water. For mechanical flocculation with rectangular
    horizontal-flow sedimentation tanks, the width of the flocculation tanks should preferably be
    the same as the ~idth of the sedimentation tanks.· · · .. · .. · · · ·

    Although no theoretical relationship exists between flocculation tank; area and water depth for
    optimal flocculation, the tank should not be deeper than S metres. Tanks with depths
    exceeding 5 metres often display unstable flow patterns and poor flocculation.

    Mechanical flocculators have the advantages of flexibility of control, reduction in the amount
    of chemicals required, better floe . formation .if.properly adjusted, and less filter wash required.

    Disadvantages of mechanical flocculators are need of higher skilled operation and


    maintenance, dead spaces in corners and possibility of short circuiting. " w!
    ;: i~
    9.2 SEDTh1ENTATION TANKS

    9.2.l GENERAL

    The objective of sedimentation is to reduce the velocity of flow so as to permit suspended


    solids to settle out of the water by gravity. Its efficiency is related to various factors, i.e.
    loading rate, water quality, temperature, floe size, floe weight, tank currents, etc.
    : ,
    ' . . .,

    111e efficiency of sedimentation is also influenced by the inlet and outlet arrangements to the
    sedimentation tank. Proper distribution of the flocculated water at the inlet and· an efficient
    system to uniformly withdraw water from the clarification zone at the outlet are critical to
    achieve maximum efficiency from the tank.

    Sludge collection and removal should also be incorporated in the design of the sedimentation
    tank.

    - 9/8 -
    i

    H.

    f
    L

    I
    I Longitudjnal Section Gross Section Of Channel
    l. St a tor s No t Shown in Upper
    t

    Half

    (a) Paddle Typ~ with Rotors and Stators

    .;
    l
    i~

    (c) Axial Flow Propeller


    (b) Plate lurbine Type 1 ype 111 th
    Straightening Vanes

    PIG. 93 ~ TYPICAL MECHANICAL FLOCCULATORS

    -9/9-
    Sedimentation tanks can be rectangular, square or circular in shape. 111e most common types .
    are rectangular, and circular with centre feed.

    A minimum of two sedimentation tanks are to be constructed in all treatment plants.

    9.2.2 PRINCIPLES OF HORIZONTAL FLOW SEDIMENTATION TANKS

    Given below are the principles of good sedimentation tank design:

    (a) r~ a ccntinuous flow ~cd.i.iuer,taii0ii. tank, four zones must be present (see fig. ;."+(a)):-

    (i) an inlet zone to disperse influent flow and suspended matter uniformly over the
    cross section of the basin,
    (ii) a settling zone in which settling takes place,
    (iii) an outlet zone in which clarified water is collected uniformly over the cross-
    section of the tank and directed to the outlet conduit, and
    (iv) a sludge zone at the bottom in which the settled solids accumulate and from
    which they are withdrawn for disposal.

    (b) The criteria of settling in a horizontal flow tank are>

    (i) settling rate "S" depends on particle size, shape and mass density (refer to- Figure
    9.4(b)),
    (ii) efficiency of a tank .depends on the surface loading (or overflow rate) "So",
    which is given by "So" = Q/A where Q is the rate of flow and A is the surface
    area,
    (iii) clarification effect depands on-frequency distribution for the settling velocities of
    the suspended particles and the value "So" which can be influenced by the design I. i,
    of the tank, size, shape and mass density of the particles, •
    (iv) efficiency is independent of depth "H" of the tank and of detention time "To",
    and
    (v) particles settle faster with depth due to part of the settling particles coalescing to
    form larger particles which settle at rates higher than the parent particles.

    (c) In an· ideal horizontal flow sedimentation tank, settling is supposed to take· place
    without any influence of the horizontal water movement (Hazen and Camp model -
    concept of overflow rate). In practice, however, horizontal flow sedimentation tanks
    operate at efficiencies less than that for ideal horizontal flow because=
    .
    .1

    i... :~
    "
    -!~

    (i) there is influence by horizontal water movement and transverse velocity components
    whicli'scatter the pathways of discreet particles as shown in Figure 9.4(c), and

    (1.i) some distrubance is always present due to unequal supply of flocculated water causing
    eddying currents, stagnant water, wind induced currents or unequal abstraction of
    .clarified water over the width of the tanks.

    - 9/10 -

    .. ·········~······-· .. · -~~ .......~.·.-..-.···,...,..~.,...,.,,,....


    Settling in a horizontal flow tank has been widely used in this country due to its .simplicity and
    reliability.

    9.2.3 RECTANGULAR HORIZONTAL FLOW SEDIMENTATION TANKS

    Design criteria for rectangular horizontal flow sedimentation tanks arer-

    (a) the over-flow rate ranges from 0.85 to 1.5 m3/m2/hour. However, the rate commonly
    used is 1.5 rn3/m2/hour.
    (b) detention time is generally 4 hours,
    (c) the length to width ratio is between 3 :1 and 5: 1; the preferred one being 4: 1,
    (d) the depth is in the range of 3 to 5 metres,
    (e) a diffuser wall is required at the inlet where the velocity of flow should be not more
    'r
    ,l., (f)
    than 0.1 rn/sec,
    loading of outlet launders should not exceed 8 rn3/hr/m,
    (g) space to be provided for accumulation of sludge should be 10 to 15 percent of the tank
    volume, and
    (h) floor slope is recommended to be 1 :50.

    Figure 9.5 shows a typical rectangular horizontal flowsedimentation tank.

    · 9.2.4 LOV011 TANK


    11

    · This is a modification of the rectangular horizontal flow sedimentation tank, incorporating an


    intermediate slanting slab spanning the whole width of the tank and thus dividing it into a top
    and a bottom compartment.

    Design criteria for "Love" type sedimentation tanks are:-

    (a) 'surface loadingor o·~~~flow rate should not exceed 1.5 m3/m2/hr,
    (b) detention ti.me must not be less than 2 hours,
    (c) length to width ratio is between 2:1 and 4:1,
    (d) the depth recommended is 3 to 5 metres,
    (e) a certain quantity of sludge accumulation (10 to 15 percent of tank capacity) should be
    allowed for in computing the capacity of the tank,
    (f) inlet velocity into the sedimentation tanks should be in the region of 0.1 m/sec whereas
    the outlet weir loading should be about 8 m3/rir/rn,
    (g) the velocity of flow at mid-channelin the bottom half (i.e. the quantity of flow d.ivid~
    by the vertical cross-sectional area of the tank) should not be greater than 0.05m/sec.
    11 In practice, however, 0.03 m/sec is commonly used in design. For the top half,
    \\ 0.04-m/sec is the design velocity.
    I' '
    I~ • ;
    (h) the overflow should be of sufficient size to cope with the overflow rate. The scour
    pipe should be at the deepest point of the tank which is normally located 1/4 to 1/3 of
    the length of the tank from the inlet point and of such diameter that the tank can be
    scoured in 1 hour,

    - 9/11 -

    ·----·
    \
    --·-·
    ...
    l

    (i) the floor slopes towards the inlet end at a gradient of 1 in 18 to 1 in 24. · The
    , Il
    intermediate slanting slab that spans the whole width of the tank rises towards the !
    1
    collecting channel at the same range of gradients. 't

    Figure 9 .6 shows the plan and section of a "Lovo" sedimentation tank attached to a
    flocculation tank of the round-the-end type while Figure 9.7 shows the different types of inlet
    and outlet details of sedimentation tanks.

    .t

    - 9/12 -

    ·iii
    _.iB. l
    1 ~,
    ;

    !;
    .. -·-t1
    -- I
    ,I
    j
    f Q~
    _f7
    ~.-: -...vo
    A

    I 1Q_
    f ~
    1 I
    i•
    •
    ~\
    8
    I
    Y'
    ]71--Q
    __ _._Inlet
    Settling Outlet
    I Zone Zone L Zone
    )
    l

    (aj Rectangular Horizontal Flow Settling Te n];

    {b} Reduction In Overflow Rate By Continuous Horizontal Baffles


    i
    ( '
    i

    (c1 l'atns Traced By Discrete Particles \.11th· Laminar And


    Turbulent Flow
    ;

    I
    !
    I"
    l
    Iti

    FIG. 9.4 - FLOW THROUGH HORIZONTAL TANK

    - 9/13 -

    ---- .......
    Table 9.2 gives the design criteria and dimensions of "Lovo" tanks used m the Maiaysian
    Rural Water Supply Schemes project

    l _JJ. ~
    PLAN L7so w10E
    WALKWAY

    ()

    SECTION
    SWJDGE. DRAIN PlPE. ALL. DIMEJ..!SlONSAAt. J..iTE..RNAL
    1"YPE fl.OW GROSS NET RHEN- GROSS RISE
    m'/b A D c D E F VOLUME VOLUME. .rrou. ... AREA RATE
    rn' - m' h mm
    1 0 - 50 3200 12,800 3700 3060 450 500 111 102 2.04 41 1.22
    2 51 • 70 3900 15,600 3580 2800 450 600 156 ]42 2.03 61 i.is
    3 71 · 90 4500 18,000 3610 2710 450 600 202 184 2.04 81 1.11
    4 91 - 110 5000 20,CXXJ 3650 2650 800 700 249 227 1-06 JOO 1.10
    5 111-130 5300 21,200 3800 2740 800 700 293 267 2.05 112 l.l6
    6 131 • 150 5500 22,CXXJ 4020 2920 goo 800 340 310 2.07 121 1.24
    7 15] - 200 6000 24,000 4380 3180 800 900 449 409 2.05 144 1.39
    8 201- 250 6500 26,000 4640 3340 800 1000 562 512 2.05 169 l.48
    9 25] - 300 7100 28,400 4710 3290 800 l!OO 672 612 2.04 202 1.49
    10 301 - 350 7700 31,000 4850 3300 800 1200 814 744 2.13 239 1.47
    11 351 • 400 noo 32,800 50'.20 3380. 1250 ]200 952 872 2.18 269 1.49
    l2 401. 450 8800 35,200 5250 3490 1250 1300 )149 1059 1.35 310 1.45
    13 451 • 500 9100 36,400 5400 3580 1250 1400 1266 1166 2.33 331 1.51
    14 50] - 550 9600 38,400 5600 3600 1250 1500 1464 1354 2.46 369 l.49
    15 55] - 600 10,000 40,CXXJ 3770 3no 1250 1500 )642 1522 2.54 400 1.50
    B:A = 4.J NOMINAL
    NET VOLUME = GROSSVOLUME-10%SLUD0EALLOWANCE
    RETENTION = NET VOLUME I ri.ow MIN. 2 h =
    DESIGN RJSERATB = MAX. l.5mA,
    CRITERIA WATER VELOCITY INT ANK = MAS. 0.02 m/1
    TANK DRAIN DOWN 11ME = MAXlh
    SLUDOE AUOW ANCI = !2MIN.
    RETENTION AT MAX. FLOW.

    TABLE 9.2 - 'LOVO' SEDIMENTATION TANKS

    - 9/14 ·
    -~
    =1
    ,-
    r

    9.2.5 INCLINED PARALLEL PLATE SETILER OR TUBE


    SETILER SEDIMENTATION TANKS

    Devices with inclined flat plane surfaces are called plate settlers and devices with inclined
    tubes are called tube settlers. The cross-section of the tubes can be square, circular or other
    shapes.

    Plate or tube settlers may be used not only in new plants but also in upgrading old plants by
    increasing the surface settling area of the sedimentation tanks. They must be of movable type
    for ease of maintenance.

    In comparison to horizontal flow tanks, plate or tube settler sedimentation tanks are more
    efficient., much smaller in size, capable of producing better effluent and their operation can be
    I made fully automatic. However, their sludge removal systems must be designed to handle the
    I
    ! . ~
    i ; larger quantities of sludge produced.
    t
    I
    J, There are two types of inclined parallel plate or tube settler sedimentation tanks, namely:-

    (a) horizontal flow type, and


    ! (b) up-flow type.
    i.

    (a) HORIZONTAL FLOW TYPE


    ! .
    Characteristics and advantages of horizontal flow type plate settlers are:-

    (i) the settlers are able to reduce the size of sedimentation tanks substantially,
    (ii) the settlers are made of st.a.in.less steel or uPVC sheets set at intervals of approximately
    -,
    I lOOrrun and at an angle of 60 degrees over the full width of the sedimentation tank in
    } one or more stages forming a. zig-za-g--pattern;-- The sectional water area that flows
    downstream is divided into many narrow paths of water between the· sloping plates,
    ',
    l· thus enhancing laminar flow,
    I. (iii) since the sloping plates are laid parallel with one another as illustrated in Figure 9.8,
    the settling distances between these plates are very short and regular at all locations in
    l; the tank resulting in an improvement in the settling process,
    t (iv) the slits are situated between the upper and lower plates to separate clear water
    creeping up along the bottom face of the sloping plates fromthe sludge which is sliding
    down the upper face,
    (v) baffle walls are provided between the plate settlers and side walls and bottom of the
    i: tank in order to prevent the flocculated water bypassing the sloping plates.

    ! o» UP-IiLOW TYPE

    Characteristics and advantages of up-flow sloping plate settlers are:-

    (i) sedimentation tanks equipped with the up-fl.ow sloping plate settlers can be made
    smaller than conventional tanks,

    - 9/15 -

    i'
    : -------·--··· . ·------ ·•····• ,.-- .. ---
    (ii) since the sloping plates are set over the surface of the settling tank at intervals of about
    lOOrrun and at an angle of 60 degrees, narrow flow paths are made and the effect of
    laminar flow is increased, and
    (iii) since parallel sloping· plates are stacked upon each other, their vertical distances
    (settling distances) are very short and removal of suspended particles is increased.

    Vertical up-flow is more effective than horizontal flow when high turbidity treatment is
    required.

    Figure 9.9 shows a.n up-flow inclined parallel pll!te sedimentation tank,

    (c) DESIGN CRITERIA

    Design criteria for inclined parallel plate settler or tube settler sedimentation tanks are:-

    (i) spacing between the collecting troughs or pipes should not exceed 1.5 metres and the
    head above the weirs or orifices should be at least 50mm to achieve good performance
    in uniform abstraction of settled water,
    (ii) the size of the sedimentation tanks should be of one hour's detention with length to
    width ratio and depth of tank as given in paragraph 9.2.3 for rectangular horizontal
    flow sedimentation tanks,
    (iii) the front one third of the tank is used as a stilling area which allows the coarser
    particles to settle and which ensures that the flow reaching the plates or tubes is
    uniform. The average velocity in the tanks should not exceed 0.6 metres/minute,
    (iv) the time of passage through the inclined plates is between 20 to 40 minutes for plates
    at intervals of lOOmm,
    (v) inclined plates or tubes are generally made of stainless steel or uPVC, .
    (vi) the plates are supported by movable hangars and dog-legged. These plates are set over
    the surface of the sedimentation tanks at intervals of lOOmm at an angle of 60 degrees
    and narow flow paths are made. Laminar flow is enhanced, ·
    (vii) plates should be placed so that their lower ends arc about 1.5 metre above the, floor
    and a low cross wall provided on the tank floor to deflect all flow through the plated
    section,
    (viii) the top of the inclined parallel plates should be located 0.60 to 0.90 metres below the
    water surface, and
    (ix) the loading on the outlet launders should be the same as for rectangular horizontal flow
    sedimentation tanks.

    9.2.6 VERTICAL FLOW SEDIMENTATION TANKS

    This type of sedimentation tanks can be rectangular or circular in plan. Circular tanks arc built
    in sizes up to 30 metres diameter, and has a centrally located compartment incorporating a
    motor driven impeller which draws water into the bottom of the compartment Coagulating
    chemicals are delivered into this central compartment and mixed with recirculated flow.

    - 9/16 -
    ,'' l

    rd'

    •••" .-,····,--·.n··-..··~~-~-··•,-,,,---.-•
    ~"'
    i
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    ·;:,.·,'
    "' ....,,"'
    .0

    .....,::,
    "O
    <{
    ....c
    Cl)
    .µ ::,
    c
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    ::, V1
    ....
    ....
    ~.-,~ . .... L u.J
    '-
    'Li

    GJ

    ....·~
    co"'
    -t---

    I +

    .c
    sr.
    ::,
    0
    ....
    I-

    G
    ·l '

    ::,
    u
    Vl

    3:
    "'
    .....
    x:
    .!I ·o
    LL"
    O'I
    r-«
    u.

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    •• .i

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    :,.
    (1J
    'Ii I
    ...J -.-
    \..
    (lJ
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    QJ
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    0
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    0
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    .µ
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    Q)

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    u

    f[f l
    (I}
    O'I
    "O

    Vl
    ::,
    (I}
    0.
    0.

    FIG. 9.5 - RECTANGULAR HORIZONTAL FLOW


    SEDIMENTATION TANK

    - 9/17 -
    The flow froin the annular central compartment mixes with the settling floe in the settling zone
    and then divides, part flowing upwards to be drawn off into the decanting troughs and part
    flowing downwards and back into the central compartment to remix with the incoming raw
    water. The water flowing upwards separates from the suspended floe particles which settle
    into the recirculated flow.

    Accumulated sludge is concentrated in special compartments formed within the tank below the
    normal level of the floe "blanket". Automatic control of sludge bleed from these
    compartments maintains the mass balance of floe within the tank.

    The advantages of vertical flow sedimentation tanks are economy in size since detention time
    does not exceed 1.5 to 2 hours, and savings due to lower mechanical equipment and piping
    costs.

    Vertical flow sedimentation tanks should be designed for the upward velocity of not more than
    2.5 metre per hour for river waters, or not more than 3 metre per hour for waters from storage
    reservoirs (dams). Tests need to be carried out to determine the actual upward flow velocity
    to be used.

    The disadvantages of this type of tanks are (a) it is only suitable for treating waters of
    consistent quality and (b) it must be operated continuously as intermittent operation will.
    destroy the floe "blanket" on which its operation depends.

    9.2.7 CHOICE OF SEDJMENT ATION TANKS

    The type of sedimentation tanks chosen for a treatment plant depends on various factors which
    are.-

    (a) type of water to be treated,


    (b) where, as in the rural areas, there is ample space in the treatment plant site and land is
    cheap, "Lovo" tanks or rectangular horizontal flow tanks should be used, ··':'::'""'·

    (c) in urban areas where land is expensive or scarce, high rate rectangular tanks with
    inclined parallel plates or tube settlers or other technology may be more suitable,
    (d) where minimum operational maintenance is required especially in remote areas,
    ··;t,.,
    rectangular sedimentation tanks of the "Lovo" type are the most suitable. ~:.:i-.

    9.2.8 SLUDGE HANDLING

    The bottom of sedimentation tanks is either sloped toward a sludge hopper or have no slope,
    depending upon the method of sludge removal. For manual sludge removal systems where
    pressurized water is used for flushing, the bottom slope should be at least 1 :50 to ensure that
    the flushed sludge will flow towards the outlet. Where mechanical sludge scraper equipment
    is used, the bottom slope should be 1 :600 although a flatter slope is permissible. For
    mechanical sludge remover using suction, the entire tank bottom is usually level.

    -9/18- :;-.·;.:·· .,, ·•

    ,.,· .. i}.

    ·-.-;,:. . it,
    ..,,,;;t.•

    •. ·,---,---~··-~~,, .. .,,,-.,4,·· ..• , .... ,....,.,


    I,:.·
    r:::-
    ~·

    ; Mechanical sludge removers should be avoided where possible in sedimentation tanks


    f.; especially in small treatment plants, since labour is cheap and there will be less operational and
    ti maintenance problems.

    However, if mechanical scraper units are to be installed in sedimentation tanks, the tip velocity
    of the scraper should be kept below 0.3 metre/minute to prevent resuspending the settled
    sludge. For suction sludge removal units the velocity can be 1 metre/minute since the problem
    faced is not resuspension of settled sludge but the disruption of the settling process.

    There are many types of mechanical collectors for rectangular and circular sedimentation
    tanks. The mechanical collectors for rectangular tanks are of the following types:

    (a) travelling bridge with sludge scraping and a mechanical cross-collector at the influent
    end of the tank,
    (b) travelling bridge with sludge suction headers and pumps,
    (c) chain and flight (plastic material) collectors, and
    (d) sludge suction headers supported by_ floats and pulled by wires.

    Figure 9.10 shows a travelling bridge sludge collector.

    Operation and maintenance cost is highest for the chain and· flight collectors. However, it is
    one of the most suitable types of sludge removal mechanisms.
    r l
    t . Travelling bridges can span up to 30m and in many cases, the travelling bridge can be used to
    ' span two or three tanks since average tank widths· are about 15 metres in most of the
    treatment plants in this country.

    For each bank of sedimentation tanks of capacity. equal to or greater than 25 mld, a single
    movable sludge scraper should be provided. · · ·· ·

    Both the drain and sludge drawoff pipelines should have a minimum diameter of 150mm to
    prevent clogging problems.

    9.2.9 SLUDGE DISPOSAL

    For treatment plants of capacity greater than 45 mld, lagoons or other methods of sludge
    disposal should be provided. Criteria for selecting and designing sludge lagoons is given in
    Sectir;m 11 - Trea!1T!~·':t P!ant T .av0u~
    i
    '.

    - 9/19 -

    L_
    i
    J
    1
    !i
    !
    I
    !
    !
    j
    i
    '
    l
    Ii

    Out I et Pipe
    Coping Beam Level

    fIcccu l a t t on
    Tank
    Over() o ...
    Slope
    - 1 .rs to J:z4
    ..... _

    Cont r e le
    Pipe

    Sedimentttion T~nk

    ··scour Pipe _:::, --


    !ii.:
    1'.i
    .. ~
    5EC1 ION
    ·~.
    !
    0
    0
    l
    .J
    ~
    /~)

    ··~i
    \(;
    0 .J
    0
    0
    0
    -. _\ ------------
    i
    ~
    l,
    0
    Supporting Brickwall
    0
    0
    ..-! w~
    ;;
    . {~i

    \}---- rl11t.let Pipe lo filter


    Pl All

    ~·,:_

    i l
    . &..'
    .•. ..
    >

    .•.
    i
    '
    I.

    •rl" ~
    I
    *~~:
    :t.-.

    FIG. 9.6 · LOVOTYPE SEDIMENTATION TANK

    - 9{20 -

    ·-·· ,..•. -.-~---~ --~ .... .,.,...,.- .....-,_


    :
    ; r-
    .,
    ·!

    lt
    I
    . I
    I

    ! ' Over flow ~e.i r


    Ov~rflc~ Inlet ~elr

    ·:....
    =-='~.. :_-- : : - -.

    TYP(S Of INLETS FOR S(OIMfNTATIOli TMXS

    . . ...... . . . . .. . ...

    \.eir Plat~

    I
    {,.:
    . ... -':.~- t,"". I r '""" ""
    Hul t Ip l e
    ~:a,:i:r&l'.l:ltfb
    ) Openings

    Outlet Pip~

    OUllfi OfTAllS or S£DIM(li!Al101i TANKS

    FIG. 9.7 - TYPICAL INLET AND OUTLETDETAILS


    OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS

    - 9(21 -
    Clarified Water

    Secondary
    Flow
    Plate

    Settled
    Sludge

    Primary
    Fl ow Is In to

    Sludge

    FIG. 9.8 HORIZO NT AL FLOW INCLINED PARALLEL PLATES

    - 9/22.
    ; l
    i t
    ' f
    1
    'i .
    i :_ ..

    if f~ Troughs

    I 1 I I I H-H-+-1--H I I I I I I I I I I I I I Ii
    t
    ~. ·-',
    '
    ' I~ Sloping Plates

    Cha1n flight Conveyoc

    "I .
    .t

    FIG. 9.9 - SECTIONALVIEWOF AN UP-FLOW JNCLINED


    PARALLEL PLATESEDIMENTATION

    - 9{).3 -

    -
    Drive Pinion
    Drive

    E:rz,(C.("t w/Cord
    St a ln l e s s Steel Cable
    Constant lenslon R•il Stop

    Counter lie lghl


    C,ble H>nger
    S's 1nr.,I ng
    D l s de
    c.,hlr
    1
    Scr,pin9

    Serb pi n9 \I earing 5 tr I ps
    flight

    He l ! th! c•rn~r----

    FIG. 9~10 · ELEVATION OF A TRA YELLING BRIDGE COLLECTOR

    - 9/2A -
    REFERENCES

    Montgomery, James M. Water Treatment Principles and Design. John Wiley & Sons, 1985.
    t
    Sanks, Robert L. Water Treatment Plant Design for the Practising Engin~r. Boston:
    .l Butterworth Publishers, 1978.
    r·: '
    j :
    ' Smethurst, George Basic Water Treatment for Application World-Wide. London: Thomas
    J
    j '
    Telford Ltd., 1979.

    !t Steel, E.W. Water Supply and Sewerage. McGraw Hill Book Company, 1960.
    (
    '
    f
    i '
    . Babbit, Harold E. and Doland, James J. JY.ater Supply Engineering. London: McGraw I-Jill

    ,,.
    t Book Company, 1960.

    1
    l
    i ;
    •
    American Water Works Association. Water Quality and Treatment. McGraw Hill Book
    i
    l Company, 1971.
    I
    i··:.
    Japan Water Works Association. Design Criteria for Waterworks Eacilities. 1978.

    Er, Kiah Choon "TI1e Lovo Tank". Journal of the Institution of Eagineers Malaysia, Dec,
    1980.

    Meijers, Dr. A. P. "Sedimentation and Flotation Workshop on Rehabilitation and Upgrading


    of Water Treatment Works". COCODEV/IWSA - PERPAMSI International Water Supply
    Association, 1988.

    Malaysian Rural Water Supply Schemes, nm. Malaysia.

    - 9!15 -

    --=----·- -- .
    SECTION 10 - FILTERS
    10.1 INTRODUCTION

    Filtration is an important step in the water treatment process. It is usually the last physical
    stage in a treatment cycle.

    For most Malaysian surface water sources which have highly variable changes in turbidityand
    suspended solids content, filtration has to be preceded by clarification or sedimentation with
    chemical coagulation and flocculation .. The turbidity and suspended solids of river sources and
    their variances are usually too high for satisfactory performance with direct filtration.
    However, where rather consistently clean hill sources are obtainable, filtration without
    chemical treatment is being used in some smaller plants such as direct filtration with pressure
    filters and slow sand filters.

    It is important to note that filter performance does not depend only on filter design and co
    proper filter operating procedures but also on the design of components of treatment
    J! processes prior to filtration and the treatment given to the water prior to filtration.

    10.2 OBJECTIVE

    Filtration is a process for separating suspended impurities from water by passage through a
    bed of granular materials - the filter media. In rapid sand or high rate filtration, it is a physical-
    chemical process whilst in slow sand filtration it is a physical-biological process.

    The objective of rapid sand filtration is to reduce to a. negligible amount the suspended
    particles in the raw water or those still remaining in the clarified water. In slow sand filtration
    system, the suspended particles removed include natural suspended matter and micro-
    organisms. In the conventional siltation system, the suspended particles occur in the form of
    residual floes in the settled water carried over from the sedimentation tanks to the filters. In
    direct filtration system using filter aids, the suspended particles occur in the form of micro-
    floes and larger floes formed during flocculation before or within the filter bed. The
    fundamental parameters used to measure the effectiveness of filtration are the turbidity level
    and tile suspended solids of the filtrate. However, only the turbidity level is being measured as
    it is a more convenient method of measurement at the treatment plant Currently, the target
    for drinking water is to aim for an instantaneous turbidity of the final treated water of not
    exceeding 5 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit) and an average turbidity of less than 2
    NTU.

    It is recommended that surface water sources should always be filtered even if the turbidity
    level of raw water for the greater part of the year or that of clarified water is less than 5 N11J.
    This is because of the potential of the turbidity in interfering with the disinfection process.
    Turbidity tends to interfere with formation of disinfectant residuals and shield pathogenic
    organisms from the disinfectant

    The components of the filtration process comprise the filter tank, filter media, filter underdrain
    system and other ancillary equipment necessary to effect filter media cleansing. The objective

    :i
    - 10/l -
    i.

    r-,-,----
    of filter design is to achieve the desired quality objective coupled with economy in overall
    cost, efficiency and ease of operation and maintenance.

    10.3 TYPES OF FILTERS

    Filter types can be classified according to filtration rate, type of filter media or type of
    operation. Classified according to the type of operation, we have:-

    (a) Gravity filters


    (b) Pres~nrf'. filters.

    These types thus classified are also further categorised according _to filtration rates and
    functions as follows:-

    (a) GRAVITY FILTERS

    (i) Slow sand filters


    (ii) Rapid sand filters
    (iii) High rate filtersusing dual or multi-media
    (iv) Roughing filters.

    However, roughing filters are used essentially as a pre-treatment process. The basic function
    is to reduce suspended particulates before proper filtration takes place as is used, for example,
    prior to slow sand filtration. Roughing filters are not covered under this section.

    Figure 10.1 illustrates typical filter media of different types of filters.

    . '(b) PRESSURE FILTERS

    ! .:
    (i) Rapid sand filters
    (u) High rate filters using dual or multi-media.

    There are other types of filters such as upflow and biflow filters. These are not proven and not
    used in Malaysia at the present moment The design criteria and standards on these types of
    filters are therefore not spelt out here.

    10.4 SLOW SAND FILTERS

    Slow sand filters (SSF) work by a combination of straining, adsorption and, more importantly,
    microbiological action.

    The mode of operation is complex but may be briefly described below. In a ripened filter, on
    w
    the top most layer of sand, a film of sticky deposit, the schmutzdecke, acts as a straining mat
    absorbing suspended matter and organic matter consisting of algae, bacteria, protozoa and
    ·t
    plankton. A few millimetres below this, oxidation and decomposition of impurities by micro-
    organisms take place. Further below extending to some 300mm into the bed, a still more
    important action of breakdown of organic matter and destruction of bacteria takes place.

    - 10/2 -
    I

    L~
    (
    r-~I '
    I
    i
    J
    As a result, the suspended matter and bacteria in the water are not only arrested but, to a
    !
    ('-·"),
    certain degree, ammonia nitrogen, taste, odour, iron, manganese, phosphates and phenol can
    t i
    ; l also be removed. A high level of purification is thus obtained. However, reliance should
    \ ! never be placed on any filter for complete bacterial removal, and all waters should be
    disinfected as a routine measure.
    l·1 i i

    1 j
    i 10.4.1 PREREQUISITES
    t
    ~
    1
    1
    i
    '£ In order for slow sand filters to function properly, the quality of raw water fed directly into
    ! !

    SSF or that of the .influent water to SSF after pre-treatment should meet certain conditions.
    These are:-

    (a) Consistently of low turbidities not exceeding 10 NTU. However, occasional turbidities
    of short duration of up to 30 NTU can be tolerated.
    (b) Concentration of plankton algae not exceptionally high as to render filter run of less
    than a month or so.
    : .. ,
    (c) Pollution should be below the level which affects normal functioning of micro-
    i organisms.
    (d) Colour .due to naturally stable compounds should not exceed 5 Hazen units as colour
    i . of th.is nature is not removed at all by SSF. (However on the average 30% of the
    l . natural colour is removed by SSF).
    (e) The suspended solids should not exceed 5mg!litre.

    10.4.2 BASIC COMPONENTS


    ~ :
    ' .
    l( ·;. The basic components of a slow sane! filtration system include the following:-

    (a) Filter tank


    j ;
    j
    l. i
    . (b) Filter sand
    (c) Gravel support bed
    (d) Underdrain system
    (e) Filter pipeworks.

    I .
    Figure 10.2 shows a simplified plan and diagrammatic section through a slow sand filter.
    i
    {
    I.·
    10.4.3 FILTRATION RA TE

    The filtration rate shall be based on the standard of 0.15 to 0.20 m3/m2/h.

    ;
    Filtration rates of as low as 0.05 m3/m2/h and as high as 0.50 m3/m2/h have been successfully
    i used in other countries. Rates approaching these limits should not be used unless test or
    experience with similar water quality have proven to be successful.

    - 10{3 -

    \"------ ·-· -··----- .. -- -- ......... -........ . - --~-------··, . ----·-----·--··. ---


    ~ "c ~c
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    "' ~ ._.;~ ~
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    4

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    4

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    0

    OSP 002 OS• - COi

    '

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    0.
    <
    ct.
    ><-~~~~~~~~~~~+~~
    I
    0001 - 009 OSI - 00! j
    ~
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    .,..
    - !
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    0001 - oos Oo-5 - csr

    FIG. 10.1 ~ COMP AR.ISON BETWEEN 11EDIA OF FILTERS ___Ji

    - 10/4 -
    ~
    r-1
    !' .:

    l.
    !
    l ;
    (

    The slow sand filters are designed for continuous operation, i.e. for 24 hours operating period.
    Should a shorter period be required owing to certain circumstances, the design should provide
    for a small continuous flow to be maintained during the non-operating period to supply the
    necessary nutrients to sustain micro-biological life in the filter.
    'I
    '
    {

    ·.t
    i FIGURE 10.2 - SIMPLIFIED PLAN AND DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION
    ~.!."
    THROllGH A SLOW SAND FJLTER
    I J
    I
    t
    (1
    i
    !
    1 Filter Not In oper•tlon
    In Optrltlon
    r, lor
    Fllttrtn9
    (llter

    i.:i filter Herds Cleaning


    Flo~ Htasvr.,...nt Device
    i
    t
    !i [f fl vent Va Iv e

    i . Main Drain Gra,el Con tro 11 ed io


    t!" M11nta1n Constant
    01 scha r9e
    !
    .i
    !\

    .t 10.4.4 F1LTER TANKS

    '' 111e following design characteristics on filter tanks shall generally be observed.

    r~\
    ,-1 T<>n\- <:h<>~" -
    -
    ..-..O."'t-1)_,..,._._,".)_
    .A-'-"~"6~'1-4-1,
    --- --· 1·-
    (b) Length/breadth ratio = 10: 9 to 10: 6
    (c) Size of filter = 50 to 2000 m2
    (d) No. of units ;;;: 3 minimum

    (e) Material construction == R.C.


    (f) Tank depth =:: 2.5 - 3.0m

    TI1e layout of the filter tanks shall be arranged lengthwise around which adequate space must
    be provided for maintenance.

    - 10/5 -
    TI1e filter tanks shall be located above the 1 in 100 year flood level and the top of the filter
    wall shall be at least 150rnm above general ground level for prevention of inflow of debris and
    polluted water.

    10.4.5 Fil.,TER SAND

    The general design requirements of filter sand shall be as follows:-

    (a) Depth of filter sand = 800 - 1 OOOmm


    (h')
    ,- , Effective size (ES) = C.15 - ~.35;;'u7,
    (c) Uniformity Coefficient (UC) = 2-3
    (d) Acid solubility = 5%
    (e) Specific gravity = 2.55 - 2.65

    Effective Size (ES) is that size for which 10% of the grains are smaller by weight. It is read
    from the sieve analysis curve at the 10% passing point on the curve and is often denoted by
    dw-

    Uniformity Coefficient (UC) is a measure of the size range of the medium. It is the ratio of
    di;ofl10 sizes read from the sieve analysis curve, with d60 being the size for which 60% of the
    grains are smaller by weight
    ..
    The depth of filter sand shall not be reduced to less than 600mm by scraping during operation
    ofthe filters. .

    10.4.6 ·GRAVEL SUPPORT LAYER

    The main function-of the gravel support layer is to support the filter sand. The general
    requirements of the filter gravel layer shall be as follows:-

    (a) Depth of gravel layer = 300 - 500mrn


    (b) Gravel size = ·3-60mm
    (c) Quality :::: hard & rounded

    The filter gravel layer is graded from coarse gravel at the bottom to fine gravel at the top.
    'This layer is laid below the filter sand to support it and to prevent flowing out of the sand
    during filtration.

    10.4.7 FILTER UNDERDRAIN

    The filter underdrain shall be designed to serve the single basic function of uniform collection
    .
    and filtration over the whole surface of the filter bed.
    i.,
    -- '}.;
    ~
    i,.
    The underdrain system generally consists of many lateral uoderdrains delivering filtered water
    from both sides to a central main drain or manifold.

    -~; ffl:
    1 ~~

    - 10/6 - ·. '!
    r
    .i
    4·1
    .......... -------,.---·······.---·~~,.-,.,
    Typical design parameters for the underdrain system are as follows:-

    ,,,

    ('')
    (a) Main drain flow velocity = 0.20m/s max.
    lI '' (b) Lateral drain flow velocity = 0.15m/s max.
    ! .
    i
    1_
    (c) Distance between laterals == 4m max.
    (d) Main drain gradient = 1: 200
    (e) Lateral drain gradient = l : 150

    10.4.8 FILTER FLOW CONTROL AND MEASUREMENT

    Slow sand filters are usually designed for constant rate of filtration. The control of filter flow
    is usually at the filter outlet pipe through a controlling well Flow control can also be
    effectively and easily installed at the inlet to the filters.

    Flow measurement of filter effluent can be carried out by.-

    (a) Venturi meter


    (b) Orifice plate.

    ····, . Flow
    .. . regulating
    '.. valves are used to regulate flow.
    '
    !
    i ;
    The inlet to the filter must ·be provided with valves or penstocks for isolation of flow for
    maintenance purposes.

    10.4.9 FILTER PIPEWORKS


    f
    j The pipeworks to a slow sand filter consist basically of the following:-
    ;
    ;

    .~
    l . ~
    : . . .. . . . .. . . ..
    (a) Inlet pipe to filter
    r· . ~
    (b) Overflow and drain pipe.
    (c) Outlet pipe
    '·1 ·. : (d) Filtrate return pipe.
    i~
    The pipework.s must be designed to meet the following requirements.
    I .
    l
    '! (a) INLET PIPE TO FILTER

    The inlet pipe is commonly installed at one or two entry points per filter. A sluice valve JS
    installed for isolation of flow to the filter.

    111e size of the inlet pipe is designed to limit the velocity to about 0.5m/s. Around the inlet
    area, concrete slab cover is provided to protect the scouring of the sand surface. Other means
    of reducing entrance velocity such as long overflow weir can also be designed.

    - 10(7 -

    l- ·- -··-·-- -·~··----··-···--~~-
    I
    l
    I!
    !

    o» OVERFLOW AND DRAIN PIPE i \


    i
    l
    Normally an overflow pipe is provided in the SSF to prevent any occurrence of overflow.
    l
    The drain pipe is usually installed together with the overflow pipe. The purpose of the drain \
    !
    pipe is to drain the filter water level to below the sand surface for scraping of the soiled sand.
    '
    The size of drain pipe is designed to drain water in about 4 to 6 hours. The drain pipe is
    normally of the same size as the overflow pipe.

    \ c) OUTLET P!PE

    The outlet pipe is designed to limit the outflow velocity to about 1.0m/s. A butterfly valve is
    installed on the outlet pipe for regulation of flow based on the measurement monitored by
    measuring devices stated in 10.4.8.

    (d) Fil .. TRATE RETURN PIPE

    TI1e filtrate return pipe serves return filtered water up to about lOOnun above the sand
    t
    surface through the controlling well after sand scraping work in order to expel trapped air in
    the filter bed before raw .water isreintroduced to the filter.

    By-pass pipe from the adjoining controlling well may be designed to serve this function.
    However, care must be exercised during operation as this may affect the filtration of the filter
    being used to return filtrate to the filter being serviced.

    10.4.10 OPERATION OF VALVES

    'foe operation of valves in 'SSF.k manual -~ line with the simple operation of this type of
    filters .

    . 10.4.11 FILTER INSTRUMENTATION

    Simple instrumentation is required for filter monitoring. These are:- . ·--,;;


    ~
    i~:
    (a) Loss of head indicator
    (b) Rate of flow indicator. ;IB"'
    .; i.·
    The loss of head indicator is useful in determining when filtration is to be stopped and the sand
    surface renewed by scraping the top 10 - 30nun of sand surface.

    Constant rate of flow through the filters can be maintained by constant flow valves or
    manually by regulating valves in conjunction with flow indicators.

    10.5 RAPID SAND F1LTERS

    Rapid sand filters are designed with filtration rates of a much larger magnitude than those of
    slow sand filters, generally about 30 ~ 40 times higher. ... j:
    :ft
    '.JL
    - 10/8 -
    Waters of high or variable turbidity cannot be effectively treated with slow sand filters. Rapid
    sand filters are used instead, preceded usually with treatment of water by chemical
    coagulation, flocculation and clarification. The high solid load in the filters are then removed
    by backwashing. 111e result is a system to deal with variations in the quality of raw water.
    i
    I
    This system of filtration is widely used.
    !.

    \ ,
    l. . In general, the performance of rapid sand filters does not only depend on filter design alone
    ;
    but also on pre-filtration processes and operational parameters .

    'D1e general features of slow and rapid sand filters are tabulated in Table 10.1.

    10.5.1 BASIC COMPONENTS

    The rapid sand filters have almost similar basic components as the slow sand filters though the
    design of these components are different However, there is a fundamental difference in that
    there is a backwashing system for rapid sand filters.

    ( '·
    The basic components include:-
    l
    ; !

    (a) Filter tank


    i[ '.. (b) Filter sand
    .
    i i
    (c) Gravel support bed
    (d) Underdrain system .
    r ,
    ) . (e) Wash water outlet channel
    l : (f) Filtered water channels and pipeworks. ·

    Figure 10.3 shows a simplified sectional elevation through a rapid sand filter.

    ! ) It it common to start design with values that have stood the test of experience and to moclify
    f ..
    i ;
    J
    . these ~ii~~~ in the light of new information and modified objectives.
    Built-in flexibility is an essectial design requirement not only for filters but also other process
    components. This flexibility permits coping with inevitable variances with time on raw water
    quality and facilitates upgrading works of the filters, and other process components, to meet
    ' ' demand. The pipeworks and channels to and from the filters may be designed to cater up to
    '
    about 50% above the normal design requirements to meet this flexibility.

    \ . 10.5.2 FILTRATION RATE


    !
    t .i
    The filtration rate used in normal rapid sand filters is based on the standard of 5 m3/rr?/h. A
    I ' higher rate of up to 7 .5 m3/m2/h is allowed when one of the filters is out for backwashing.
    I.
    A filtration rate higher than 5 m3/m2/h should only be used in upgrading of filters only.

    - lOf) -

    ~------ - -~----· ..·-·-~··-· .. ~--··~···-·.


    Features Slow Sand Filters Rapid Sand Filters

    lute of Filtration 0.15 - 0.20 ml I m1 /hr 5 - 10 ml I m1 /hr.

    Size of bed Large, 50 to 2000 m2 Small, up to 150 m1•

    Depth of bed 300 - 500mm of gravel, 800 to 1000 100 - 450 mm of gravel, WO to 1000
    mm of sand, usually reduced to not mm of sand not reduced by washing.
    less than 600 cm by scraping

    Size of sand Effective sizes 0.25 to 0.35 mm, Effective sizes 0.55 to 0.95mm,
    unifomtity coefficient 2 to 3 uniformity coefficient 1.5 to 1.7.

    Grain size distribution of sand m Unstratified Stratified with smallest or lightest


    filter grains at top and coarsest or
    heaviest
    at bottom.

    Underdrainagc system a. Split tile laterals laid in coarse a. Perforated pipe laterals
    stone Md discharging into tile discharging into pipe mains:
    or coarse main drains b. Falsefloor type, with nozzles;
    b. Perforated pipe laterals c. Many others.
    discharge into pipes mains.

    Loss of head 60 rrirn initial to 12(Xl'riuri final 200 mm initial to 2500 mm final

    Length of run between cleanings · 20 to 360 days 24 to 72 hours

    Process of removal' of suspended Straining, adsorption and. micro- Physical-chemical process


    solids biolo~ical process.

    Method of cleaning media Scraping off surface layer of sand and Dislodging nnd removing suspended t.
    ~;

    washing and storing cleaned sand for matter by upward flow or


    periodic resending .of bed. . . . . .. . · · backwashing which fluidises the bed
    with or without auxiliary air scour.

    Amount of water used in cleaning 0.2 to 0.6 'To of water filtered. l to 3 % of filtered water.
    sand

    Preparatory treatment of water Generally none when raw water Coagulation, · · flocculation lllld
    turbidity < 30 NTlJ. sedimentation or flotation.

    Supplementary treatment of water Disinfection. Disinfection.

    TABLE 10.1 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN AND OPERATION OF SLOW


    AND RAPID SAND FILTERS

    ··- ~
    l.

    - 10/10 -
    l j

    1 .. :
    i ; FIGURE 10.3 ~ SIMPLIFIED SECTIONAL ELEVATION THRO~GH
    A TYPICAL RAPID SAND FILTER

    'Sed,mentacion
    T4n\.

    11
    I
    1
    ,~ f 11 t e r e c
    te ,
    \J ~
    Ch•nnr l

    I
    I fllltrtd Motrr
    Colltcti1>9

    /Unotror,ln
    (hbMtl

    SySttfl\
    \ .18,c\..,•lh
    Filter Oriln
    /IA Io

    ~( f•lst bo t t oe t yo e )
    ~ .. ":

    10.5.3 FILTER TANK


    f -,

    The design of the filter tank generally follow the requirements set below:-

    (a) Tank shape rectangular


    (b) Length/breadth ratio == 10: 9 to 10: 6
    (c) Size of filter == up to 150 m2
    i
    (d) .No. of units ......... = 3 minimum
    i '
    ~- . i
    (e) Material construction = R.C.
    (f) Tank depth = 3 to4 m
    i :

    '
    (g) Water depth = 1.0 m and above
    (h) Free board = 300mm

    The limiting factor on filter size is the difficulty in maintaining a uniform filtration flow and
    uniform backwash and air scour. Larger filter units are made possible by having dual beds·
    with a common washout channel between the beds.
    ;

    t !
    The number of units of filters used in the design depends on the size of the treatment plant, A
    minimum number of 3 units is used for very small plants. For plants larger than 20,000 m3/day
    a minimum of four units should be aimed al For very large plants where the number of filter
    units used is likely to be such that, at any one time, one of the filters is out for washing for
    most of the time, an extra filter should be provided or a marginally lower filtration rate should
    be aimed at An extra unit is recommended to serve as a reserve in case repairs are needed.

    · · 'The material construction of package plant is usually of steel material coated with corrosion
    resistant material for protection.

    - 10/11 -
    10.5.4 FILTER SAND

    TI1e design characteristics of rapid filter sands shall be as follows:-

    (a) Depth of sand ::=: 600 - lOOOrrun


    (b) Effective size of sand :::: 0.55 - 0.95rrun
    (single media)
    (c) Uniformity Coefficient = 1.5 - 1.7
    (d) Acid solubility = 5%
    \eJ Specific gravity = 2.55 - :?..f!5

    The effective size of sand used in filter design is related to the type of backwash system
    adopted. A smaller sand size is used for filter designed for sequential air and water wash,
    whilst a bigger sand size is used for combined air water wash system as expansion of sand is
    not required in this system

    It is clear from the above that the depth of filter is generally greater for combined air water
    wash system than separate air water wash system

    The rational way of selecting media size. and depth is by experimental studies at bench scale or,
    better still, pilot scale with the raw water to be treated.

    However, experience in similar water quality treatment processes can be used as a good guide
    in determining the selection of filter media design.

    10.5.5 GRAVEL SUPPORT LAYE~

    The gravel layer has practically no part in the actual purification of


    water. It serves as a
    support layer for the sand media and also helps to distribute wash water. It shall generally
    meet the following requirements:-

    (a) Depth of gravel :cc 100-450mm


    (b) Size of gravel :cc: 3 - 50 mm .
    (c)
    (d)
    Specific gravity = > 2.50 ..
    t·

    l .
    Coefficient of unifomity = 1.5 - 1.7 l

    A gravel bed consisting of 3 - 10 mm gravels of about 100 - 200 mm depth is usually sufficient 1
    .J.
    l
    -

    if the underdrain system uses strainer nozzles for collection of filtrate and distribution of air +t
    and water during backwashing.
    f•
    A greater depth of graveij of up to 450 nun is used in the case of perforated pipes with
    orifices usually facing downwards. 'Three to five layers of graded gravels are placed between tl
    i•
    the sand and underdrain system The larger gravel is placed at the filter bottom with
    progressively smaller gravel at the top. Careful grading is especially advantageous in I
    ?
    distributing the wash water. i ..
    j .

    - 10/12 - .
    .,.~!
    -t
    :.~ 1
    -1:--'
    The gravel bed prevents sand from entering the underdrains and helps distribute _the backwash
    water evenly and to prevent the sand from being unduly disturbed during backwashing.

    10.5.6 UNDERDRAIN SYSTEM

    The underdrain system serves two basic function, viz.,

    · (a) uniform collection of filtrate during filtration


    (b) uniform distribution of air and water scour during backwash.

    The hydraulic condition at the time of backwashing is used for design as it is more critical than
    during filtration. 111e flow is several times higher during backwashing than during filtration.

    The underdrain system is usually a proprietary system and may take any of a number of types
    which include:-

    (a) strainer nozzle type


    (b) perforated pipe
    (c) perforated block
    (d) porous plate
    (e) Wheeler type.

    However only the strainer nozzles type is commonly . used in this country though the
    perforated type may still be in use in some older filters. The strainer nozzle type may be

    l
    i 1
    · installed in two distinct forms.

    (a) lateral pipe system


    ]. i
    1 (b). . . false bottom system
    \
    Typical sections of these two underdrain system are shown in Figure 10.4;

    In the lateral pipe system, a central header channel distributes washwater ·to lateral pipes,
    installed with nozzles, branching from both sides of the header.

    In the false bottom system, the strainer nozzles are installed on to concrete slab or patent
    plates which are anchored and supported by beams cast integrally with the filter floor.

    In general, the design of the filter including the underdrain system, is the responsibility of the
    filter plant contractors who usually offer proprietary systems. Nevertheless, the layout of a
    well-balanced underdrain system for rapid sand filters follows the following rules of thumb>

    (a) Ao/Af = 0.15% - 0.5%


    (b) Ao/Al = 25% - 50%
    (c) Al/Ah = 30% - 70%
    r (d) Diameter of nozzle = 6- 20 mm
    (e) Pitch of nozzles = 100-300 mm
    ~
    (f) Spacing of laterals = closely approximating spacing of orifices
    II

    - 10/13 -

    ..,,,,,
    ----------- --··-. ·----·
    Where Ao = Total area of nozzles per filter
    Al = Total area of laterals per filter
    Ah = Total area of headers per filter
    Af = Area of filtration per filter

    Material of strainer nozzles should be polypropylene impregnated with carbon black for
    improvement of ultra-violet resistance. Older versions of strainers of cast iron, brass and
    stainless steel are not used presently. Pipe laterals are generally made of uPVC material.
    ··f
    ,- (if)
    ... j
    The false bottom floor must be designed to withstand the static head of the wash water tank or
    lu
    the maximum backwashing pressure whichever is applicable, in case the filter nozzles are
    severely clogged.

    10.5.7 BACKWASH SYSTEM

    There are three basic systems of filter backwashing>

    (a) Water wash only


    (b) Separate air/water wash
    (c) Combined air/water wash.
    ~r¥
    Washing of filters is done by sending air, air-water or water upwards through the bed by
    t'f " WH
    reverse flow through the underdrain system i' i
    ! .,
    i
    !·
    1 ..

    '{
    ti
    I $J. t•

    '
    '

    -.
    HN :
    . tj;_t

    l,

    - 10/14 -

    j;' I
    .---.~•·····,·r··-· ..····•
    Lt
    'l. .
    i
    I :
    q~ .. F i 1 t er F 1 oo r
    .:.·~ ~ La t e r a 1 Te e

    \.'a ter Channe 1


    fi1tered Uater Outlet Pipe

    (a) Pipe La tera 1 Type

    Section Through Latera1

    ~~~~~Nozzle

    t::;7.;,~.Q~'.~:sr:,·lh~T:~~~~T;?RF~~~i:--
    Fa 1 s e Bot tom
    Concrete slab

    r Anchored

    1rue Bottom Filter Floor

    (a) false Bottom Type

    FIG.10.4 - STRAINER TYPE OF UNDERDRAIN

    - 10/15 -

    ·-
    (a) WATER WASH ONLY

    Backwashing filters with only water without other form of agitation is not recorrunended.
    Backwashing assisted by surface washing should also be avoided as it is uneconomical and
    presents operation and maintenance problem

    (b) SEPARATE AIR-WATER WASH

    This method of backwashing is applied in many plants in this country. It is also called

    The filters are washed by first sending air only and afterwards water only upwards through the
    underdrain system and the bed. The wash water rate is designed at a sufficient velocity to
    cause sand expansion of 20% - 30%. Higher wash rate is required at higher water
    temperature and for greater grain size to achieve the same degree of sand expansion.

    The design parameters for separate air water wash system are as. follows»

    (i) Air scour rate = 27 - 35 m3/m2/h


    (ii) Air scour pressure = 0.35 bar
    (iii) Air scour duration = 4 minutes
    (iv) Backwash rate = 45 m3/m2/h
    (v) Backwash duration = 7 minutes

    Typical design values of filter bed designed for separate air water wash are as follows:-

    (i) Effective size = 0.65 mm


    (ii) Depth of sand = 700 mm minimum
    (iii) Water depth -· 0.5 m to 2.5 m
    (iv) Head loss = 2.4 m max.

    (c) COMBINED AIR WATER WASH

    This system of combined air water wash is used in some plants in this country. When operated
    properly, this system is more enonom.ical in usage of backwash water than that of the separate
    air water wash. It is also called the simultaneous or concurrent air water wash.

    The filters are washed by first sending air followed by small wash together with the air, and
    afterwards rinsing water only through the bed. Some proprietary system suppliers recommend
    slight variation to the above sequence in that water is introduced first instead of air. Sand
    expansion is not required in this system However, the air scour rate is about double that of
    the separate air water wash system. 'The function of the simultaneous air water wash is to
    prevent detached impurities from mixing with the sand and help them to rise to the surface for
    effective removal during the rinsing wash.

    - 10/16 -
    'The design parameters for combined air water wash system are as follows:-

    f (i) Air scour rate = 50 - 60 m3/m2/h


    (ii) Air scour pressure = 0.35 bar
    (iii) Duration = 6 minutes
    l(.
    f
    (iv) Combined wash rate (water) = 6 - 8 m3/rri1-/h
    i : (v) Rinsing wash rate = 15 - 25 m3/m2/h
    (vi) Rinsing wash duration = 9 minutes.
    :-1
    ii !•
    ! ~ Typical design values of filter bed designed for combined air water wash are as follows:-

    (i) Effective size = 0.95 mm


    (ii) Depth of sand = 950mm
    (iii) Water depth = 0.4 m to 2.1 m
    (iv) Head loss = Up to 1.7 m

    Since fluiclisation of the sand bed is not necessary, stratification or grading of the bed does not
    occur. Furthermore larger sand size can be used to allow deeper penetration of impurities.

    10.5.8 BACKWASH SUPPLY

    Water for backwashing can be supplied by any one of the following three methods»

    (a) Wash water tank


    (b) Tap off from treated water pumping.mains
    (c) Backwash pumps.

    (a) WASH WATER TANK·

    By far the most common method of supply of backwash water is by a separate wash water
    tank. The water is usually stored in an elevated ground tank or tower by separate wash water
    pumps with one pump on duty and one pump on standby. Sometimes the tank may be located
    on top of the treatment building.

    The capacity of the wash water tank should be sized to twice the water requirement for a
    single filter wash plus any plant use and domestic supply to quarters which are not separately
    supplied by public mains.

    The height of the tank should be designed in conjunction with the piping, valves, flow
    controller, filter layer such that at its low water level, the required backwash water pressure
    and flow can be obtained.
    l; (b) TAP-OFFFROMTREATEDWATERPU:M:PINGMAINS
    I .
    I
    l:. :
    This method of obtaining wash water for backwash is discouraged except for very small plants
    and where the pumping head is relatively low. In any case, a pressure reducing valve is usually

    - 10/17 -

    -·-··.::· .... - ........ --- .... _.,. -··-·-·----------


    required to reduce the pressure to the desired level for backwashing and avoid uplift of the
    underdrain system

    Operational
    malfunctions.
    problem may occur leading to damage of filters when the pressure reducing valve
    f.-
    1
    ..
    (c) BACKWASH PUMPS
    .
    }
    --:"i
    An alternative is to supply backwash pumps operating to draw water from the clear water
    ........ _, ..
    l..CU.J...n...
    =.t .

    head. One duty and one standby pump shall be provided.

    10.5.9 WASH WATER OUTLET CHANNEL

    The wash water outlet channel is located on the side of the filter or centrally above the filter
    outlet channel in the case of dual bed filter. The channel is designed to discharge the
    maximum backwash rate without submergence of the channel.

    The height of the channel cill above the sand should have adequate height to prevent loss. of
    sand during backwashing. This height is usually equal to about the rise per minute ofthe wash--· · · · · ·
    water. However when air is used to
    rod this scouring process, this height is made somewhat
    greater.

    In very large filter beds, where the travel of the overflowing water to the wash water outlet
    channel is excessive, it is recommended that washwater troughs be designed to ensure uniform
    washing. This will also help to reduce the time of backwashing and thus the. amount of
    washwater use.

    The distance between the troughs should not exceed 1.5m. The upper end of the trough must
    be of the same level to ensure uniform backwashing. The bottom of the trough, however,
    must have a slope sufficient to carry away the wash water. A slope of 1 in 35 is usually used.

    The trough shall be constructed in non-corrodable and durable material such as concrete or
    synthetic resins. Semicircular shape L<; the best as it interfers least with the upward streaming
    of wash water and possesses the best hydraulic properties for discharge.

    10.5.10 FILTER CHANNEL AND PIPEWORKS

    In a filter, there are three basic openings for flow of water. These are:-

    (a) inlet of water to be filtered (influent)


    (b) common opening for outlet of filtered water (effluent) and filter drain, and inlet for
    wash water and sometimes, inlet for air scour
    (c) outlet of dirty water (backwashed water).

    - l 0/18 -
    ·•.
    -~-
    ____.,r,;
    -----
    I
    ,!).
    .

    ·'.t),i\
    The openings to the filter can either be channels or pipes. In channel flow, penstocks are used
    to open or close the openings whereas in pipe flow, valves are used to open or isolate flow
    through the openings.

    Typical flow isolation and regulation through the filters are:-

    ;
    I '
    (a) INLET CHANNEL
    ) Entry to filter tank is via open settled water channel attached to the side of filter wall.
    l ,
    ! i Opening or closing operation is done by penstock. It is a standard practice to have a by-pass
    l '
    line from the settled water channel to the clear water well. Though the by-passing of settled
    /-,
    i :.
    l water to the clear water well is greatly discouraged as it means supplying unfiltered water to
    1 •
    the system, the by-pass line is very useful in case of unforseen circumstances in operation and
    maintenance of the filters.

    (b) FILTER OUTLET/WASH WATER INLET

    A common pipe with a branch for filter outlet with a butterfly valve for isolation and another
    branch for wash water inlet with another butterfly valve for separate isolation. The size of the
    corrunon pipe is sized for backwash flow. -- -- · --- ·

    (c) AIR INLET

    In filters where the underdrain system used is lateral pipe, air entry to the underdrain system is
    gained through an air header pipe from above the filter bed connected to the lateral tees .. ·
    f ·,
    However, sometimes, air is introduced via another branch· at the common pipe of the filter-
    l outlet/wash inlet to the underdrain system.
    .i . In the false bottom type of filter, air is usually introduced by an pipe through the
    . . ······
    ah distributor
    ....

    f
    l .. : filter wall or by a concrete air duct (with perforations just below the slab or plate) located just
    ,··,
    above the filtered water channel/backwash water duct (in the case of dual bed filter).
    i
    i :
    ! ,'.
    The air header pipe should at some point before entering the first filter has a vertical inverted
    U-bend at least 0.5 m above the top of the filter tank to prevent water from flowing to the air
    blower equipment.

    (d) BACKWASH OUTLET

    The waste water flowing from the wash water outlet channel in the filter is designed to
    discharge through pipeworks located at the pipe gallery or through enclosed channel beneath
    the settled water channel especially in the case where deep settled water channel is designed
    for declining rate filters of downstream controlled constant rate filters.

    The sizing of the pipes and channels shall not exceed the following rate:-

    '· .· (·1) inlet channel = 0.6m/s


    (ii) filter outlet pipe = l.Orn/s

    -10/19-

    -- ---.;.: -· ~ . - c~ ·-_ .. :::; ..... -_ .. -·· .~ ---~ .. ,':'-" .. -:-::<':~---· - .. ~-· .. - . - -·-- -,--· -----
    (iii) backwash pipe - main branch = 2.5m/s
    (iv) backwash outlet = 2.0rn/s
    (v) air scour inlet velocity = 25.0m/s
    10.5.11 OPERATION OF VALVES AND PENSTOCKS

    The pipeworks in the filter usually form a rather intricate system which are located in the pipe
    gallery, in which the valves are located. The control equipment for operating the valves is
    usually installed on a floor, usually called the filter control gallery, directly above and either in
    front 0f or between two rows of filter units.

    'The operation of penstocks and valves on the influent, effluent, drain and wash-water and air
    lines can be designed either as manual or semi-automatic. Manual operation is preferred in
    small plants located in rnral areas where skilled operators are not easily available.

    Semi-automatic operation includes electrical or hydraulic/pneumatic operation of valves and


    penstocks. Control of valves by electrical and hydraulic/pneumatic operation in that order of
    preference is recommended.

    Besides the isolation valves and penstocks, flow regulators automatically open or close a valve
    mechanism to keep the flow rate constant based on hydraulic pressure differentials.

    10.5.12 :FILTER FLOW CONTROL

    Filter control -systerns refer to flow control and may be classified according to the rate of
    filtration or the location of the control. The type of control of flow distribution to gravity
    filters which are commonly identified by many engineers is according to rate of filtration
    control. The control system is divided into two basic modes with submodes as listed below:- : i.
    (a) Declining rate
    (b) Constant rate:-

    (i) outlet flow control


    (ii) constant level control
    (iii) rising level control.

    Figure 10.5 and 10.6 gives diagrammatic illustrations of different types of filter control.

    The choice of system should meet the desired goals and the utility's needs. Each system has a
    place and a particular system should be used only when conditions are appropriate.

    If full plant automation is desired, mechanical systems will be favoured, although non-
    rnechanical systems can be partially automated. If minimizing mechanical equipment is
    desired, non-mechanical systems will be favoured. This will be especially important when
    equipment and future repair parts have to be imported and when there is a lack of skilled
    trained operators.

    - 10/20 -
    In small non-automated plants with four or fewer filters and with unskilled operators, the
    "inflow split-rising head" system is ideal because it is so simple to understand.

    In larger, non-automated plants, a "variable declining-rate" system may be favoured because it


    saves head and produces better filtrate.

    (a) CONST ANT RA TE FILTER SYSTEM (OUTLET FLOW CONTROL)

    This system uses a rate-of-flow controller (consisting of a flow sensor, flow controller and
    control valve) that regulates flow through each filter based on plant loading. The controller
    . compares the measured variable (flow rate or water level in the inlet channel) with the desired
    r .. value and drives the flow control element (valve) to maintain the desired value. The control
    i . system maintains equal flow from each filter if the total plant flow rate is changed. See Fig.
    1
    10.6(a).

    (b) CONSTANT RATE FILTER SYSTEM (CONSTANT LEVEL CONTROL)

    This system is a variable-controlled constant-rate system without the flow element on the
    outlet of each filter. The flow of filtered water is controlled by .modulating a butterfly valve on
    the filter outlet pipe to maintain a constant water level in the filter. To ensure that the .plant
    inflow is split equally among the operating filters an inlet flow-splitting weir -is incorporated on
    each filter. This system does not require flow measurement instnunentation on individual
    filters. Sec Fig. 10.6(b ).

    (c) DECLINING RATE FILTER SYSTEM

    In this system, flow enters the filter below the normal water level in each filter and discharges
    into the clearwell via a weir above the level of the filter media. Because the inlet to the filters
    is below the normal water level in each filter, all filters connected by a common inlet- channel · ·
    or pipe operate at approximately the same water level and thus have the same available head.
    Therefore the cleanest filter operates at the highest filtration rate and the dirtiest filter operates
    I·._ at the lowest filtration rate.
    I
    iI.;
    As solids/floe accumulate in the filter media, the water level rises in all connected filters to
    provide the head required to drive the flow through the filter media When the water level
    reaches some upper desired limit, the d.irtiest filter is backwashed. TI1e filtration· rate declines
    in a stepwise fashion. As each clean (backwashed) filter is returned to service, it assumes the
    highest rate of flow and all other filter step down to lower rates of filtration. The dirtiest filter
    t
    ' . . assumes the lowest rate of flow until it is backwashed.

    t
    The system requires no instrumentation for flow rate or head loss measurement on individual
    !. filter. The water level in each filter guides the plant operator when to backwash each filter.
    See Fig. 10.6(c).
    'i .:

    - 10{21 -

    r-- - -·
    l
    l .-
    (d) CONSTANT RATE FILTER SYSTEM (RISING LEVEL CONTROL)

    In this system, each filter receives an equal (or nearly equal) portion of the total flow. This is
    achieved by splitting the flow by means of an inlet weir box or orifice/penstock on each filter
    inlet above the maximum operating water level of the filter. The filter effluent discharges to
    the clear water tank via weir at a level above the surface of the filter media.

    As solids/floe accumulate in the filter media, the water level rises in the filter to provide the
    head required to drive the flow through the filter media. The water level in each filter is
    d.L.F:fe~~t ~d d~pe,~~s cz t..t~v extent to ;~:tlcii the filter media is clogged. When the water ievei
    in a filter reaches the maximum, that filter must be backwashed. This system requires no
    instrumentation for flow rate and head loss measurement on individual filters. It can be
    modified to allow for other type of backwashing system. See Fig. 10.6(d).

    (e) DEGREM01'.:TT SIPHON CONTROL

    This is a modified version of filter control described under (b) above. In each filter there is a
    partialisation box upstream which is connected to a concentric siphon downstream. TI1e
    partialisation box is the detection and control element and the siphon is the flow regulating
    element. (Fig. 10.Sa)

    The siphon consists of two concentric tubes. Water from the filter flows through the inner
    tube and out through the vertical annular ring formed by the outer tube. (Fig. 10.5b)

    .@
    If air is introduced into the upper part of the siphon, this air is carried along by the water into ,j
    ·~.
    the downstream branch where the specific gravity of the air/water mixture drops, thus
    decreasing the vacuum at the neck. With no partialisation air, the vacuum at the neck is equal
    (ignoring the head loss in the downstream branch) to H, which is the difference in water 1eve1
    in the filter box and the water level in the downstream filtered water chamber. When air is
    introduced this vacuum is reduced to a height "h." which is equal to "H" times the specific
    gravity of the water/air mixture. The difference (H-h1) :::: ~ represents the head loss created
    by the addition of air (Fig. 10.5c).

    If "hi" represents the clean filter head loss through the filter bed, the floor and the filtered
    water discharge pipe down to the siphon neck, "hi" represents the available clogging head for
    the filter bed. ·

    When the filter is clean, enough air is introduced by the partialisation box to create a head loss
    "h,". As the filter bed becomes clogged over time, the rate of air is gradually reduced to zero
    to bring "hi" up to "H".

    The partialisation box is depicted schematically as Bin fig. 10.5c. In this box, C represents a
    flap valve suspended from a spring D and attached at point F.

    As a first approximation, at constant flow, F is fixed. When the filter becomes clogged its
    output gradually decreases. This causes a decrease in the specific gravity of the water/air
    mixture and therefore in the vacuum "hi" at the siphon neck which is connected to the

    · I 0/27. ·
    partialisation box housing .. The cross-section and therefore the air flow rate ar_e then reduced
    by the action of the spring D. The specific gravity of the water/air mixture increases,
    producing a height "h," which is greater than the height existing before clogging. The quantity
    of air introduced into the siphon decreases.

    When the filter is completely clogged, no further air is introduced at all; the filter delivers
    water at the maximum head "H". If the filter is not backwashed at this point, its outflow rate
    will start to decrease.

    111e partialisation box thus provides automatic clogging compensation. It can also be used to
    adjust the filter flow rate to the total flow being filtered, simply by linking the height of point F
    with the box's float level. An increase in flow will correspond to a rise in point F and a
    · decrease in the quantity of air entering the siphon. The head loss "h," will decrease causing an
    increase in the flow rate discharged through the siphon.

    By placing a vacuum gauge at the neck of the siphon, it is possible to measure the vacuum "h,"
    which represents the head loss through the filter bed and its pipework.

    l .
    ) ;
    \ '

    j
    \ :
    ; ;

    J
    I
    l
    L;

    f ·.
    I
    ! '.

    1 - 10/23 -

    L I;

    { .
    7 4 5 8

    2 3

    - r .. ~ .;~:· ·._~: ·. ·.':.:I::-,: . ~,: :.:~:.·:' . ~I


    · litHimiHlifHiffiillfiffijfRvtl:ta
    ~t
    Jr·
    . ·,jil .•.
    \,,'.
    -~;
    6 ·111,:
    I - Clarifiro wztct channel. 5 - Cooceruric siphon. r ~-
    ·,1

    2 - Orifice pis«, 6 - Filtered 11·a1cr chamixr.


    3 - lnlcr dad: valve for serried warcr. 7 - Pestullssuon box.
    4 - Clogging iodicuoi. 8 - Filtered wstcr ouclet weir.
    Equal disiribuiion and upstrcsm control for Aquuur {i/m; (mainraining a constsnt level).
    :~;:. .
    :-;.::;

    .
    ' .. :

    FIG, 10,S{a)

    f.
    ·... ..,· J~·
    . ( -. )
    j ~ : .. • ... -.i.

    Pu: i:1ii.~,rion hox.

    FIG. to.so» FIG. 10.S(c)

    . 10/24.
    . '

    HWL
    r ,ll<t bccl ---

    LWL

    ( o, ~ Con1un1 R •I< r ,Hr .>t,on


    If" low tn(t,, L How moou~Ahon ~.,1 ... e l

    HWL

    lWL
    C1urwtll

    (b \ Constant Ltvd Filtration


    !Influent cor,lrol. level ~nso, & mDdul.>Hng ~Iv<:)

    V.>,iable

    HWL

    LWL
    Clcarwcll
    fl<,,, 1<slrictior,

    <. c J O«tininit R.>te f",ttrahon


    {Mo influent control. no modulating v•lve, •n o,ifiu pl•le)

    HWL
    2-3 tit\
    LWL l
    CJ

    filler Ocd

    LWL

    ( 1--. > lfoing lt:Vt'I. ~11-Sx~sh Fitten


    llnllvcnl ceouor, no modublina Y>lrt, no t»ckw~i.h pipi"J)

    Basic filter control systems. (Adapted from Water Trr:111111rnt- Prin-


    ziple <~ Design by J.M. hionlgomcry, Consulting Engineers, Wiley. New York. 1985.)

    FIG.10.6 - SYSTEMS OF Fll.TER CONTROL

    - 10(25 •

    ll·'
    ·-
    .

    I ------- -----
    ' ...
    .. ---···-·-··--------------------
    10.5.13 INSTRUMENTATION

    Instruments are required to monitor filter operation and performance. These instruments are
    usually located at the filter control panel together with the filter equipment controls. The
    panels are located on the filter control gallery on a floor above the pipe gallery. The basic
    instruments required in rapid sand filters are:-

    (a) Loss of head indicators


    (b) Rate of air scour indicators
    1" \
    \") Rate cf wash i..~fic~t8=-s
    (d) Rate of flow indicators
    (e) Scour air pressure indicators
    (f) Turbidity of filter effluent monitoring devices.
    ..
    l
    These instruments shall meet the requirements of the current specification. Not all the i
    instruments are necessarily required. This depends on the characteristic of the filter such as !
    r
    the type of filter flow controls designed for the filters. For example, rate of flow indicators
    may not be required for constant rate filters with inlet flow splitting. Turbidity monitoring
    equipment is recommended for very large plants. It is recommended that plants greater than
    100,000 m3/day should be provided with turbidity monitoring equipment

    Except for folly automated filtration plant, the instruments are usually floor mounted with each
    panel serving at the most two filters. The instrument panel must be suitably located (and the
    viewing panel or window designed to provide unobstructed view) so that the filters can be
    fully observed during backwashing operation. The design of the filter gallery should cater for
    this very simple but important requirement,

    10.6 HIGH RATE FILTERS

    High rate filters can operate at rates of two to fonr times than those of rapid sand filters.
    These filters use a combination of filter media of different specific gracity, All other
    components are similar to rapid sand filters. There is also another type of high rate filter
    which uses a narrowly graded coarse sand but of a greater filter depth of filter media.

    High rate filters can thus be classified into:- .

    (a) Coarse single-medium filters


    (b) Dual-media filters
    (c) Multi-media filters.

    In rapid sand filters, finer sand grains lie on top of the coarser sand grains after backwashing
    as the rather well-graded sand grains become stratified. Thus this type of sand arrangement
    restricts the effective use of the entire filter bed and filter clogging occurs rapidly. This
    shortcoming is overcome in the design of high rate filters in which the full depth of filter bed is
    being utilised for solids storage.

    - 10/26 -
    l
    -··----··-~-------------!!li!!NB~!ffl'"'--•
    - --=--- Parameters Conventional Filters
    Coarse-Media Filters
    Dual-Media Filters
    .
    (Rapid sand) (Narrowly Graded)
    .,~ ..-~~~~~~~~t-~~.=::.==-.:c.;_:__;:=c.=--~~--t-~~.>,:...;..:=.:.::..:.;..:.L....;:::..:..:::..::..::..:::..,__~---J- ~~~~~~~~~~--l
    r.
    :

    l. Filtration Rate 5 rn? / m2 /hr. Higher rate ( 10 - 15 m1 I m2 Higher rate (10 - 15 ml I m1-
    /hr.) /hr.
    2. Filter Media e.s. = 0.55mm Coarse Sand (narrowly graded) Usually anthracite and sand. i
    u.c. = 1.5 - 1.7 (u.c. = 1.2) Size should be carefully chosen l
    to .rninimize intermixing of i!
    media.
    I
    3. Filter Mcclia Depth 0.6 - 1.0 m Generally higher depth 1.5 - 2.0 Total depth is higher than l!
    m (to meet the effluent conventional filter.
    standard) i
    l

    '
    r
    i
    4. Supernatant Water
    l
    Same in all cases
    Level

    5. Cleaning Procedure High-rate water back- wash Generally air-wash backwash. Generally air-water backwash.
    or air-wash backwash Backwash requirements arc Backwash rates and extent of
    higher due to deeper fluidisation should be carefully
    penetration of particles chosen to minimize
    intermixing.
    6. Undcrdrain System Lateral-manifold system or False bottom with False bottom with
    false bottom polypropylene nozzles polypropylene nozzles

    7. Influent Water 5 - 10 NTU Can be used for moderate Can be used for moderate
    Turbidity turbidity range, about 30 NTU. turbidity range, about 30 l'<'TU.

    I l 8. Filtration Action Only top few centimetre of Whole bed is used in efficient Whole bed is used in efficient
    filter bed is used. filtration action. filtration action.

    9. Filter Run Length 24 · 72 hours 12 · 36 hours 12 - 36 hours


    10. Percentage of Filtered l - 3% Higher than conventional filters Higher than coaveo-tional
    Water Used for (because of deeper penetration filters (because of deeper
    . ~ Backwashing of particles & higher storage
    ; penetration of particles &
    !
    , capacity) higher storage capacity)
    f:
    11. Special Equipment No Air-water backwash Air-water backwash

    i2. Skilled Labour No Additional labour for operation Additional labour for operation
    of air-water backwash system of air-water backwash system

    13. Operational and Lower Lower


    Maintenance Costs
    ft .

    14. Capital Costs Lower than conventional filter Lower than conventional filter
    (because of lower area (because of lower area
    requirement) requirement)
    15. Chemical Cost Filter aid dosage may be Filter aid dosage may be
    necessarv necessary

    TABLE 10.2 - SUMMARY OF DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR COARSE-MEDIA & DUAL-MEDIA


    FILTERS

    - 10(27 -

    --
    Some of the design parameters of conventional filters, coarse single-medium filters and dual
    media filters are summarised in Table 10.2.

    10.7 COARSE SINGLE-MEDIUM FILTER

    Coarse single-medium filters use narrowly graded media to overcome the weakness of
    stratification of the rapid sand filters.

    10.7.1 FILTRATION RATE

    The filtration rate generally designed for coarse single-medium filters is between 10 - 15
    m3/m2/h.

    10.7.2 FILTER MEDIUM

    This type of filters usually make use of coarse sand with an effective size of 2mm and a
    uniformity coefficient of 1.2 as filter medium, Since filtrate quality is a function of media size
    and bed depth, coarse single-medium filters must have a greater depth to maintain the effluent
    standard. 111e filter sand depth is about twice that of rapid sand filter.

    10.7 .3 BACKWASH SYSTEM

    Owing to the deeper penetration of particle in the coarse medium filters, backwash
    requirements are higher than those of rapid sand filters. Generally air-wash backwash is used
    where special equipment and skilled operators are required. The rate of air and water used
    depends on the size of medium, For sand of effective size of 2mm, typical rates of air scour
    rate is 90 - 110 m3/rn2/h and those of wash water is 20 - 25 m3/m2/h.

    10.7.4 UNDERDRAINSYSTEM

    Since the gravel support layer used in the normal perforated pipe underdrain system will be
    disturbed by high energy air-water backwash, strainer nozzles type of underdrain system is
    employed. Generally, polypropylene nozzles installed onto false bottoms are used as
    underdrain.

    10.8 DUAL-l\1EDJA FILTER

    Dual-media filters (and multi-media filters) use a coarser but lighter medium on top of a finer
    but heavier medium to form the coarse-to-fine grain arrangement in the direction of flow. This
    arrangement helps to increase the solid storage capacity of the filters and to approximately
    maintain the media respective positions in the filter even after backwashing.

    The design of filters using granular activated carbon (GAC) over a sand media is not
    considered here although it is also a form of dual media filter. ln fact the design criteria
    considered under the anthracite-sand dual media filter also applies to GAC filters as the
    specific gravity of anthracite and GAC is similar. However adsorption properties must also be
    considered in the design of GAC filters in addition to the filtration and backwash properties

    i
    _)l,
    covered here. The design aspect of GAC for taste and odour control is covered in the section
    on treatment processes.

    ;'·to
    10.8.1 FILTRATIONRATE
    l: :I:
    I

    l ~i Filtration rate of 10 - 15 m3/m2/h is commonly used.


    {- ..
    '
    ;
    ."
    I i 10.8.2 FILTER MEDIA
    I j
    Dual media filter use two media, usually anthracite coal on top of sand. The size of the media
    and the backwash rates employed must be carefully selected so that only limited or controlled
    intermixing of the media occurs.

    Typical requirements of filter media are as follows>


    .. 1
    ! 1
    ~ i
    i: i
    ~ ; anthracite
    l.

    Effective size 1.0- 1.6 mm 0.50- 0.8 mm


    t ) Uniformity coefficient 1.2 - 1.4 1.2 - 1.4
    !
    Specific gravity 1.35 - 1.70 2.55 - 2.65
    ,.,,

    The ratio of the size of anthracite to that of sand shall be such that the two media is expanded
    or partially fluidised at approximately the same rate at a given backwashing rate. The ratio of
    effective sizes of anthracite to sand in order to provide similar rates of expansion at a given
    backwash rate is usually between 2: 1 and 3: 1. This can be determined by calculation or by
    comparison of the backwash curves for the sand and anthracite.

    10.8.3 FILTER DEPTH


    -
    The depth of the filter bed is best determined by pilot filter tests. The required depth of filter
    bed should be large enough to prevent a significant amount of impurities from reaching the
    filter outlet Generally the depth of the anthracite is greater than or about the same as the sand
    with a total depth similar to rapid sand filters.

    't '
    10.8.4 BACKWASH SYSTEM

    The common method of backwashing of dual-media filters is air scouring followed by


    fluidisation backwash. The requirements are higher than rapid sand filters.

    Typical values of backwashing requirements arec-

    (a) Air scour rate = 60 - 90 m3/rri1-/h


    (b) Air scour duration = 3 - 5 minutes
    l
    !
    e
    (c) Water wash rate = 35 - 60 m3/rri1-/h

    ,1.
    - 10/29 -

    L--··
    '
    10.8.5 APPLICABILITY

    This type of filter could be used in upgrading of filters in this country. However, the
    anthracite media have to be imported. Operation of the filters also require higher levels of skill
    than rapid sand filters.

    10.9 MULTI~MEDIA FILTERS

    The common multi-media filter is the triple-media filter which uses anthracite, sand and garnet.
    The superiority of triple-media or other multi-media filters over dual-media filters has not been
    fully established though in theory they should be superior.

    Compared to dual-media filters the multi-media filters perform better in retaining both
    premature filter clogging and also small particles and micro-algae of 1 - 2 microns.

    Multi-media filters are not used in the country as it is uneconomical and require skilled
    operation. The anthracite and garnet media have to be imported and the levels of skilled
    operators have to be very high.

    10.10 DIRECT FILTRATION FILTERS

    'Direct filtration is defined as the treatment system iJ1 which the filtration is not preceded by
    clarification of the raw water. Direct filtration can be carried out either with or without \l('
    ...
    separate flocculation after rapid mixing of chemicals. 'Three configurations of direct filtration
    can thus be identified as follows:-

    (a) Contact-flocculation filtration


    · · · · · · (b) · · · · · Direct· filtration with flocculation
    (c) Direct filtration with contact basin.

    Contact-flocculation filtration is carried out with no separate flocculation. After addition of


    coagulants during rapid mixing, only micro-floes are formed before the raw water is led direct
    to the filters. Orthokinetic flocculation takes place within the filter bed.

    Direct filtration with flocculation is one in which flocculation is being carried out in a separate
    flocculation tank. Thus orthokinetic flocculation takes place before filtration and larger floes
    are formed before the water is passed to the filters.

    Direct filtration with contact basin is used to control turbidity surges of short duration in the
    ~
    raw water to an acceptable level before direct filtration. TI1e contact basin is provided ·1
    between the rapid mixer and the filter. It helps to provide a reasonably uniform influent to the
    filter.

    - 10/30 -
    n.
    11i 10.10.1 PREREQUISITES
    !
    I

    }l In order for filters to be designed for direct filtration, the quality of the raw water should
    generally meet the following requirements:-
    \

    '11. (a) A turbidity consistently below 5 NTU and not exceeding 30 NTU of short duration
    r. (b) The concentration of iron and manganese should be less than 0.3mg/l and 0.05mgfl
    I respectively
    i
    c\ {c) The algae concentration should be reasonably low. A maximum concentration of up to
    l 2000 ASU/ml has been reported.
    '
    (: In general, waters of low colour and low turbidity are suitable for direct filtration. Pilot-plant
    { : studies would have to be performed to determine treatability by direct filtration.
    t

    I. 10.10.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF FILTERS

    High rate filters are used for direct filtration, for example, coarse media filter and dual-media
    filter described in Sub-sections 10.7 and 10.8 respectively.

    r.
    I
    !i .'
    Typical design of direct filters are given below»

    I
    . (a) free water level ~ 1.0 to l.5m
    (b) total depth = 0.8 to l.5m
    (c) filter media (dual-media)

    anthracite
    Effective size 0.8 - 1.4 mm 0.4-0.8 mm
    Depth 500 - 800 mm 300-400 mm
    ! .
    \ .
    l Other requirements are similar to those given earlier. A summary of design parameters for
    directand contact-flocculation filtration units is given in Table 10.3.
    I··
    !'
    1r
    10.10.3 OPERATIONAL FACTORS
    .·
    The performance of filters designed for direct filtration depends not only on filter design
    parameters such as the selection of the effective size of the finer filter media and depth of the
    media but also on operational and design parameters prior to filtration. These inf'lnn"" th"

    l;
    !
    selection of flocculants either used alone or in combination with alum and their dosages,
    mixing conditions such as velocity gradients and contact time.

    The determination of the criteria of processes prior to filtration is beyond the scope of this
    section. The optimum design parameters are usually determined by pilot studies on the
    appropriate type of polymeric coagulant and flocculant, mixing conditions, and the filter media
    composition, effective size and depth required.

    - 10/31 -

    L ·---· ·-·-. ·--·. - ._ - . .


    10.10.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

    The main advantages of using direct filtration are as follows:-

    (a) significantly lower capital costs


    (b) lower chemical cost
    (c) operation and maintenance costs are reduced.

    The main disadvantages are:-


    ·~j .

    (a)
    (b)
    shorter filter run
    high backwash requirement in terms of percentage of filtered water
    -: -[
    (c) a higher standard of control or operator vigilance is needed
    (d) skilled operators are required for close monitoring of filters.
    -,
    Table 10.3 also includes a survey of the advantages and disadvantages of both direct and
    contact filtration.

    10.11 RAPID SAND PRESSURE FILTERS

    The most common type of pressure filters is the rapid sand pressure filters. They are similar in
    bed construction to open rapid gravity filters except that they are contained in a cylindrical
    steel pressure vessel. They are also operated on the same principle except that the water is
    forced through the filter under pressure by pumping or gravitional head.
    --i ·:
    There are two configurations of the cylindrical tank:-
    -
    -l.L
    i
    (a) · vertical tank· · .. ~:' _..·

    (b) horizontal tank. ~~,:,

    "Typical details of vertical filters and horizontal filters are shown in Figure 10.7 and Figure 10. 8
    respectively.

    Pressure filters are usually selected for use in small plants or when short erection time is of
    paramount importance and for recirculation of water in swimming pools. Though pressure
    filters are frequently used with relatively good quality raw water without clarification (i.e.
    direct filtration), they are also used in plants undergoing the conventional treatment process.

    Horizontal pressure filters are normally used in installations where a large number of vertical
    filters would otherwise be required. They offer better utilisation of space than vertical
    pressure filters.

    -10/32-
    10.11.1 BASIC COMPONENTS

    The basic components of pressure filters are as follows:-

    (a) Filter tank


    (b) Filter sand
    (c) Gravel support layer
    (d) Underdrain system
    (e) Filter control valves and pipeworks
    (f) Air release valve.

    10.11.2 J?ILTRATION RATE

    The common filtration rate designed for pressure filters is S - 10 rn3/m2/h.

    {
    .f , ..
    i .
    ~
    j
    1 .
    i .
    ;

    I
    'i
    \ .

    ' ;

    ! "

    }
    >
    t
    !.

    - 10/33 -
    Parameters Conventional Treatment Direct Filtrntion Contact-Flocculation
    Filtratlon

    1. Filter Type Generally conventional Dual-media, mixed-media Dual-media or coarse-media


    single media filter or coarse-media filter filler

    2. Filtration Rate 5 m3 / m1 I hr. 10 - 15m3/m1/hr. 10 - 20m3/m1/hr.

    3. Filter Media Speci- Sand Depends on the filter types Depends on the filter types
    fication

    4. Cleaning Procedure Air-water backwash Air-water backwash (since Air-water backwash (since all
    all the solids are removed the solids are removed in the
    in the filter only) fi lter only)
    (a) Cleaning Frequency High Higher
    (b) Backwash Water 1 - 3% High (4 - 6 %) Higher (6 - 8 %)
    Requirement

    5. Filter-Run Length Short (as a guideline, a Short (as a guideline, a


    minimum filter run length minimum filter run length of
    of 12 hours is 12 hours is recommended)
    recommended)

    '<i.. .R!i.w.W1,1ter Characte- Medium turbid water with Low turbid waters Low turbid waters
    ristics proper pre-treatment

    7. Capital Cost High Lower Lower

    8. Operational and High 30% less than conventional Still less


    Maintenance Costs treatment

    9. Chemical Cost High 30% less than conventional StilJ less


    treatment
    .......... ' . "

    10. Skilled Labour More skilled labour is More skilled labour


    is
    necessary for closer necessary forcloser
    supervision of plant and supervision of plant and
    effluent characteristics effl ucnt characteristics

    11. Sludge Disposal Significant Sludge is only produced in Sludge is only produced in the
    the Iilter backwash. filler backwash.
    Less problem Less problem

    TABLE 10.3 ~ SUMMARY OF DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR DIRECT AND


    CONTACT~FLOCCULATION FILTRATION UNITS
    (Adapted from Vigneswaran, 1983)

    - 10/34 -
    ;[:

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    0

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    .....,
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    FIGURE 10. 7 - VERTICAL PRESSURE FILTER

    - 10/35 -

    ·=-----~--~--------,.,.-..--n
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    .., 0

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    FIGURE 10.8 - HOIUZONTAL PRESSURE FILTER

    - 10/36 -
    •T
    I
    i
    '·
    10.11.3 FILTER TANK
    ... ,
    'The general characteristics of pressure filter tanks are as follows:-

    Tank Mounting
    Characteristics Vertical Horizontal

    : !
    (a) Tank shape Cylindrical Cylindrical
    (b) Tank diameter 1.5 - 2.75m 2.4- 2.75m
    (c) Tank height or length 2.5 - 3.0m 4.0 - IO.Om
    (d) No. of units 4minimum 4minimnm
    r·
    ' .
    (e) Material construction steel steel

    I ·.
    ~
    The tank consists of a cylindrical shell with domed ends. Internally, it is painted with anti-
    corrosive paint for protection. The shell is hydraulically tested at the factory.
    1 •
    !i The pressure applied to steel pressure filters is not usually in excess of 8 bar, as the cost of
    pressure filters of higher rating becomes uneconomical.

    · The design of the filter tank and its components is normally proprietary. The tank sizes
    indicated above are common in public water supply: Pressure filters of down to 300mm
    . diameter is available for household use.

    In horizontal tank, vertical plates are welded inside to give a rectangular shaped sand bed
    i
    ' .
    ·,
    within the cylinder so that backwashing is uniform.
    f
    t ;
    10.11.4 FILTER SAND AND GRAVEL SUPPORT LAYER

    ..
    ! •
    The design requirements of the filter sand and gravel support layer generally follow those of
    open gravity filters.
    ·\
    ·}
    ;
    .
    i .:
    10.11.5 UNDERDRAIN SYSTEM

    111e function and hydraulic design of the underdrain system are similar to those of rapid
    gravity filters.

    There are two types of underdrain system, namely, me pipe lateral type and the false bottom
    type .
    .,
    t
    \·
    l i In the false bottom type of underdrainage, a steel nozzle plate reinforced with tie bars welded
    to the bottom of the dished end. The steel plate is fitted with domed air scour type nozzles.

    In the pipe lateral type of underdrainage, the construction is similar to open gravity filters.
    'The filter floor consists of a number of lateral pipes infilled with concrete to a flat face running
    '
    l
    i

    - 10/37 -

    --------·.: . :.· 1- '·•.i!J:¢;'- .:i'Mi:-'!2:..ME--§-.!:".!"~"-. ·"""·?=:::!:~~--,_


    -c...,=--=·d""'2·S =-""·-·
    ..... --··--··
    ...,-,......,-·-,
    .-.
    c.-.,-•C>t-<
    -·· ,., . ··- ·-;:-~·--=·
    -,,..-,,
    -•- ~. ·· ~ ---· · ·· · - · ··. . ..~ · ···
    at right angles to the long axis of the cylinder, The filtrate is collected through filter nozzles to
    the laterals and discharged into a central filtered water channel.

    10.11.6 BACKWASH SYSTEM

    The backwash system (and filter sand size and sand depth) is designed most commonly for
    separate air and water wash.

    Typical backwash design is as follows:-

    (a) Air scour rate = 25 - 30 m3/m2/h .J! f' i;,';:


    UC·

    (b) Air scour pressure = 0.35 bar ;

    (c) Air scour duration = S minutes '


    '
    (d) Backwash rate = 18 - 24 m3/rr?/h
    (e) Backwash duration = 6 - 8 minutes.

    In a vertical filter, a bellmouth and pipe can be used for the removal of dirty washwater.

    For most horizontal filters, a single vertical plate located near to one of the domed ends will
    facilitate wash water removal. _For the larger filters· a central washout channel formed by two
    vertical plates is necessary: ·

    The air scour is distributed internally through an air header system underneath the false bottom ~:

    or supported above the concrete floor in the pipe lateral system commonly used in horizontal
    pressure filters. · ·

    10.11.7 BACKWASH SUPPLY

    Normally the washwater is supplied from the discharge of adjacent filters in operation. A
    group of 4 or 5 filters are taken out of service at atirnc so that the combined filtrate from the 3
    or 4 filters can be used to wash the remaining filter. This is repeated until aU the filters in the
    group are washed.

    In installation of less than four filters, the discharge from the three filters may not provide
    adequate upwash rate. An independent storage tank may then be provided to give an available
    head of 4 - 6m at below the filter floor. A separate backwash pipe is then required.

    Water can also be drawn back from the balancing reservoir provided that there is a connection
    to the bottom of the reservoir to allow water to flow back and also the size of the pipe is
    adequate to provide the wash water rate with the appropriate backwash pressure.

    10.11.8 Fil, TER CONTROL VAL YES AND PIPEWORKS

    Toe valves for inlet, outlet, washout, upwash (if required), air and drain are provided together
    with terminal pipe connections.
    ' ,

    - 10/38 -

    ·-····-----~·.··.-- .....·,····--·_..,,, ..,.,·,.-,.


    I...
    The inlet is normally located near the top of the straight part of the shell or a~ the top of the
    upper domed end. The influent water is baffled to minimise disturbance to the sand surface.
    The wash water outlet is also branched from this pipe with separate valve.
    ;··--._

    The filtered water outlet is at the bottom of the tank with branches for drain and backwash
    inlet (if wash water is supplied from separate storage).

    The grouping of these valves and pipeworks usually follows an established pattern to suit site
    layout The pipes connecting together a battery of filters can be installed either above the
    floor or in a covered trench.

    For horizontal pressure filters, the connections of all pipeworks to the filter are located in one
    of the domed end.

    It is important that the dirty washwater is discharged into an open sump or waste channel so
    l
    l that the discharge can be viewed to observe any loss of filter sand. 'TI1e filter can also be fitted
    with a dish in front of it for observation.
    ' -,
    i
    ~
    1 . 10.11.9 OPERATION OF VALVES

    All valve's are very commonly operated manually. If power-assisted operation of filter valves
    is required, the type- of equipment is similar to that used for open gravity filters.

    10.11.10 All{ RELEASE VALVES

    During operation, the whole cylinder is.kept filled with water under pressure. k; such an air
    f . release valve at the highest point is installed for the release of trapped air.
    ' .

    ro.n.n FILTER FLOW C01'rr.R.oi .....

    There is no flow control on the inlet or outlet to each pressure filter unlike in rapid gravity
    filters where some form of flow control is evident. Without any form of flow control, each
    filter in a battery of pressure filters operate as a declining rate filter for at least part of its filter
    run.

    10.11.12 INSTRUMENTATION

    A pressure gauge is connected to a multi-port (usually 4 way) valve to enable separate


    readings of the water entering and leaving the filter to be taken to determine the loss of head.
    111e multi-port valve also enables samples of unfiltered and filtered water to be sampled.

    In plants where the supply of unfiltered water and the delivery of filtered water is through the
    respective common pipes, that is, the filters are connected in parallel, it is only necessary to
    measure the headloss across the battery of filters.

    - 10/39 -

    }
    I
    ---···~----~---
    10.12 HIGH RATE PRESSURE FILTERS

    The design configurations of the high rate pressure filters would be similar to rapid sand
    pressure filters except that the filter media used is a dual media or multiple media as in the
    open rapid gravity sand filters.

    However, these types of filters are not used in this country yet

    ...........

    - 10/40 -
    SECTIONll-TREATMENTPLANT LAYOUf
    I
    ,.'--
    11.1 INTRODUCTION

    A water treatment plant is an important component in a water supply and distribution system
    It is a water quality and quantity control centre tor
    the entire system. It is therefore important
    that a treatment plant should be well designed in terms of plant layout and facilities such that
    the plant can be operated economically and maintained easily. An ill-designed plant will bring
    about problems daily and difficulty in operation and maintenance and ultimately will result in a
    drop in both water quality and quantity produced by the plant. Once the plant is in operation
    it is difficult to carry out any modifications as it will likely involve interruption of supply and
    provision of more land. Also, it is not easy or economical to implement improvement works.
    •, ... ··
    11.2 LOCATION OF TREATMENT PLANT

    11.2.1 GENERAL

    The principal factors to consider when selecting a treatment plant site are:-

    (a) planning and environmental constraints,


    (b) plant design factors,
    (c) site factors,
    (d) environmental factors.

    11.2.2 PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENTALCONSTRAINTS

    This is a significant factor to be considered especially when planning for large urban treatment
    plants located in the vicinity of developed. or .developing .areas. The location of the treatment
    plant should take into account the present and future demands, direction and rate of growth of
    the service area and potential deterioration of source quality in the future so that the site
    selected is flexible enough to accommodate these changing factors. The planner should also
    ensure that the plant site can be designed to be compatible with its surroundings.

    This process would normally involve studying the master plan for the area concerned if one is
    available and discussions with the local authorities, Ministry of Environment and principal
    groups who may be affected.

    11.2.3 PLANT DESIGN FACTORS

    In selecting a particular piece of land for a water treatment plant site, it is important to take
    into account the various space needs of a plant and to carefully consider the construction,
    operation and environmental needs, initially and in the future. A preliminary determination of
    the following items should first be made:-

    (a) capacity of plant: initial and future,


    (b) _treatment process: initial or future, should deterioration in raw water qualities occur,

    - 11/ I -

    ~·~· ....... . . --· '--. .... ~:--·~· ··-··- .....


    (c) dry or wet chemical storage, including truck access,
    (d) waste washwater storage and reclamation or disposal,
    (e) sludge disposal,
    (£) on-site raw and/or filtered water storage,
    (g) raw water and treated water pumping station,
    (h) power supply either by local electricity supply authorities or by diesel generators
    including fuel supply and storage,
    (i) intake, if it is to be sited within the treatment plant site,
    (j) operators' quarters, if they are to be provided within the treatment plant site.

    Having considered these factors, a rough estimate of the land area required can be made,
    including an additional allowance for access roads, setbacks, grading slopes, storage yards
    and landscaping and land for treatment and disposal for dry sludge. As a guide, Table 11.1
    shows 'typical total area requirements for conventional water treatment plants, excluding raw
    water or filtered water reservoirs, sludge ponds or operators' quarters. This information is
    also useful for determining the extent of land area be surveyed.

    TABLE 11.1- TYPICAL TOTAL AREA REQUIREMENTS FOR


    CONVENTIONAL WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
    EXCLUDING RAW WA.TE.R. OR .FILTERED WATER
    RESERVOIRS, SLUDGE PONDS OR OPERATORS'
    QUARTERS.

    Treatment Plant Approx.imate Area


    Capacity in rnl/d Required in Hectares

    Less than 5.0 1.0


    5.0 - 20.0 2.0
    21.0 - 35.0 3.0
    36.0 - 50.0 4.0
    Above 50.0 Depends on specific
    requirements

    11.2.4 SITE FACTORS

    The significant site factors to be considered when locating a treatment plant site are:-

    (a) RELATION TO INTAKE srrs AND SERVICE AREA

    It is usually best to consider the intake and plant location at the same time. In the case of a
    river source, the treatment plant can be located as close to the intake site as possible having
    given due considerations to high flood levels and geotechnical ground conditions. In some
    cases, the intake may be located within the same treatment plant site, to minimise the length of

    - 11/2 -
    raw water pipelines and length of discharge lines for backwash water and -sludge. The
    elevation of the plant site should also be within the deilvery head limitation of the submersible
    raw water pumps if they are used. Further the plant site should be located such that the
    present and future service areas including the areas of maximum demand can be served directly
    with minimum pumping costs.

    (b) HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS

    The location of the treatment plant should follow the natural hydraulic gradient so that the
    service area can be supplied preferably by gravity. Gravity supply is also possible where a hill
    source is used.

    111e site selected should also have a gentle slope with a range in height of between 6 to 8
    meters so that the various components of the treatment plant can be sited to achieve gravity
    flow through the plant without having to do excessive cut-and-fill or the need to have elevated
    structures.

    (c) LAND A VAILABILffY

    After the general requirements for a site -havc-been -established, investigations on the
    availability of land should then be carried out. Preliminary survey for potential· sites can be
    done on topo maps. Each potential site should then be inspected on the ground. The site
    selected should preferably be the one which would have the least land .acquisition problems
    and costs.

    (d) ACCESS

    Access to the plant is an essential consideration when selecting a site: · During construction,
    the site must be easily accessible for the movement of workmen; construction machinery and
    materials inducting the equipment to be installed. After the plant is in operation, it must be
    easily accessible for the operating staff and the chemicals and diesel supply trucks. For these
    reasons, it is preferable to locate plant sites nearby existing main roads. Otherwise long access
    roads to the plant need to be constructed. Wherever possible, the plant should also be located
    nearby existing towns or communities to cater for the social needs of the operating staff. The
    alignment and gradient of the access road shall be so planned that trucks and tankers laden
    with chemical load can run on it without load shedding.

    (e) FLOODING

    The treatment plant should always be sited above the l in 100 year design flood level or the
    maximum flood levels experienced if records are insufficient for flood analysis.

    (f) GROUNDWATER AND son, CONDITIONS


    Sites with high groundwater level and sites which are swampy or with poor soil conditions
    . should be avoided as this would involve extra costs for design and construction. For the same
    reason sites which would involve excessive rock excavation should also be avoided. When

    - 11/3 -

    . . . ··-·-·•··-- ------
    using standard drawings for the various treatment units it is also important to check the
    1 .
    bearing capacity of the soil at the depth where the treatment unit is to be placed to see
    if soil '
    can take designed bearing pressure. .r

    (g) POWER SUPPLY AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

    Consideration should also be given to locating treatment plant sites where power supply and
    telecommunication facilities are readily available. Other wise it woult be necessary to
    construct long power supply and telephone lines to the plant site and this may prove to be very
    costly.

    11.2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

    Ideally, an environmental impact assessment should be carried out to assess the effects which
    the treatment plant may have on its surrounding areas or vice versa. However the following
    factors must be taken into account when deciding on a treatment plant sitc.-

    (a) noise during operation (pumps, generators and chemical trucks),


    (b) noise and dust during construction including lime dust if the lime is to be stored in lime
    silos or towers,
    (c) danger from chlorine leakages (both in-plant and during delivery),·· · · · · . · · . ·
    (d) odours from chemicals, sludge etc.,
    (e) sludge and waste washwater disposal effect on water courses or lakes.

    11.3 PLANf LAYOUT

    11.3.1 GENERAL

    Once the selection of the treatment processes and plant site is made, the plant layout work is
    initiated. The initial step in preparing a plant layout is to define the specific process elements
    and support facilities required. 'foe overall plant layout should be as simple as possible. This
    includes a simple arrangement of treatment units and the minimal number of treatment units
    sufficient to provide adequate standby capability. In addition, difficulties in construction
    especially from the viewpoint of the contractor should be assessed and minimised.

    A typical conv~ntional water treatment plant comprises the following:-

    (a) treatment works

    (i) aerator
    (ii) mixing flume/chamber/weir
    (iii) flocculation tanks
    (iv) sedimentation tanks
    (v) filters,

    (b) contact/clear water tank,

    l
    ·I
    II · 11/4 -
    _j
    .t!
    I
    (c) wash water tank.

    (d) treated water pumping station,

    (e) generator house/electricity supply substation,


    ;t
    '
    (f) chemical dosing and store.

    Support facilities, such as the operations building, storage yards, office space requirements and
    operators' quarters are usually based on the specific requirements of each plant Two typical
    layouts of water treatment plants are as shown in Figures 11.1 and 11.2.

    11.3.2 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE WATER TREATMENT FACD..,ITIES.

    A water treatment plant is basically composed of a series of hydraulic structures, water flow
    lines, chemical flow lines, mechanical and electrical equipment for filtration plant operation,
    pumping and chemical dosing facilities, electrical networks instrumentation and control
    centres. In preparing a plant layout the following basic factors need to be taken into
    consideration>

    (a) HYDRAULIC DESIGN AND CONNECTIONS'

    The first step in preparing a plant layout is to carry out a hydraulic design. The hydraulic
    {"'''

    t design should aim for a gravity flow system and all connections between the various treatment
    units should either be direct or as short as possible. A good hydraulic design is very important
    to ensure efficient operation of the treatment process. Figure 11.3 shows . a typical
    conventional water treatment plant hydraulic sections.
    ·.,.
    J. Once the hydraulic section is determined, and assuming the topographical conditions of the
    site are favourable, the various components of the treatment plant should .be located s~c·h-·that.
    requirements for cut-and-fill or the need for elevated structures are minimised without
    sacrificing aesthetic requirements. In cases where this is not possible such as in a flat site
    where modification of the land conditions by cutting-off or banking is necessary, adequate
    steps should be taken for safety of the facilities and protection of slopes. Slopes cut to 1: 1 and
    embankments with 1: 1.5 slope are usually adequate and all slopes should be close turfed.

    (b) INSPECTION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

    When preparing a piant layout, it is very important that full consideration is given to easy

    r
    ; :
    inspection, operation and maintenance of the entire facility. In this respect, operator
    movement should be catered for. Some process units require more attention .than others in
    particular, chemical dosing, metering systems and filters· require greater operator attention.
    l' Therefore, locating these facilities close to one another and next to the operations building
    helps to ensure proper operator attention and centralisation of plant control functions.

    ·1
    - 11/5 •

    L
    \ \
    ...

    lOI.( P 1V""•......:.
    ·- ,,-..<,o..q.

    .. 'f'f
    1,C:Oo
    ,...,,
    .. t•"''°"'
    • .,,,.
    u-~ I
    l
    ·- i~:

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    ·'l
    . ITT ,\
    ,~/
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    . ,·' 'i\
    _)

    \.11 I ,,,_,, . .,.,,_ I

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    jl UJ) I
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    i" IT!J,,'
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    n •A

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    . - -x!f!.-=!: ~-'lz:·" __~· .. ~ 7.J!I.
    . . • , t' .

    . . - --
    ._.'1 ,~,.
    . ~-~.,:~~-~;
    - -~- ~. Jt.J..5~'.!:::!.-""""L.r..___::-1 ~~·L-...1.
    .,.e_
    .... ~,
    .. ::-:.:--.--
    ~
    ;
    i .·
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    .':'- . ---

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    . ~:::::::. J I .l l J 1 l l L l l
    I 1 1 1

    I~)_}
    i
    I /

    FIGURE 11.1 - TYPICAL LAYOUT OF 4,500 M3/DAY CAP A CITY


    WATER TREATMENT PLANT (N.T.S)

    - 11/6 -

    ·-------------
    II
    . .I,

    I
    II
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    ,.t

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    r
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    FIGURE 11.2 - TYPICAL LAYOUT OF 38,000 M3/DA Y ULTIMATE CAPACITY
    '
    i .
    WATER TREATMENT PLANT (N.T.S)

    - 11n -

    t'--- - -·
    1
    ~r -
    .
    I

    • t
    -(,
    •

    L- .z:
    -...
    ':,."::e-

    =-,
    ~...
    T

    ,.
    -.
    .1.
    ';

    -=
    O<;

    it[ .
    • .
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    -<1
    :'!=
    .....,
    - •I
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    1-
    !
    r

    -
    ~
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    ,..._
    -ca
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    JI
    ~i
    1I
    c><
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    ..,,
    .....,
    ..
    l.•
    ~l
    ::---E
    == t".
    ' 1 I
    <><:
    =
    3::
    ......
    =.
    J i = '1
    ""
    "' l x:
    = =
    =
    u...
    c:,

    ~-
    '-

    !J .
    ?
    ii ~
    -....,
    <->
    ._.,
    I

    =
    ~ i ~
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    =
    =
    =
    '"'
    =
    =
    ,_.,
    l =
    ....
    ~
    >-
    =
    ~·
    </)

    --«
    ~
    >-<
    ""'
    =
    ;3:
    ~
    =
    ""
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    =-.:
    «x;
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    c,
    >---
    =

    FIGURE 11.3 - TYPICAL HYDRAULIC SECTIONS OF A CONVENTIONAL


    WATER TREATMENT PLANT (N.T.S)

    . 11/8 .

    ,,4§1 fl
    ~
    -..,.,·J_,
    .---
    D,...:.. - -~
    Other· general considerations for ease of inspection, operation and maintenance are as -~
    :::::.
    follows:-

    (i) provide adequate access to all process units, equipment and for operation of all valves
    including adequate working area for equipment repair and maintenance. Access and
    lifting devices for removal of all major equipment should also be given due
    consideration,
    'J (ii) provide centralised process operation and control where possible,

    (iii) provide adequate walkways with a minimum width of 750nun along the filters,
    i
    ('"·
    sedimentation tanks and flocculation basins,

    (iv) provide sufficient access from ground to interconnected uncovered structures,

    ! (v) provide covered walkways between process units which requrre greater operator
    i
    i attention,

    (vi) provide external concrete steps or galvanised mild steel ladders at convenient locations.
    All stairs shall have a useful width of 750mrn with an approximate rise-runof 190 ~ · · ·
    250mm,
    ( (vii) locate certain units such as the treated water pumping station and the generator house
    ) ·..
    I .

    i separately from the main operations building to reduce noise problems,


    i
    i
    / , (viii) provide adequate washing facilities with sufficient pressure at convenient locations for .
    ' washing the filter walls, sedimentation tanks and flocculation basins,

    (ix) provide adequate and suitable space in the plant to deposit filter media, pipes, valves
    _and other materials if there is no other suitable storage yard nearby,

    '. (x) provide adequate draining and flushing of each process unit. The size of the scour
    'i
    i
    ?. shall permit emptying in as short a time as possible. In this respect ail floors
    particularly those of pipe and cable trenches should be sloped to drain with adequate
    drainage outlets provided ..

    (c) FUI'URE EXTENSION

    If required, the planning of the plant layout shall take into consideration the need for
    expansion to meet future water demand.

    (d) CHKMICAL FLOW LINES

    The length of chemical lines should be as short as possible to rnirurruse clogging and
    operational problems. This requirement can be achieved by locating the chemical storage
    preparation and chemical dosing equipment in close proximity to the point of application. All
    chemical lines should be neatly arranged to run together either i..n a trench or neatly hung to the

    - 11/9 -

    t--------
    walls in straight lines from the dosing equipment to the points of application. The lines should
    also be dearly marked for easy identification by using coloured bands. Generally uPVC pipes
    are used for the chemical lines. However for the lime dosing line it is preferable to provide
    clear plastic pipes. Whenever possible facilities be provided for occassional flushing of
    chemical lines.

    (e) SANITARY FACILITIES

    Considerations should be given to the provision of proper and good sanitary facilities in the
    treatment plant. Sanitary and sludge-handling facilities such as sewage pipes, septic tanks,
    trash pits etc. should be of watertight construction and situated away from the treatment units
    to eliminate any potential hazards of contamination. 111e septic tank should be placed at the ~l•
    lowest level and discharge downstream of the intake. In clayey soil, soak.away should not be
    l
    provided for septic tanks. Instead, a discharge pipe downstream of the intake should be i
    provided after suitable treatment.

    Sufficient nwnber of toilets shall be provided, preferably one to each isolated building. In
    treatment works of capacity exceeding 454 Mld, provision of male and female toilets for
    l
    visitors and the operation staff should be considered.

    (f) OVERFLOW Al'\'D BYPASS FACILITIES

    All the treatment units should be provided with adequately sized overflows and consideration
    should be given to easy discharge of overflows including waste washwater and discharge from
    scours to a suitable water course to minimise damage inside and outside the plant The plant
    layout shall also provide for a filter bypass to convey the settled water directly to the clear
    water well in case of a breakdown in the filtration equipment,

    11.3.3 EXTERNAL WORKS DESIGN CRITERIA

    Design criteria for the various external works components are outlined below.

    (a) ROADS

    Access road to all treatment plants and all service roads within the plant shall be metalled with
    premix wearing course. Access roads shall have a pavement width of 5 metres with a gradient
    not more than 9 percent and with 1..5 metes wide grass shoulders on both sides. Service roads
    within the plant and to the intake shall have a pavement width of 4 metres and provided with
    precast concrete road kerbs on both sides in the case of service roads in the plant. All
    buildings and strnctures shall be setback a minimum of l metre excluding the width of the road
    . side drains. All service roads shall have a minimum turning radius of 15 metres or greater
    depending on the length of supply trucks anticipated at the plant. Provision shall also be made
    for adequate turning areas at dead end roads for the supply trucks. Figure 11.4 shows a
    typical section of a road pavement

    -11/10-

    -· - - • • - ----· - -t:. -·
    --~-l
    y-·
    ·r· ·_.
    ~
    ·•,:·,.. ·
    i..
    !-
    ye;,;,
    t
    1-'1 .
    ' (b) P ARKING/HARllSTANDING ·

    In all plants provisions for adequate par.king space for motorcycles and cars should be included
    for both the plant operating personnel and visitors. Minimum requirements should be
    established based on staffing requirements and some additional ·space for regular inspection
    and maintenance people.

    (c) LANDSCAPING

    In all treatment plants, consideration must be given to landscaping. The following criteria for
    t
    landscaping should be adopted:-
    ()
    l; (i) provide close turfing for all open areas and on cut-and-fill embankments,
    'r i

    t,
    I• ' (ii) plant trees and shrubs on the road shoulders to give an aesthetically pleasing
    j
    i \
    :,_ )
    appearance,

    (iii) provide flowering plants, fems etc. at the entrance to the operations building and
    \: !
    around the treatment facilities taking care to avoid leaf fall into open treatment units
    '
    and the effect of shade from plants on treatment process,

    (iv) plant local fruit trees at convenient locations within the treatment plant compound,

    (v) provide 3 nos. flagpoles in front of the car porch for the national, state and JKRJJBA
    flags, and one additional flagpole for the flag if the plant were to be privatised,

    (vi) provide signboards at the main entrance to the treatment plant,

    (vii) in planning the layout for trees shrubs, ferns etc. consideration be given to avoid
    underground services namely cables, pipes, sewage lines etc.

    For large plants, 20,000 m3/day and above, advice on landscaping should be obtained.

    .
    (d) PLANT DRAINAGE .:J:
    ' . i'!-1
    Careful consideration should be given to drainage of surface water at the plant site as well as
    discharge of overflows from the treatment facilities, waste washwater flows and scg_!.lr flows.
    Adequately sized standard precast CO!!C!~~ drains 9....~(! !~:?_n.!!'.)!':'.S s~~'.!!~ be prcviced all around
    the plant to discharge all surface and waste waters into nearby water courses downstream of
    the intake, provided such water courses are large enough to cope with these additional flows
    or into the sludge lagoons if these are provided. .Minimum size of the drains shall _be 225mm
    with a minimum gradient of 0.5% and the maxfuiumcontinuous length of the drains shall be 40 f
    m beyond which manholes should be provided/ If the gradi~nt of the drain exceeds 30% then {
    . .. ...•. ,
    .....

    cascade drains should be provided.s

    - 11/11 -

    --- --; ...


    -r- -~ ~}.

    I'

    .
    ·.-.,
    ................ -
    -------- .... - ------------- ...
    --- -- ... __
    1b;: ---
    \ 1&00 1500 5000
    I -11-JOO I.,
    ~ ~ _l:JO J:Jo '.cl l
    1

    150rrm Crusher Run Base .601TYTl O i tumi nous


    Course Surface Course

    lOOrrm Laterite Sub-base


    Course

    TYPICAL CUT CROSS SECT[ON

    Closed
    Iur f i ng "-
    l· s 60mm Bitvmino H
    1(7:: Surface Course ~I
    l50rrm Crusher Run
    --------Base ----------
    Course lOOrrm Laterite
    - - - -- -- - - - --..SY~:b_aJ~-~9!:!f~L-- ---- --- -

    TYPICAL Flll CROSS S(CTlON

    ··.11

    FIGURE 11.4 ~ TYPICAL SECTIONS OF ROAD PAVEMENT

    - 11/12 -
    -:.., .
    ·,;u-
    --·-~~·
    · ~;
    All cascading drains and channels should discharge into well-designed, chamber constantly
    filled with water or with other energy-breaking devices to dissipate the energy of gushing
    water.

    {e) RETICULATION
    ~,-·
    ! i-
    i
    ~i
    .
    i.
    ;
    All treatment plants shall be provided with an adequate water reticulation system for water
    supply to the operations building, chemical mixing and dosing facilities, fire hydrants, washing
    facilities and the operators' quarters. Water for this purpose shall be taken from the wash
    water tank and adequately sized cast iron, ductile iron, uPVC or galvanised iron pipes should
    -be provided. Adequate number of lOOrnm diameter minimum size pillar type fire hydrants
    shall be provided in the treatment plant compound for fire fighting purposes.

    (f) SECURffY FENCING AND GATES

    The treatment plant compound shall be fenced using a 2.9m high chain link security fencing
    with barbed wire strands at the top. Entrance to the treatment plant compound shall be
    provided with a 5.0m wide main gate of chain link mesh and 1.0m wide service gates can be
    0 •
    . ;
    provided at convenient locations. If operators' quarters are provided within the treatment
    plant site, these shall be fenced separate from the main treatment works compound. In this
    case, 1.5m high chain link security fencing with 3m wide gates may be provided. A guard
    house shall also be provided at the main entrance to the treatment plant. If the guard house is
    located far from any toilet facility, then a toilet and a stand pipe be provided. For compound
    lighting refer to Section 13 - Electrical EQuipment and Installations.

    11.3.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN CRITERIA

    The structural design of the treatment plant components shall be based on structural design
    codes, industrial building codes and building by-laws, safety regulations, soil conditions, etc.
    All hydraulic structures shall be of reinforced concrete. All building structures shall also be of
    reinforced concrete with brick walls and plastered surfaces. The roofs shall preferably be of
    the reinforced concrete flat roof type. Operators' quarters shall be according to the current
    JKR standard drawings. Other construction materials shall be based on strength and durability
    requirements and the overall architectural theme established for the facility. Materials typically
    used are structural and miscellaneous steel, aluminium, timber and plastic or fibreglass.

    11.3.5 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CRITERIA


    )
    ". , The plant layout and structures should be aesthetically pleasing. It should also be simple and
    economical. Plants of capacity 20,000 m3/day or larger should have architectural input by an
    architect

    .....
    _ _ - 11/13 ·
    I

    l
    s
    !I

    r:
    l1'
    11.3.6 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
    .,
    It is very important to consider all aspects of safety requirements when designing a treatment
    plant The following are safety requirements that shall be met-

    (a) apart from provision of fire hydrants, adequate fire fighting .equipment such as fire
    extinguishers should be provided in all the buildings of the plant In larger plants of
    capacity 30,000 m3/day and above, smoke detectors and fire alarms should also be
    provided in accordance to the requirements of the Fire Department,

    (b) vertical ladders require safety devices, such as a cage or safety straps, if the height is
    over 6.0m,

    (c) all walkways around the filters, sedimentation tanks, etc. where frequently accessed
    '"::"; ~F
    during normal plant operations should be provided with stainless steel hand railings
    either on one side or both sides depending on site conditions. Similarly, all external
    ·-t-,
    l;
    stairs and ladders should also be provided with hand railings if considered hazardous,
    :.,it·.
    (d) all manholes in the treatment plant site should be provided with mild steel, precast
    concrete or cast iron covers. If the manhole is located on the road surface, heavy duty
    cast iron covers should be used to allow for traffic loading,
    -lf
    :! -
    ~. ~
    : }

    'I\:

    (e) if liquid alum is stored in open tank, a shower located in a convenient place as near to
    the chemical tanks as possible be provided,
    it~,
    (f) first aid equipment shall be provided in all treatment plants.
    ... ·,

    11.3.7 TREATMENT PLANT FINISHES

    It is important to select good finishes for a treatment plant. 111e finishes must be aesthetically
    pleasing, durable and easy to clean and maintain. As a guide, a schedule of internal finishes is
    shown in Appendix L

    11.3.8 PLANT UTILITillS

    Several utility systems are required in any water treatment plant. TI1ey include water supply,
    communications such as telephone and intercom, fans, air-conditioning where necessary,
    sanitary wastes disposal, and electric power supply. Every plant should be provided with a
    telephone or if such services are not available, a radio phone set should be provided.
    Provision of intercom will depend on the size and layout of the plant, Provision of telephone
    or radio phone service and intercom should be handled by the respective owners of the
    treatment plants. For electric power, it is best to obtain power supply from the power supply
    authorities. If power supply is not available or unreliable then generators should be provided
    to supply electric power to the whole plant Further details arc given in Section 13 - Electrical
    Equipment and InstaJJations. Other plant utilities stated above are described in other parts of --· I
    this 'section. IL

    -11/14-
    _j ~··

    -- -· . . _ ---~-.:1~
    I.

    ,,.-.!!,
    l I .- · · 11.4 OPERA TIO NS BUILDING
    ;J
    11.4.1 GENERAL

    The operations building generally serves the following functions:-

    (a) main monitoring centre for the operation of the entire treatment plant,

    (b) administration of the treatment plant,

    (c) operation of the filters.

    Apart from the above functions, the operations building also serves as the main entrance of the
    treatment plant and hence it is important that this building is planned well so that it is both
    functional and aesthetically pleasing. The operations building usually comprises the
    following>

    i ; (a) main entrance/lobby,


    j : (b) Plant Superintendent's Office,
    (c) laboratory,
    (
    '•
    (d) filter operating gallery and filter pipework gallery,
    !
    I (e) toilet facilities,
    (f) general store,
    i :
    (g) mechanical and electrical spares and tools store.
    '
    In larger plants of capacities greater than 30,000 rn3/day, a separate air-conditioned control
    room should be provided to house the instrumentation, control panels and monitoring devices
    and equipment. In cases where certain equipment require to be installed in an air-conditioned
    room, such provision should be made even in smaller plant. Further a separate meeting room
    and a prayer room should be provided. For ease of operation and maintenance as stated in
    11.3.2(b), it is also common to provide the chemical store and the chemical dosing facilities
    I together with the operations building. A typical layout of an operations building together with
    !
    f : the chemical house is shown in Figure 11.5.

    11.4.2 DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONSIDERATION


    1'
    i .
    In planning the operations building layout the following should be taken into consideration'-
    ') ..
    I
    I (a) the operations building should be large enough to accomodate the treatment plant staff
    and regular inspection and maintenance people comfortably and also should be
    ! commensurate with the size of the treatment plant, As a guide, Table 11.2 shows the
    '
    ... I
    various space requirements within the operations building. The office and the meeting
    ,
    room should be provided with adequate furniture and preferably air-conditioned. The
    i mechanical and electrical spares and tools store should be furnished with proper steel
    i
    t. ' racks for keeping the spares and tools,

    - 11/15 -

    ... ~-- ~-:::.-----···· ·~ -~- ·.·. --:-" ,·-:: · ~· .. ·-· ··;--;~ :··- -·--'"·---~-
    (b) the lobby generally serves as a place to receive visitors. The clarity bowls, the· main
    instrumentation panel and an aquarium for monitoring water quality should be placed
    neatly in the lobby. Provision must also be made to display a schematic diagram and a
    general layout of the treatment plant with the relevant data in the lobby. In larger
    plants where a control room is provided, these may be placed in the control room. The
    main entrance to the lobby should also be provided with a car porch,

    (c) the laboratory design depends on the water testing facilities required. Generally the
    laboratory should be provided with purpose-built wooden cabinets for storage of
    chemicals and water testing equipment and sufficient work benches with white colour
    formica finish table-top complete with sinks for carrying out water quality tests. It
    should also be provided with proper water supply and drainage facilities and direct
    sampling facilities for raw water, settled water and filtered water. The laboratory
    should preferably be air-conditioned. It should be so positioned as to receive as much
    natural light as possible.

    (d) the filter operating gallery should be provided with large clear glass aluminium
    casement windows and panels preferably from the ceiling to the floor on the side facing
    the filters, for easy viewing of filter operations. Each filter shall be provided with a
    separate operating console. The filter operating consoles should be arranged neatly
    and in such a manner that the operator can watch the filter washing operations easily
    while operating the filter consoles. All common dial indicators for wash water flow
    rate, air scour rate, etc., should be at least 300mrn diameter and placed such that these
    can be easily viewed by the operator while operating the furthest filter console. A
    direct access door should be provided between the filter operating gallery and the
    filters,

    . (e) . . . . the. filter. pipework gallery shouJd be provided with as much natural ventilation and
    lighting as possible. Further, an adequate number of access stairs should be provided.
    The filter pipework gallery must be provided with adequate drainage facilities and the
    floor sloped towards the drain pipe with a minimum gradient of 1 in 500 so that the .:~ {.f ·.
    floor can be washed easily and there will be no stagnant water on the floor. The ·.~.l
    pipework must be arranged neatly with provision for adequate space for easy access,
    instillation, valves operation, inspection and maintenance or repair. The pipework
    must also be painted according to the colour code given in Table 11.3,

    (f) the filtered water outlet chamber should be lined with white glazed tiles on the inside
    and also provided with inspection openings with clear perspex covers. Vent openings
    should be provided so that water vapour does not collect on the underside of the
    perspex covers,

    (g) all service pipework and electrical conduits etc., along the floor should be placed in
    · trenches neatly arranged at the edge of the floors and provided with adequate covers.
    The trenches must be sufficiently drained so that there will be no stagnant water in the
    trenches.

    -11/16-
    r·.

    I-· s
    q

    ...,.
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    .......
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    I I 0
    .......

    ~
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    ·--
    ....:.s

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    Q O Q Q
    ~8 s.. I
    cl - i:: ·- ~

    :n
    <, g,
    .;:::;
    ~~ _e
    C- t,:,
    ,._.,
    .L.>
    ·.-1
    V,)

    w~
    ~,
    u, 0
    C-l "'
    ,;
    >l'
    ~§ ~?
    .......
    c ·f:
    ::i:: CJ 0

    :?
    e
    ·~
    .-1
    .......
    0
    "--'

    !~ If) 0
    rl
    .,..,
    rl
    B'...., ..r:::
    ,._,
    ·~

    :,..
    c::=:
    f2 ,.
    ;: if) 0
    ~ 0
    C' I
    ,rl ('.J

    (j
    § I
    0
    ...... "'
    .......

    B
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    LC')
    ...... 0
    (']
    ..,...
    rl

    .y, f ·~· :f:


    '-;::)

    §~ 0
    c; A U) 0
    0

    §§
    ~~
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    ~
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    rl

    TABLE 11.2 - TYPICAL SPACE REQUIREMENTS WITHJN THE


    OPERATIONS BUILDING (in sq. m)

    - 11/17 -

    ~l-
    i
    (h) adequate toilet and bath facilities must be provided within the operations building for
    the treatment plant staff and visitors. If necessary these facilities should be separated r
    for men and ladies. Table 11.2 also gives the toilet facilties that generally need to be
    provided for various size plants. Sufficient locker facilities should also be provided in
    the rest room for use by the plant operators.

    TABLE 113 - COLOUR CODE FOR PIPEWORK IN


    THE WATEB TREATMENT PLANT

    Pipelines Colour British


    containing Standard
    Colour No.
    B.S.S.381C/1964

    Filtered Water French Blue 166


    Wash Water Grass Green 218
    Waste Water Black - : r\
    j
    Afr White r:

    Raw Water Aluminium -

    S~rvices
    Frre Signal Red 537
    Water French Blue 166
    Drainage
    .... ....
    Black -
    · Chemicals · · · Light Grey 631
    Electricity .Light Orange 557
    Oil Light Brown 410

    -11/18-

    ---··-· .. --····-··.
    11.5 CHEMIC.AL DOSING FACILITIES AND STORE

    11.5.1 GENERAL

    Planning for the chemical dosing facilities and store will depend on the type of chemicals
    r..·,I
    needed for the treatment process and the size of the plant. The chemicals used in a
    I conventional treatment process are alum, lime, soda ash, chlorine, fluoride and sometimes
    Il polyelectrolyte. All chemical mixing and dosing facilities should be provided with not less
    r····11
    than 100% standby except for the fluoride dosing facility.
    \ 1
    i l
    1 '
    11.5.2 DESIGN CRTI'ERIA AND CONSIDERATION
    1 ·1
    \ l
    l ; (a) ALUM, LIME AND SODA ASH DOSING AND STORE

    (i) alum, lime and soda ash dosing facilities including the storage facilities should be
    placed together in the same building but with separate distinct bay for each type of
    chemical,

    (ii) all chemical dosing should be carried out in solution form using metering pumps or
    ejectors. Adequate working space should be provided around all feeding devices so
    that the equipment can be maintained easily. Piping should be arranged to facilitate
    access between units and around them,

    (iii) the mixing tanks should be of reinforced concrete or fibreglass lined steel tanks. Each
    tank should be sized for 8 hours operation of the plant at alum solution/soda ash
    solution/lime slurry of 5% strength. The alum mixing tanks should preferably be Grade
    316 stainless steel tank. All mixing tanks should be provided with waist height loading
    platforms to facilitate charging of the chemicals by hand. The mixing tanks and the
    •, ..... dosing area should also be provided with adequate drainage and washing facilities for
    easy cleaning,

    · · (iv) the chemical store for local chemicals namely alum & lime should be sized for a
    minimum of l month storage. For any imported chemical the minimum storage
    requirement is 3 months. The maxi.mum height of storage of the chemicals should be 2
    metres. For chemicals supplied in bags, it is preferably these bags are placed on pellets
    and not in direct contact with the floor and adjacent wall. In plants, 5,000 m3/day and
    below a monorail with manually operated 1/4 ton hoist should be provided for handling
    of the chemicals. In plants of capacities between 5,000 !~3/d:>.y ~d 30,000 .~.3/da:y a
    monorail with electrically operated hoist should be provided for the same purpose. In
    larger plants, 30,000 rn3/day and above, a fork lift should also be provided in addition
    to the monorail. Adequate aisle space should be provided in the storage areas to
    enable easy access using fork lift and to make it possible to handle the chemicals on a
    first-in first-out basis. Also the chemicals should be easily moved into storage, out of
    storage and to the mixing tanks. However, for very large plants above 100,000
    m3/day, consideration should be given to storing alwn in solution form and storing lime
    in bulk depending on the location of the plant and availability of the chemicals in such
    forms. In such cases suitable storage tanks and steel silos should be provided.

    - 11/19 -
    Further. the lime storage. tanks should be provided with adequate
    facilities for pumping
    the lime powder into the silos and to prevent 'caking' of the lime while in storage, .,.

    (v) entrance to the chemical store should be large enough to allow the supply truck to
    reverse into the building if necessary, to facilitate unloading of the chemicals. For this
    purpose a ramp should be provided at the entrance. Preferably a top hung steel shutter
    door 5.0m wide and 2.5m high should be provided. In larger plants where a big
    opening is provided, electrically operated steel roller shutter doors should be provided
    for ease of operation. For a small chemical store the floor level for storing chemicals
    :!'2;1 be r,ii sed about l.2m high to facilitate direct unloading of the chemicals from the
    lorries,

    (vi) allowance must be made for adequate natural ventilation in the chemical store by
    providing sufficient number of fixed louvre clear glass windows at the top. Such
    openings should be covered with mosquito-proof netting to prevent entry of birds or
    insects. An industrial vacuum cleaner should also be provided in the chemical store.

    CHLORil\~ DOSING AND STORE

    (i) for safety reasons the chlorine dosing facilities and the chlorine store should be isolated
    from the rest of the facilities. In treatment plants of capacity 30,000 m3/day and above,
    a separate building should be provided for the dosing and storage of chlorine,

    (ii) construction materials in chlorine rooms should be chosen to suit the very corrosive
    atmosphere .. Preference should be given to plastics, fibreglass and stainless steel.
    . Exposed mild steel and aluminium should be protected and maintained with suitable
    coatings. Hoists a11d other mechanical equipment should receive special attention.

    (iii) the chlorine dosing room and the chlorine store should be of fireproof construction
    remote from fire risk and located on ground level. It should be provided with a
    minimum of two access doors opening outwards. Adequate extractor fans should be
    provided and discharging outside into open space away from the other facilities. The
    number and size of the extractor fans should be sufficient for 12 air changes in the
    room per hour. The extractor fans should also be located at near the floor level with
    the switches installed outside the room. All chlorine stores and dosing rooms should
    be provided with chlorine leak detectors with the alarms located outside. Emergency
    shower facilities should also be provided outside the access doors. In very large plants,
    a chlorine neutralization gas scrubbing system should also be provided,

    (iv) In remote area the chlorine store should be designed for 3 months storage. However,
    for treatment plants situated near supplier's Depot and a written confirmation from the
    supplier that chlorine can be supplied within a week's notice, then the storage can be
    reduced to 1 month's stock. In small plants storage of 68 kg. chlorine cylinders should
    be provided. Suitable raised platforms should also be provided for easy, direct and safe
    unloading of the chlorine cylinders from the supply truck. In large plants of capacity
    greater than 30,000 m3/day provision should be made to use chlorine drums (916 kg.
    capacity) placed in store on concrete drum cradles. In this case an electrically operated

    - 11/20 -

    -~---·· -··--·--------.
    2 tonnes capacity gantry crane should be provided for handling of the chlorine drums.
    Entrance requirements to the chlorine store are the same as those given earlier for the
    chemical store in 11.5.2 (a). An example of a chlorination building layout is shown in
    Figure 11.6.

    (c) FLUORIDE DOSING AND STORE

    (i) for safety reasons the fluoride dosing facilities and the store should also be isolated,

    (ii) all fluoride dosing should be carried out in solution form,

    (iii) a stock tank should be provided to contain 20 kg. of sodium silico fluoride (one full
    bag) in solution at 0.4% concentration. An additional storage tank of 2 hours retention
    should be provided below the level of the main tank to be used to maintain supply even
    after the ma.in tank is empty and to allow time to prepare the next stock solution,

    (iv) a separate room should be provided to contain the store for 3 months storage of
    lI ;. sodium silico fluoride and the dosing facilities. An exhaust system to extract the dust
    e ) pollution should also be provided with the outlet into an open space away from the
    other facilities .

    . ! ,' · (d) POLYELECTROLYfE DOSING AND STORE

    . I •· lf polyelectrolyte is required, a separate room should be provided to contain storage, mixing


    t \ and dosing facilities in liquid form,

    11.6 CONTACT/CLEAR WATER TANK


    AND TREATED WATER PUMPING STATION
    r
    j
    '1;
    ; . n.s.i 't~ENERAL
    TI1e filtered water after chlorination and conditioning flows into the contact tank and then into
    the clear water tank from where the water will be pumped to the service reservoirs. The
    contact tank generally serves as a retention tank to allow the chlorine sufficient time to come
    into contact with the water. The clear water tank balances the filtered water inflow and the
    pumped outflow of the plant and also serves as suction tank for the treated water pumps.

    With very few exceptions where water is supplied by means of gravity, the treated water need
    to be pumped from the treatment plant to reservoirs before the water can be supplied to the
    consumers. Hence the treated water pumping station is a fundamental auxilliary to most water
    treatment plants and must be well designed.

    - 11/21 -
    11.6.2 DESIGN CRITERIA AND CON SID ERA TION

    (a) CLEARWATER TANK

    (i) the clear water tank can either be a standard circular reservoir or a rectangular ground
    tank placed adjacent to or underneath the treated water pumping station,

    (ii) it is usually preferred to provide the clear water tank adjacent to the pumping station.
    Provision of the clear water tank underneath the pumping station should be limited to
    very small plants of capacities less than 1000 m3/day,

    (iii) the clear water tank should be sized to provide at least three hours storage,

    (iv) the inlet and outlet pipes should be located at the opposite sides of the treated water
    tank to prevent short circuiting.

    (b) TREATED WATE PUMPING STATION

    The treated water pumping station is designed to house the treated water pumps, the wash
    water pumps, motive water pumps, blowers and their controls.

    The layout and design of the pumping station will depend on the type and size of pumps
    selected and the .number of pump units required. The pumps will be sized to match the design
    flow rate of the treatment works and also alternate duty and standby pumps are provided.
    Further details are given in Section 12. - Mechanical Equipment and Installations.

    1n planning the layout of the purnpmg station the following factors must be taken into
    consideration> · · · · .. · ·

    (i) once the type, size and number of pump units have been decided, the arrangement of
    the pump units must then be decided. This generally depends on the practical and
    economical size of the pumping station that may be provided consistent with the
    overall treatment plant layout and design and also the ease of operation and
    maintenance and/or repair. For treated water and wash water pumps it is normal to
    provide a battery of electric motor driven centrifugal pumps. In this case, several
    typical arrangements of the pumping units are shown in Figure 11.7,

    (ii) the pumps should preferably be placed at a level such that the pumps would be
    operating with a positive suction head,

    (iii) there should be minimum obstruction due to cabling, pipework, etc. In general all
    cables, pipework, etc. should be neatly placed in trenches and should be easily
    accessible for maintenance and for repair purposes,

    (iv) where the pumps need to be placed in a pump sump below the ground level, it is not
    practical to provide trenches for the pipework below the floor level. In such cases,
    especially where large diameter pipes arc involved which makes accessibility difficult,

    - 11/22 -

    . -- ~. - ------- - .. ··---~----
    galvanised mild steel walkway· platforms 'be provided above the pipes with
    should
    adequate access stairs. Care must also be taken to ensure that the pump sump is
    always kept in a dry condition. The floors should be sloped towards the drainage sump
    where an automatically operated portable drainage pump should be provided,

    (v) sufficient space must be provided for additional equipment like the switchboard etc.
    and also for direct access to all the pumps, valves and switch-gears for easy operation
    and maintenance. The switchboard must be placed at a minimum distance of 600mm
    from the wall,

    (vi) adequately sized plinths and grouting points should be provided for all the pumps,
    i
    switchboard and other major equipment,
    ;; '

    {vii) ample space should be provided for the maintenance, repair and/or replacement of all
    the pumps and other major equipment,

    (viii) an electrically or manually operated overhead hoist or gantry crane should be provided
    for pump removal etc. A working area should be provided in the pumping station to
    j ' .
    place the equipment down for inspection purposes and for reversing a lorry into the
    pumphouse for loading and unloading. For this purpose the entrance to the pumping
    station should be provided with a ramp and 5m wide and 2.5m high double leaf top
    hung steel. shutter doors. For large pumphouses, an elecrically operated steel roller
    · shutter door may be provided,

    · (ix) the floor of the pumping station and the pipe/cable trenches should be well drained and
    sloping towards the drainage outlet so that it can be washed easily and there will be no
    ,·
    stagnant water,
    I

    (x) . the height..of the pumping station should take the following into account-

    • height to cater for installation and removal of all the pumps, motors and other
    major equipment
    • height to cater for operation of the hoist and crane
    • height required above the crane,

    (xi) pumps and motors generate considerable noise and heat. For this reason the pumping
    station should be located such that it causes minimal disturbance to the operations
    building. For the same reason an operator's room must also be provided within the
    pumping station. The operator's room should be about 10 sq. metres in area and
    provided with clear glass panels for easy viewing of pump operation and the necessary
    furniture for use by the pump operator. The pumping station must also be provided
    with adequate natural ventilation for dissipation of the heat generated. In case of very
    big motors (2,000 kW and above) provision of separate forced ventilation or an
    exhaust system for individual motor may be necessary to maintain a satisfactory
    temperature,

    - 11/23 -
    :r ..---....__--:::-=:o---c_:--:_:--o,:-::~·=-=·~~-c-::.~ =-::c::-,---s: 'r
    -1 -t. <c;>:
    /
    »:

    k"'

    ---
    }-

    ,-.,
    - ;I
    • I
    '
    \ \
    '
    ~i
    ~=
    ::ff \ I

    ·fh
    _;-1
    D;;
    1~
    E-
    ;.:.~
    -
    ~
    I
    I!
    lI
    11

    l
    \- I
    ~~~

    -!
    :;
    \ --
    ~
    -~"

    -
    ;;,;
    l
    ::J
    I
    . ,'..I
    -·

    .
    ;::
    ""
    _,
    ""'
    ,.__
    ~
    I ~
    ''
    ;;

    i,

    I
    8 lt
    •
    l
    I
    J
    l
    '

    I
    .'
    '

    I I
    L-------J

    FIGURE 11.5 - TYPICAL LAYOUT OF OPERATIONS BUILDING WITH


    CHEMICAL HOUSE OF A 38,000 M3/DAY CAPACITY WATER
    TREATMENT PLANT (N.T.S)

    - 11(24 -
    Suspended Ceiling
    Nos Chlorine
    in Use

    Gal v . M. S.
    '

    ·~·
    i: Fol ding Shutter-·
    Door
    Room

    Hamp

    Electrically Operated Gantry


    Crane With 2 Tons Hoist
    I_.

    r··
    ;
    SECTION
    ;
    f :

    Chlorine So1ution Pipe Trench


    Safety Shower t Eteba h

    v-,,_..---f!!rv-~~~~----i....r<-,r----??---r~"*'~~__J!Ju._leak
    Detector
    Chlorine Dosing Ro
    Automatic Change
    leak
    Over Panels
    Detector
    415 V Switch Room

    Extractor Fan in Use


    Safety Shower &

    PLAN OF CHLORINE HOUSE

    FIGURE 11.6 - TYPICAL LAYOUT OF CHLORINATION BUTI.,DINGOF A 38,000


    _ MJ/D A y CAP A CITY WATER TREATMENT PLANT (N.1'.S)

    .· - 11/25 - .
    ...... . - .~'!::~·- .. ::- ••
    • • - .:- - ~:~:-.r_: _·;·

    -
    Suction
    Pipework
    L

    Pum;i
    Plinth
    Delivery
    \..__~_i_p_ew_o_r_~-~-----'\...___~~---~~~~---~~-----i,--

    Note: L. \,/ should be obtained from manufacturer's cat e l cque .


    An additional 300 nm width shovl dbe provided all around
    the base plate.

    Suction
    .... ~
    '--- r-------. '-- :----, '-- r---,

    I I
    -
    I I -·
    I
    De }ive ry ....

    Spacing depends on pipework


    requirements - minimum 2 metres

    De l t very

    FIGURE 11.7 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF PUMPSETS


    lN A PUMPING STATION (n.t.s)

    - 11/26-

    ------- ... -- ..·-·---·- ·- ..


    '1
    (xii) adequate lighting should be provided in the pumping station including natural lighting.
    In areas where there is a problem of insects being attracted by the bright lights of the
    pumphouse during the night, consideration must be given to provide insect proof
    ·,,
    netting for all the windows,

    ··{ (xiii) provision of space must be made for the surge vessel outside the building and the air
    compressors within the building. It is also normal to provide space for one spare pump
    plinth in the pumping station,

    (xiv) if additional pumps are to be installed in future in the same pumping station, the initial
    layout planning for the pumping station must also include the provisions for the space
    1 and the future pipework, cabling, switchboards, etc.
    '
    \
    11.7 WASH WATER TANK

    11.7.1 GENERAL

    A wash water tank is provided in the treatment plant to supply water for the backwash of the
    filters and also water for domestic purposes and chemical mixing and dosing, fire fighting,
    washing .• etc:.

    11.7.2 DESIGN CRTI'ERIA AND CONSIDERATION

    (a) the wash water tank should be sized to cater for two consequitive normal backwash of
    the filters without refilling of the tank. Allowance should also be made for water
    supply for chemical mixing and dosing, quarters, washing and other services within the
    treatment plant and the compound. This allowance would depend on the size of the
    treatment plant and compound,

    (b) the required height of the wash water tank is to be determined by hydraulic calculations
    . as mentioned earlier. in this section. The tank should best be sited at a high spot near
    the treatment works if the required height is available in which case a ground tank of
    l :
    t. the standard reinforced concrete circular reservoir may be provided. If this is not
    possible, an elevated reinforced concrete tank or a GRP tank on concrete tower should
    ! . be provided.

    11.8 SLUDGE, FILTER WASTE WASHWATER DISPOSAL

    The method of disposal of treatment plant sludge and filter waste washwater will depend on
    the location and size of the treatment plant and environmental requirements. For small rural
    plants, the sludge and waste washwater may be discharged directly into the river downstream
    of the intake. However for larger plants, especially if the plant is located near urban areas,
    direct discharge into the river may not be acceptable due to pollution of the river. In such
    \ . cases consideration must be given to provision for sludge lagoons or sludge tanks and sludge
    \ ' treatment.

    - 11/27 -
    l'
    r---· -·. ·-· ... ~.-- .. ---......,..__, --.-·-- .......---··
    !
    !
    . . - . . .
    The sludge lagoons may be located within the treatment plant site, or if necessary, the sludge
    can be pumped or gravitated to a different lagoon site. The site selected for the lagoons ·
    should have good drainage into the subsoil and the surface of the lagoons should be open to
    evaporation. The sludge lagoons should be constructed by berms with the bottom of the
    lagoon at natural ground level. The berms should be from 3 to 5m high and far enough from
    property lines so that, if needed, their top elevation can be raised.

    Two or more lagoons should be provided for alternating use to allow between 6 months and 1
    year for evaporation and seepage. As a general guide, where the berm can be built to a height
    of 3m, it is desirable to -provide 1.2 to 2 ha available for sludze
    - beds for each 5.000
    . m3/dav
    . ~
    plant capacity. The berms should be built 1 to L7m above the maximum sludge level and also
    broad enough (about 4m) to permit operation of a drag line. The sludge lagoons should be
    properly secured with security fencing and gates for safety reasons.

    Further, for large sized plants, consideration should also be given for provision of waste
    washwater recovery system to reduce wast.age of water produced by the plant.

    11.9 QUARTERS

    Quarters arc usually provided foraccommodation of the treatment plant operators working in
    shifts. If the treatment plant is located near an existing community or town then the quarters
    may be located at or near the community or town for social reasons. In the case "of a remote
    plant, the quarters may have to be located within the. treatment plant In any case, the
    respective State Waterworks Department should first be consulted before deciding on the
    location of the quarters. For quarters located within a treatment plant, sufficient street lighting
    should be provided leading from the quarters to the plant

    TI1e number and class of quarters to be provided will depend on the size of the plant and the
    number of shifts the plant has been designed to operate. Generally the number and class of
    quarters to be provided should be as follows:- @: ,.

    . it
    Plant Capacity

    (i) Less than 5000 m3/day Class F - 1 no.


    Class H - 3 nos. per shift

    (ii) 5,000 - 30,000 m3/day Class F - 1 no.


    Class H - 4 nos. per shift

    (iii) 30,000 - 50,000 m3/day Class D - 1 no.


    Class F - 1 no.
    Class H - 4 nos. per shift

    (iv) Above 50,000 m3/day Depends on specific requirements

    -· r l.z:
    · 11/28 -

    . ___A"l;
    I·
    r 11.10 GENERATOR HOUSE/ELECTRICil'Y-SUPPL Y SUBSTATION

    11.10.1 GENERATOR HOUSE

    In case power supply to the treatment plant site is not available, generators must be provided
    to supply electric power to the whole plant

    The generator house should be sized to accommodate one duty and one full duty standby
    generating set, a small auxilliary generator set for small power and lighting purposes, the main
    swit.chboard and a fuel supply day tank. In planning the generator house layout, the following
    factors must be taken into consideration.-
    '
    ~I :
    '. (a) the generator house should be located separately from the rest of the treatment
    !, i

    facilities especially the operations building to reduce noise problems. It should also be
    located as near as possible to the treated water pumping station for better load
    distribution and more economical installation as the main power supply" cables are
    much shortened,

    (b) the generator house should be provided with steel shutter doors or electrically operated
    roller shutter doors large enough and. of sufficient height to facilitate installation and
    removal of the main generating sets .. The entranceshould also be provided with a
    ramp in case the lorries need to reverse into the building for loading or unloading
    purposes. A manually or electrically operated overhead gantry crane should be
    provided. Care must be taken to allow sufficient height of the building for comfortable
    operation of the crane, ·

    (c) ample space should be provided in the· generator house for ease of operation,
    inspection and maintenance.and also for carrying out of any minor repair works,

    (d) all cables and fuel lines should be neatly arrange in trenches with galvanised chequered
    plate covers and the trenches should be well drained. Adequate provisions should be
    made for regular washing of the generator house and keeping it dry and clean,

    (e) adequate ventilation must be provided to effectively dissipate the heat produced.
    Further details are given in Section 13 - Electrical Equipment and Installations,

    (f) the exhaust pipes should be installed away from the path of the overhead crane. Their
    outlets should be free from any obstructions and also not blowing directly O!! to aoy
    adjacent buildings,

    (g) the generator plinth size may be obtained from manufacturer's catalogues. See Section
    13 - Electrical Equipment and Installations for further details. The plinths should also
    be spaced at least 2m apart from each other,

    (h) the switchboard should be installed separately from the generator set and sitting on a
    plinth at least lOOmm above floor level. It should also be positioned away from the

    - 11(29 -

    ----- t,; : .
    fuel tank. There must also be a minimum clearance of 750mm between the
    switchboard and the wall all round,

    (i) day fuel tanks should be provided for each generator set and placed higher than the
    engine level for gravity feed. TI1e tanks should be sized for one day's supply.

    A bulk fuel storage tank should also be provided adjacent to the generator house. The
    tank should be sized for at least 21 days continuous fuel supply. The bulk storage tank
    should be provided with an easy access to facilitate loading of fuel from a fuel tanker.
    Where oossible th'°' t~nl..- <:hAn1rt h,. c-itP./1 rvrv h:-.J.
    4
    ~--.__-...,, ..._ •.,: - ---- --
    .... ,....~ •• ~~ •- o-~t..l.,.
    .a-.6••v•
    _. • ._ ..;. ...~ \.,lJ.<lV.LV
    .._...,.,.
    ~Le .C..·e, 1 ~~
    J.U .1 l-V
    ~V~J.-'V '-V
    }-__,,.
    Ul VV

    supplied by gravity. Otherwise an electrically and/or manually operated fuel transfer


    pump should be provided in the generator house to transfer fuel from the bulk tank to
    the day tanks.

    11.10.2 ELECfRICITY SUPPLY SUBSTATION

    If power supply to the treatment plant site is available, provision must be made for a separate
    electricity supply substation building or an area within the treatment plant compound. The
    design and layout of the substation is subject to the requirements of the local electricity supply ..
    authorities. .~ ~. .

    - 11/30 -

    p----· . -~---·----~--
    ~
    rY·
    t r:
    j{
    ..
    ("'"}-.
    I ;.
    ~PPENDIX 1
    I ~ SCHEDULE OF INTERNAL FlNISHES AND VENTILATION·
    r
    r LOCATION WALLS FLOORS CEILING SKIRTING VENTILATION

    OPERATIONS BU1LDING

    Plant Supt, Office A+B I B/K T Airconditioned/


    ,····,
    Ceiling Fans
    l i~
    ;
    Control Room A+B I B/K T Airconditioned

    Laboratory A+B F B/K F Airconditioned/


    and C (above Ceiling Fans
    workbench)

    ' Lobby, Prayer Room A+B I B/K T Ceiling Fans


    Meeting Room A+B I B/K T Airconditioned
    t_ i

    ,. Rest Rooms (Toilets/ A+ B_al}.c_l C .. F .. . •'. .B/K F Natural Ventilation


    ~ Bathrooms) (half height) ...

    General Stores/Mechanical A+B G . B/K N Natural Ventilation


    ...
    and Electrical Spares and
    Tools Stores

    Corridors and Landings A+B I B/K T Natural Ventilation


    '
    ) -;
    .

    Electrical Room (if required) A+B G B!K N Natural Ventilation


    . . . . ······ . ····· ......
    (:
    CHEMICAL HOUSE •'

    ;: :

    ' '
    Chemical Store A+B J BIN N ..Natural Ventilation

    Polyelectrolyte Area A+B s B/K N Extractor Fan


    (if required)

    Chemical Dosing, working/ A+B J BfN N Natural Ventilation/


    loading areas Extractor Fan

    TR_E A 'T'li'n W A 'l'~"fl


    PUMPING STATION

    Pump Hall A+B H N H Natural Ventilation/


    Forced V entilation

    Switchrooms A+B H BJK N Natural Ventilation

    Operator's Room A+B I B/K T Natural Ventilation


    Ceiling Fans

    - 11(31 -

    L ..
    APPENDIX 1

    SCHEDULE OF INTERNAL FINISHES AND VENTILATION

    LOCATION WALLS FLOORS CEILING SKIRTING VENTILATION ·

    CHLORINATING nun.orxo
    Chlorine Store A+B s B N Natural Ventilation .-.;:-.J
    ano Extractor Pans

    Chlorinaror Room A+B H B/K H Natural Ventilation


    and Extractor Fans

    FILTERS c- - - - -
    .. ·:;\
    Filter Operating Gallery A+ I3 E K T Natural Ventilation fP
    ,r
    ·-fr,;
    Filter Pipework Gallery A+B s B N Na rural V entilarion
    .-.]
    ..

    COVERED WALKWAYS N/A s B/n ... N . -


    :1r· -
    GENERATOR HOUSE A+B H BIN H Natural Ventilation

    ELECTRICITY SUPPLY A+B G BIN N Natural Ventilation


    SUBSTATION

    A - 20mm plaster (exposed columns and beams to be D)


    B == Emulsion paint
    c = Glazed Ceramic Wall Tiles
    ·i
    ·i:j
    D = Fairf aced concrete
    E = Fully vitrified floor tiles/Terrazzo
    F = Glazed ceramic rnozaic tiles
    G = Plain granolithic concrete
    H = Unglazed ceramic tiles
    I = Terrazzo/Ceramic floor tiles
    J = Epoxy screed to structural floor screeded to f alls where indicated
    K = Suspended ceiling
    N = None
    NIA= Not Applicable
    T - Timber + 2 coats varnish/Terrazzo/Floor Tiles
    s ::: Structural floor screeded to falls where indicated
    * = In plants of capacities greater than 50,000 m3/day, the internal walls of all
    filters to be lined with light coloured glazed ceramic wall tiles from the top
    to slightly above the filter sand level.

    - 11(.32 •

    Jli
    .,
    SECTION 12 - MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT AND INST ALLATIGNS

    12.1 INTRODUCTION:

    There are many types of mechanical equipment used in water supply systems namely pumps,
    ! '. air blower, air compressors, chemical dosing devices, surge suppression devices,
    instrumentation, hydraulic controlled equipment, bandscreens, ejectors and mechanical
    handling devices. The sizes of these equipment depend on the magnitude of waterworks
    installations.

    Generally, in the selection of the mechanical equipment the following requirements shall be
    mer-

    (a) the facilities shall perform the essential functions required, with.a high degree of safety
    and reliability,

    (b) the mechanical facilities shall be determined after weighing the merits and demerits of
    I'
    ;
    the proposed facilities as ·a whole,
    ( ;

    (c) pump facilities shall be of the highest degree of efficiency,


    i

    [
    \ (d) mechanical equipment selected shall have a high degree of servicibility and suitable for
    ~ ·· ';
    local use taking into consideration local capability to operate and maintain, ·
    i
    (e) protective and safety devices shall be mutually coordinative, and in times of failure of
    one part of the system, shall work to prevent further damage to the rest of the .system,
    i

    (f) vibration and noise levels produced by the mechanical equipment. sl~all be. minimal and ··· ·· . ····· .
    not exceeding acceptable limits, and · · · · ·. . . .
    i _;
    (g) life cycle cost of the mechanical equipment shall be considered.

    12.2 PUMPSETS AND PUMPING SYSTEMS

    Pumps are the most important equipment in water supply systems and consume the greatest
    amount of energy. Failure of pumping facilities will result in the loss of production of water.
    Therefore, except in gravity supply system it is evident that planning, design and utilisation of
    ' . the ,roumoin
    ---r--oO f'.:11'1lttif'~ ~nll h')\J/> ') o---..
    _:.!)... __ ..,_
    OTP o r. . ;rr,n<:>f't
    ,"f.,:_ ---• - •r-"'.,.
    ._-. 8
    f"\n
    ..., .... thP
    --- Pffir•;pnt YY><)>'')~.o~,~~· ,-.('
    . ,. ..,. ..,_.. . . .,_,.,.. ,. . . _ .. _6v.a. ..
    .av.a.4~ VJ..
    ~""!'l
    »-~. 'o-&. ~·--1; es
    uU}-'}".I.J. )

    function in the abstraction, conveyance, transmission and distribution of water. For this
    purpose, pumps such as centrifugal flow and submerged types are normally used.

    Apart from the capacity of the pump itself, the prime mover and supplementary installations
    must be well planned and designed to match.
    I
    t.

    - 12/1 -

    ---
    12.3 PLANNED WATER QUANTITY AND NUMBER OF PUMP UNITS

    Planned water quantity and the nwnber of pump units required shall be determined according ::,.. r·
    to the following criteria-

    (a) for raw water pumps, the abstraction capacity shall be as given in sub-section 7 .1.1 of
    ·~f
    .. · 1

    Sect.ion 7 - Intake Works, ir


    -·~
    :,!~·
    (b) for treated water pumps the capacity shall be the planned maximum daily delivered J

    c,...._ ~:,.,..._:1- ...... ....: ........... -~--- _,


    quantity and not the average d,..;1y ~!.!Z.."!!::.t:y. v, ..u.:.u~VU\..lVU
    A J!U!H)!,
    J
    JJllllUICAJ :;

    distribution quantity shall be the basis,

    (c) in general, the number of pump units required shall be determined by the planned
    quantity of water, installation cost, conditions involved in operation and maintenance,
    power consumption and factor of safety desired,

    (d) as far as possible, it is advisable to use a single duty pump as bigger pumps normally
    have better efficiency. Parallel pumping may not display its multiplying effect in long
    pipeline where the frictional losses are significant,
    . '!
    (e) the following general principles sbould be applied in the selection of number of pumps
    i~ ~
    installed.
    it
    (i) Up to 300 m3/hr : 1 duty + 1 standby
    (ii) Over 300 m3/hr : 2 duty + 2 standby
    '
    However all conditions should be taken into account (i.e. conditions of operation, I"'.
    J w
    power consumption/efficiency and safety factor desired) and alternatives considered.
    t!
    Where operating regime or "ideal" selection dictates the use of 3 or more duty pumps,
    a maximum of 2 standby units should be provided.

    (f) in the case of water demand which fluctuates widely such as in in-line booster
    distribution systems, it is advisable to have a combination of different sizes of pumps or
    variable speed pumps,

    12.4 PUMP SELECTION

    12.4.1 GENERAL

    It is of utmost importance that when purchasing pumps, all the relevant information be given
    to the manufacturer to ensure that the most suitable and economical pump is offered.

    12.4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS

    Figure 12.1 shows the "Classification of Pumps" from the US Hydraulic Institute Standards.
    Only certrifugal pumps are discussed here since they are most commonly used 111 waterworks.

    • 12(2 -
    • I

    _,. I
    --· ------. I
    r1
    ! :
    L !
    FfGURE 12.l - CI ,ASSTFICATlON OF PUMPS
    r,
    ]
    ' ;

    r···;
    i .
    I .
    ffoo ~l(·pri1i03
    Siogl! sta•t-
    •
    E Stl' .-p:111~
    ..

    Sioslc suctioo -[

    " Subt(rsiblt

    00 Hlf·pri1ios

    r
    l
    Voluli-
    Xult! stage
    -E ~I{ pr11109
    ..

    Sut:eer,ib!c

    i Sins it ,tcge S ffoo-Sut..miblc


    Doubt, suclico L Su~r,tbtc
    {
    •ul ti ,ta9r --[ ffoo·S~btm[blc
    Suo.crsiblt

    L { Ol!fom
    S!nste ,uctioo-[ Single
    Mt!
    stesc--[
    ,tasc
    "°
    0 ~lf·pd1ing
    Sdl priaic.s

    Double suction -[ Slnslc sl!sc

    Xulti stage
    Volute •IDS
    e: l e Sl4S<
    [
    ~rnd 11~ ~al ti $tts<
    -{ [ oglt ,tase
    O!itaser -------- I SI
    Xu! ti , ltS<
    Atl41 [!CR

    Ee9eoerat191 -C ~co ulf-pri,i01

    ot~ers ltciproc1Uog Stl! pri•in,g


    Gear
    2otar1

    Vacuu:t
    -E -
    Vall(

    Sert,

    l
    - 12/3 -
    Centrifugal pumps include the radial-flow, mixed-flow and axial-flow types. The radial-flow
    pump is one in which pressure is developed principally by the action of centrifugal force. The
    mixed-flow pump is one in which the head is developed partly by centrifugal force and partly
    by the lift of the irnpleller vanes on the water. An axial-flow pump, sometimes called a
    propeller pwnp, develops most of its head by the propelling or lifting action of the impeller
    vanes on the water.

    12.4.3 CAP A CITY

    r'<>n!lrltv
    '-"Y- .... --,,1 tn,
    ,xi .....•<:
    .., ;~
    n/"\~n~?lh,
    ....... ..., .......
    .;..- ..... ,A..._.._ .. j cxcressed
    i:......,._
    u.v.:, ~p-
    ~.,...t" -;:..~--.J
    ......... .,)~
    p......,1 ~~Vl1\..J (!/~';.
    ,.av v Sin•.--~... liquidsu are essentially
    v (.l.J.

    incompressible, there is a direct relationship between the capacity of a pipe and the velocity of
    flow. The relationship is as follows:

    Q = AxV
    or V = QJA

    where A = internal Xvarca of the pipe


    V = velocity of flow

    Table 12.1 compares the relative characteristics of the three types of centrifugal pumps.· It
    provides a good general guide for the preliminary selection of pump type for a given service.

    12.4.4 POWER AND EFFICIENCY

    The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and the weight of the liquid
    pumped in a given time period. The pump capacity in cubic metres per second and the water
    specific gravity are normally used in the formulae rather than the actual weight of the water
    pumped.

    Pump input or brake kilowatts (bkW) is the actual kilowatts delivered to the pump shaft
    Pump output or water kilowatts (wkW) is the water power delivered by the pump, These two
    terms are defined by the following formulae:

    wkW = g x B x Q x specific gravity


    bkW = wkW I pump efficiency
    where g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8lm/s2)
    H = total dynamic head in metres
    Q = flowrate in m3/s
    specific gravity = 1.0 kg/m3 for water.

    The brake kilowatts or input to a pump is greater than the water kilowatts or output due to the
    mechanical and water losses incurred in the pump. Therefore the pump efficiency is the ratio
    of these two values.

    Pump Efficiency = wkW


    bkW

    t
    - 12/4 • ; . ..J
    .... _----.._ I ..
    t~·.
    JI.•'
    I,

    TABLE 12.1 RELATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

    Characteristics Axial Flow Mixed Flow Radial Flow

    Usual Capacity > 50 m3 > 25 m3 any


    Range per minute .per minute

    , Head Range 0 - 12.0 m 8.0 - 30.0 rn any

    Shutoff Head Above about 200% 160% 120 - 140%


    Rated Head (maximum)
    efficiency point)
    -··. ......
    "

    Horse power Decreases with Increases with


    Characteristic capacity capacity

    t .
    Suction lift Requires Requires Usually not over
    submergence submergence 4.5m

    f .
    l Specific Speed 8,000 - 16,000 4,200 - 9 ,000 Below 4,200
    I
    1, ' single suction

    Below 6,000
    double suction
    ..•
    Service ' Used where space Used where load Used where load
    \ -, and cost are factor is high and factor is high and
    I i
    \ . considerations and where trash and for high efficiency
    '
    load service factor other solid materials and ease of
    is low. are encountered maintenance.

    - 12/5 -

    ---·---·-·--·-
    t'"----
    12.4.5 SPECIFIC SPEED AND PUMP TYPE

    Specific speed (Ns) is a non-dimensional design index used to classify pump impellers. It is
    defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would
    operate if it was of such a size as to deliver a capacity of unit flow against unit head. This
    number is used to classify pump types and relates physical shape to performance
    characteristics. The mathematical definition of specific speed is: -. ~ 1·r
    · l .~i .,
    . !
    Specific speed, Ns = N x Qlfl {t:Pt1 '

    Where N = Speed of rotation in rpm


    Q= Delivery quantity (m3/min) at maximum efficiency
    H= Delivery head at maximum efficiency (m)

    The specific speed determines the general shape or class of the impeller as depicted in Figure
    12.2. As the specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter, D2, to the inlet
    or eye diameter, Dl, decreases. Th.is ratio becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow impeller.

    rt<
    12.4.6 NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD [NPSH] AND CA vrr ATION
    .+_[.
    The US Hydraulic Institute defines NPSH as the total suction head in metres absolute,
    determined at the suction nozzle and corrected to datum, less the vapour pressure of the liquid
    in metres absolute. Simply stated, it is an analysis of energy conditions 011 the suction of a
    pump to determine if the liquid will vapourisc at the lowest pressure point in the pump.
    '. ;i•·
    rL
    The pressure which a liquid exerts on its surroundings is dependent upon its temperature. This
    pressure, called vapour pressure, is a unique characteristic of every fluid and increases with
    increasing temperature.

    Thus, NPSH is simply a measure of the amount of suction head present to prevent
    vapourisation at the lowest pressure point in the pump.

    NPSH Required is a function of the pump design. As the liquid passes from the pump suction
    to the eye of the impeller, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases. The NPSH
    Required is the positive head in metres absolute required at the pump suction to overcome
    these pressure drops in the pwnp and maintain the liquid above its vapour pressure. It also
    varies with speed and capacity within any particular pump.

    NPSH Available is a function of the system in which the pump operates. It is the excess
    pressure of the liquid in meters absolute over its vapour pressure as it arrives at the pump
    ';[
    suction. Figure 12.3 shows four typical suction systems with the NPSH Available formulae
    applicable to each.

    - 12/6 - _j
    '
    J
    r----.
    :,
    i ~
    ;

    {""'l
    _, c
    1 4-- 0
    .,...
    t : 0
    ......
    )1 -ooooz
    V1
    ""
    .µ
    f "'"'"; >(
    <(
    0
    a::
    '
    i I,
    OOOS1
    <(
    ""
    (l)
    L
    ,----<

    cJ
    ): II
    0

    oNl..a.-1
    LL
    1··-, I
    ~ .--
    i } --0000 I ro
    '
    -0006 . <(
    x

    i" .,

    i . 0008
    l i
    -OOOL
    I. <(
    ro
    (l)
    L
    LO

    ......
    ): v
    0009
    LL
    I
    -i:,
    0

    Ni~
    o a
    ooos ~
    QJ
    x
    VI ::E:
    i i z

    ,"J ooov .. ........


    (lJ

    lid
    OJ
    0.
    Vl

    u
    .,...
    ""
    OJ
    \..
    N
    0
    ..._ 000[ <( .u

    QJ LO
    u c
    Cl)
    ro ,.....
    0. >
    Vl I II
    ..__
    0
    VI
    oooz
    ·r
    V)

    u
    c
    ro
    ~p
    (l) s;
    ;::J LL
    ~
    IQ
    >
    OOSl

    n1

    . . (lJ

    ~
    N
    0001 QJ
    c
    r,)
    006
    OOB
    >
    l
    O
    NI . . . O

    cos = =~
    .___ ---·--- - ---·-----· - ·--. ·---·--··--·---·--- -·- -----·--

    FIGURE 12.2 - ThIPELLER DESIGN VS SPECIFIC SPEED

    - 12[7 -
    l•IGURE 12.3 - CALCULATION OF SYSTEM NET POSITIVE
    SUCTION HEAD AVAILABLE FOR TYPICAL
    SUCTION CONDITIONS

    Suction Supply Open to Atrnospher~

    - -l,-<ai.~~i
    , lt
    Suction Supply Open
    - llith Suction Lift ~

    • . I
    ·lr~
    1 --:·
    , I -
    t
    I LlJ; ,____ : ,
    L •
    5 I ' NPSH : P - (V + l + h )
    I • A ·s P s r
    PB I .

    Closed Suction Supply C1oscd Suction Supply


    - Iii th Suction l Ht - With Suction Head

    · · ·--1~
    (l t v + h )
    s p f

    - 12/8 -

    .
    ~-
    In an existing system, the NPSH Available can be determined by a gauge reading on the pump
    suction. The following formula applies:

    NP SHA ha + h, - hr - h- - }h v

    where; ha = atmospheric pressure


    h., = positive suction head
    lu := friction loss at suction pipe
    hv = vapour pressure of liquid at ambient temperature
    h.sv ::;: velocity head at the suction pipe

    Cavitation is a term used to describe the phenomenon which occurs in a pump when there is
    insufficient NPSH Available. The pressure of the Liquid is reduced to a value equal to or
    below its vapour pressure and small vapour bubbles or pockets begin to form. As these
    vapour bubbles move along the impeller vanes to a higher pressure area, they rapidly collapse.

    The collapse, or "implosion" is so rapid that it may be heard as a rumbling noise, as if you
    were pumping gravel. The forces during the collapse are generally high enough to cause
    minute pockets of fatigue failure on the impeller vane surfaces. This action may be
    progressive, and under severe conditions can cause serious pitting damage to the impeller.
    i ':
    The accompanying noise is the easiest way to recognise cavitation.

    Besides impeller damage, cavitation normally results in reduced capacity due to the vapour
    r '=
    I
    present in the pwnp. Also, the head may be reduced and unstable and the power consumption
    may be erratic. Vibration and mechanical damage such as bearing failure can also occur as a
    result of operating in cavitation.

    The only way to prevent the undesirable effects of cavitation is to ensure that the NPSH
    1
    Available in the system is greater than the NPSH Required by the pump.
    i
    i .
    ~- ;

    12.5 DATA REQUIRED FOR PUMP PURCHASE


    '.
    i
    {a) Description of service

    In waterworks, pumps are usually used as:-

    (i) low lift raw water pumps,


    (ii) high lift treated water p11:1:p~,
    (iii) wash water treated water pumps,
    (iv) treated water booster pumps, and
    (v) borehole pumps.

    (b) Description of liquid pumped

    If liquid to be pumped is water, state pH value, turbidity, maximum size of solid, chloride
    contents and other relevant information.

    -12/9-
    !
    l
    l
    -, l . I

    l
    !
    (c) Suction lift :_J' l
    Suction lift exists when the source of supply is below the centreline of the pump. 'Thus the
    static suction lift is the vertical distance in metres from the centre line ofthe pump to the free
    ./

    ·It
    1iff".': ~

    level (minimum) of the water to be pumped. Refer to Figure l 2.4(a).

    (d) Suction head

    Suction head exists when the source of supply is above the centreline of the pump. The static
    suction head is the vertical distance in metres from the centreline of the pump to the free level
    of the water to be pumped. Refer to Figure 12.4(b ).

    (e) Static discharge head

    Static discharge head is the vertical distance in metres between the pump centreline and the
    point of free discharge or the surface of the water in the discharge tank.

    (f) Total static head

    It is the vertical distance in metres between the free level of the source of supply and the point
    of free discharge.

    (g) Friction head

    Friction head is the head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and fittings. - I;
    · It is dependent upon the size and type of internal finish of the pipe flow rate, and nature of the ©Ji-
    water.

    (h) Velocity head

    It is the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at velocity V. It is the equivalent head :in
    metres through which the water would have to fall to acquire the same velocity, or in other
    words, the bead necessary to accelerate the water. Velocity head can be calculated from the
    following formula:

    h = V2 I 2g

    where g = 9.81 rn/s

    V = liquid velocity in metres per second

    The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be ignored in most high head systems.
    However, it can be a large factor and must be considered in low head systems.

    - 12/10 ·
    {i) Pressure head

    It must be considered when a pumping system either begins or terminates in a tank which is
    under some pressure other than atmospheric. The pressure in such a tank must first be
    converted to metres of water. A vacuum in the suction tank or a positive pressure in the
    discharge tank must be added to the system head, whereas a positive pressure in the suction
    tank or vacuum in the discharge tank would be subtracted. 'Die following is a handy formula
    for converting millimeters of mercuy vacuum into meters of water.

    Vacuum, mm of Hg x 8.75
    Vacuum, meters of liquid =
    Specific Density

    The above forms of head, namely static, friction, velocity and pressure are combined to make
    up the total system head at any particular rate. Following are definitions of these combined or
    "Dynamic" head terms as they apply to the pump system.

    {j) Total dynamic suction lift

    It is the static suction lift minus the velocity head at the pump suction flange plus the total
    friction head in the suction line. The total dynamic suction lift, as determined on pump test, is
    the reading of a gauge on the suction flange, converted to metres of liquid and corrected to the
    pump centreline, minus the velocity head at the point of gauge attachment,

    (k) Total dynamic suction head

    It is the static suction head plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange minus the total
    friction head in the suction line. The total dynamic suction head, as determined on the pump
    test, is the reading of the gauge on the suction flange, converted to metre of liquid and
    corrected to the pump centreline, plus. the velocity head at the point of gauge attachment

    (J) Total dynamic discharge head

    It is the static discharge head plus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange plus the total
    friction head in the discharge line. The total dynamic discharge head, as determined in pump
    test, is the reading of a gauge at the discharge flange, converted to metres of liquid and
    corrected to the pump centreline, plill. the velocity head at the point of gauge attachment

    (m) Total head or total dynamic head (TDH)

    It is the total dynamic discharge head mi.nus the total dynamic suction head or plus the total
    dynamic suction lift,

    TDH = ha + h, (with a suction lift)

    TDH = ha - h, (with a positive suction head)

    - 12/1 l -

    ·-· .. -··- .~--- .... -----~---- ..


    FTGORE J2,4 - STATIC HEAD TN A PUMPING SYSTEM
    J

    (a) Suction Lift - Showing Static Head in a Pumping System where the pump is located
    above the Suction Tank (Static Suction Head)

    -~~·I Dischg.
    Head l. _,J
    Tota1 Static
    Head

    (b) Suction -Lift·- Showing Static Head in a Pumping System where the pump is located
    below the Suction Tank (Static Suction Head)

    -1
    Total Static
    Jjead .

    ~ · Tkstatic Dischar~e
    Head

    - 12/12 -
    J

    ..
    (n) Capacity of pumping system is predetermined by:
    } .
    (i) maximum total pumping head,
    (ii) quantity to be pumped at maximum total head,
    (iii) desired operating hours and
    ~ .
    (iv) storage facilities available.
    I
    i
    ;
    (o) Type of prime movers and speed

    {p) System curve for multiple pumpset required

    (q) Specification on materials required

    (r) Type of pump required

    12.6 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS CURVES

    The performance of a centrifugal pump can be shown graphically on a characteristic curve. A


    typical characteristic curve shows the total dynamic head, brake kilowatts, efficiency and net
    positive suction head required all plotted over the capacity range of the pump.

    Figures 12.5, 12.6 and 12.7 are non-dimensional curves which indicate the general shape of
    the characteristic curves for the various types of pumps. TI1ey show the head, brake kilowatts
    and efficiency plotted as percent of their values at the design or best efficiency point of the
    pump.

    Figure 12.5 shows that the head curve for a radial-flow pump is relatively Oat compared to
    mixed or axial-flow pumps and that the head decreases gradually as the flow increases. Note
    that brake kilowatts increases gradually over the flow range with the maximum at the point of
    ,. maximum flow.

    FIGURE l 2.5 - RADIAL FLOW PU1\1P .._,


    c
    160
    140
    120
    >--
    --1 HP ad
    - 140
    0
    0...

    -c:
    en
    u
    c
    >,

    .....
    OJ

    - r--- r--
    -----
    120 v,
    OJ
    u
    ......
    -----
    0
    100 100 inn . ,..__
    ,.---- ~ ..., l,J
    _)-::::::= ~ k r-, rU
    _._,
    80 80 0... 80 Vl

    B.H ~ i-- --;::;~ ~ :x:


    co
    OJ
    co
    60 L-----' - )/
    60 '+-
    0
    60
    '<-
    0
    40 40 ..., .µ
    v c 40 c
    CV

    vr
    (l)
    HF/ 20 L.) 20 L.)
    20
    L L
    (lJ (lJ

    0 0 a. 0 a.

    0 20 40 60 BO 100 120 140

    Per Cent of Design Flow

    - 12/13 -

    -.---- ~ -- ·----- -----


    FIGURE 12,6 - MIXED FLOW PUMP -··
    ---..
    ........

    . ~~~
    ..
    ;_'=t ·
    .. ~ ~

    .µ 160 r-; I .
    160
    .µ
    c
    ..
    c r-.., HE;a d -r-:
    140 r-c,
    140 0
    o;

    N--
    0
    o,
    c
    en 120
    ! 1- - .. - I --- t--._

    r-. 120
    v,
    c:
    (7) >--,
    u
    c
    Vl L_
    ,..___ I D .11. r I 1 I'-..
    a., 100 100 ex 100
    0 I L-----;-- ~ r-: r--- .µ
    u
    .µ I~ r-, r-, ro <,..._
    co 80 -> <,
    r-,
    '- 80 80 4-

    ""O
    rd / o,
    . u.J

    -W

    :c
    ,.__
    (lJ

    0
    60

    40 v
    /v 60

    40
    ::r:
    co
    ..,__
    60
    40
    v,
    Q)
    en
    ..,__
    20 EFF./ 0 0

    vr
    .._.)
    ·c 20 .µ 20 .p
    <l) c: c
    LJ Q) <I)
    0 L>
    l,....
    <l)
    0 0 l,.... 0 l,....
    0.... 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 (I) Cl)
    140 a... o_

    Per Cerit of Design Flow

    FlGURE 12,7 -AXIAL FLOW PUMP

    320 .µ
    c

    s
    .µ
    c 300 0
    0 o_
    Q_
    280 - c
    c t7l ::,.,,
    0,
    260 \ V1
    u
    c
    \ (l) <lt
    V)
    240 240 0 ·~u
    0
    <U

    .µ 220
    -, 220
    µ
    -c 4-
    ,.___
    "'
    "'O 200 f\
    '\ I"' r-, 200 o_
    w
    .µ
    "'
    (I)
    :r: 180
    -,
    180
    ::,: vi '
    QJ

    4-
    160
    '-~ r-, 160
    en
    ..___
    co
    4-
    0
    r-,
    ~- 140 t-«; •""- <; 140
    0
    .µ
    0
    .µ
    ............. --, c c
    ~"' 120 r-, 120 (l) <i)

    ----- r--.:
    u u
    \... L'-.
    100 100 L
    100 L
    "'
    Q_'
    .i-:
    .........-.
    ~ ~
    <V
    c, "'
    o_
    80 80 BO
    60 ~v i"'. 60 60
    40 /
    v 40 -40
    20 ./ 20 20
    0 I/
    0 0
    0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

    Per Cent of Design F1ow

    - 12/14 -

    ... - ···-·-"---· ----· ------ --.--------·----


    1.

    Mixed-flow centrifugal and axial-flow or propeller pumps have considerably different


    characteristics as shown in Figures 12.6 and 12.7. The curve for a mixed-flow pump is steeper
    than that of a radial-flow pump. The shut-off head is usually 150% or 200% of the design
    head. The brake kilowatts remains fairly constant over the flow range. For a typical axial
    flow pump, the head and brake kilowatts both increase drastically near shut-off as shown m
    Figure 12.7.

    For this reason, one should pay special attention to the high starting ampere of a mixed flow
    or axial flow pump when it has to start up at a closed valve condition. It would therefore be
    necessary, given that the hydraulic surge protection is adequate, to start this type of pump in
    fully or partially opened valve condition to avoid drawing high current at start-up.
    t .
    The distinction between the above three classes is not absolute; there are many pumps with
    characteristics falling somewhere in between. For instance, the Francis vane impeller would
    have a characteristic between the radial and mixed flow classes. Most turbine pumps are also
    \ ' in this range depending upon their specific speeds.
    l :
    Figure 12.8 shows typical composite performance pump curves as furnished by a
    manufacturer. It shows at a glance how the pump performs at a given speed with various
    impeller diameters. Constant power, efficiency, and NPSH (required) lines are superimposed
    ' '
    over the various head curves. It is made up of individual test curves at 'various diameters.
    I
    '
    J?lGURE 12.8 - COMPOSITE PERFORMANCE CURVES

    r .. -
    200 ,-...1
    ,_
    -- ·O 4,S !;>( !) I:> ~ 8 ·)U
    ,_ ---

    ,_.,
    180 1; - -
    I

    160 t I I r f-..7 rt . ..__,__ ......._


    1· : .µ .· r-«:
    I -I- r-;
    '- r-, ~ _6{ 5B
    .
    (JJ I <,
    ,.,: Q)
    u; 140 :=11 I I"'-.._
    ,,.._ [""'=
    ~ ./ ~ K. '~
    -0
    ro
    <lJ
    120 ,__10
    100
    l
    Ir>
    I I
    I
    I
    I
    I
    I r-, -e--.

    '-
    --:::,
    - ..-K I.>~
    .............
    .--:
    .,_. t> K
    r-,

    l.>
    ---~
    -,
    DU
    :c t- i.: I ............. <;
    t-,,._
    '""' e- >< ~

    {
    ."'
    0
    .,
    80
    .60 5HP
    -......
    •--;...~
    <,
    -7. 5rjr:lOBb
    '.
    ~ l51 P- ioH
    p

    4 c,
    I I i
    20

    O 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

    Gallons Per Minute

    - 12/15 -

    . -·· - __, ......, ,


    12.7 AFFINITY LAWS
    s:

    The affinity laws express the mathematical relationship between the several variables involved
    in pump performance. TI1ey apply to all types of centrifugal and axial flow pumps; TI1ey are
    as follows:

    With impeller diameter, D, held constant:

    (a) Q1/Q2 = Nt /N2


    (b) I-11 I Hi = [N1 I N2]2
    (c) Pi I P2 = [N1 I N2]3

    With speed, N, held constant:

    (a) Q1 /Q2 = D1 /D2


    (b) H1 I H2 = (Di I D2]2
    (c) Pi I P2 [D1 I D2]3

    Where Q;;:: Capacity, cubic metres per second


    H= Total Head, metres
    D= 'Diameter in metres
    p = Power in kilowatts
    N= Pump Speed, rpm

    When the performance (Q1, Hi, P1) .is known at some particular speed (N1) or diameter (D1),
    the formulae can be used to estimate the 'performance (Qi, H2 and P2) at some other speed
    (N2) or diameter (D2). · The ·efficiency is assumed to be constant for speed and impeller
    diameter changes, · · · · · · · .... · · · · ·

    EXAMPLE I
    '
    b
    ·~
    To illustrate the use .of these laws, refer to Figure 12.9. It shows the performance of a ~..
    I
    particular pump at 1750 rpm with various impeller diameters. These performance data have '
    been determined by actual tests by the manufacturer. Then using the affinity laws above, with _fl'i'{
    N1 = 1750 rpm and N2 = 2000 rpm, the new performance can be determined. ,~-'.
    The first step is to read the capacity, head, and kilowatts at several points on the 13 inches
    curve in Figure 12.8. For example, one point may be near the best efficiency point where the
    capacity is 300 gpm, head is 160 ft, and the power is approximately 20 hp.
    I,._. z-
    300 I Q2 = 1750 I 2000 Qi = 342 gpm ; \ : -.

    160 I lli = [1750 I 2000]2 lli = 209 ft

    20 I P2 = [1750 I 2000]2 P2 :c:: 30 hp

    - 1i
    ,.,.;
    · 12/l 6 -

    ···--·-··--·- --- ---


    .................... ,.. ,., -,,",•-··, , , ,.. ,-~, .. ,·.~ ,,.,,-......,
    __ ..,,.~·., ..,, .
    This will then be the best efficiency point on the new 2000 rpm curve. · By performing the
    same calculations for several other pointx on the 1750 rpm curve, a new curve can be drawn
    which will approximate the pump performance at 2000 rpm. Refer to Figure 12.9. Trial and
    r':
    error would be required to solve this problem in reverse. In other words, assume you want to
    i
    1
    determine the speed required to make a rating of 343 gpm at a head of 209 ft. You would
    begin by selecting a trial speed and applying the affinity laws to convert the desired rating to
    fI. the corresponding rating at 17 50 rpm. When you arrive at the correct speed, 2000 rpm in this
    i
    case, the corresponding 1750 rpm rating will fail on the 13 inches diameter curve.

    FIGURE 12.9 - TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVES


    r ·-.
    'i
    OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.
    I
    I I I I I
    Approximate
    260 Eli) 000 RPM 1

    , __
    f-1- ----- ·-
    I
    I Characteristic
    240 I f I
    ( I r . I r-- I Curves of
    i 220 .....,
    .
    I t-,.._

    .µ 200 \... ~100 -I H-Q 1750 RPM


    .... l
    i's: ! : I .
    - Centrifugal Pump
    I I I I 'I
    O.J
    <I)
    180'
    OJ
    J:
    u
    90
    11~·-,-
    -- I

    - ' I I I I I
    _L.!±
    \.J...

    160
    0
    a..
    \...
    <l)
    a.. 80
    I I
    I I
    --,-
    .i -s;
    "
    '
    -
    I
    I ~,--;-,.
    I I

    'D
    l'lO
    OJ
    v,
    C'
    __!_
    rl+ !
    -+- ....
    t-:
    )
    I-
    '\ .
    t\ ·-~ -T
    I
    I
    -,-!--L=t=
    ! I
    re
    QJ
    \...
    0 c
    70 ..,
    I
    EFF. 1750 R.PM I I
    I
    I
    \ 1
    I . I
    I • I i-
    :r.: 120 x (lJ
    60 ·TT!, • I I I 1 .....,·_;...--, r-,. I I
    r .sc
    -r-:
    u I I I I ).,,{·,.,.- I I I I I 1
    I I

    ·~
    01.
    I "
    I
    l->-d-1: I I
    ' 100
    ;
    i
    ro
    _...,.
    0 80
    "'
    cu
    L
    '<-
    '+·
    50
    40
    I I
    I I ; I
    I ..;i,..-1 I 1
    : . EFF. 2000 RP.~ -
    I

    - I
    I
    .+++, I
    ·\+H-
    :

    >-
    60 = l.U

    30 h-!--~ !,.-<:- -··-T·,- I I


    I • t
    • I I I
    I I· I
    I '
    ~.

    ; I I !
    I

    I I · . Ii I I l_L~ ! I I I I I· i I
    I ' / ,,- I 1 I I I
    40 'lO 20 8 .. H. P .. 2000-RPM
    i-ffi
    _-'/ I I

    20 1//I _=.:i-.t:: I I • I I I
    20 10 ·= ''1_
    ' I

    0 0. . . __ o.
    r !
    I I
    .... ..
    I ±' 8.,J:L-P 1-7.SD. RPM +H~- . II I
    I

    0 80 160 240 320 400 560


    Gallons Per Minute

    12.8 SYSTEM c·URVES

    For a specified impeller diameter and speed, a centrifugal pump has a fixed and predictable
    performance curve. The point where the pump operates on its curve is dependent upon the
    characteristics of the system in which the pump is operating, commonly called the "System
    Head Curve". By plotting the system head curve and the pump head curve together, the
    · operating point of the pump will be obtained by the intersection of these two curves.

    - 12/l? -
    12.8.1 STATIC SYSTEM HEAD

    Consider the system shown in Figure 12.10. As the pipelines are oversized and relatively
    short. the friction head is small compared to the static head. For this example, the system head
    will be considered as entirely static, with friction neglected.

    Assume the fluid beirig handled has 1.0 specific density. NPSH available is 13 feet. The flow
    requirement is 100 gpm. Since the system head is made up entirely of elevation and pressure
    differences, it does not vary with flow.

    FIGURE 12,10 - STATIC SYSTEM HEAD

    ~··
    o· · 40 · · ao··· 120 · 160 200

    GPM

    The normal system head is 250 feet TDH (19 feet elevation difference plus 231 feet pressure
    difference). Since the discharge pressure may vary± 3 psi, the system head will vary between
    243 feet and 257 feel Consider the application of a pump sized for 100 gpm at 250 feet
    TDH, with relatively flat performance curve as shown in Figure 12.11. Note that the pump
    will shut off at 254 feet TDH. At the maximum discharge tank pressure, the pump will stop
    delivering water, as the system head is greater than the pump IDH.

    The second consideration associated with static system head is motor overload on pump
    runout, Again, consider Figure 12.11 at the minimum system head of 243 feet The pump
    under discussion will deliver 130 gpm against 243 feet head. Power requirements will increase
    from 8.9 bhp at 100 gpm to 12.0 bhp at 130 gpm. A 10 hp motor could be overloaded on this
    service.

    - 12/18 •

    ...... ~ •.--.,~·-~·-······· •····-·•·.-~- ·-~· ..,..,..._.,...., ~-.,.-~,~.,..,,.....-•;c,.,_•,......, ,...,.,,.....,..,r'.Y..(".,.._.~-~,r•- .


    .12.8.2 DYNAMIC SYSTEM HEAD (TOH)

    In friction systems where resistance increases with flow, the system head becomes curved.
    The magnitude of the system head at each flow is the summation of the system static head plus
    the total friction losses at that particular flow rate. A typical example of this type of system is
    shown in Figure 12.13.

    ;
    r, ;

    80'

    .......

    Wrought Pipe

    '' .µ
    Q)
    --~- 40
    Q)
    ... .. $. ~s te rn . NF SHl'I
    u,
    175 ~ .... 30 -;r_<!.
    V)
    a..
    -0 150 20 :z:
    (,:)
    Q) //
    ~. 1 ::i: 125
    ~j u
    Sys tet0-7
    I -r-«
    100 He::.a..d
    "' E
    I.--
    ~ _....--
    --
    <U
    c
    s-, 75 ·-
    Cl

    • tat c H~ad
    "'
    .µ
    0
    f- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
    Capacity GPM x 1000

    ! .
    I
    ;
    I

    FIGURE 12.13 -DYNAMIC STATIC HEAD


    \
    i
    ' ..

    - 12/21-

    r; -- ---~·----- -···-··---
    i
    FIGURE l2, 14 - PUMP CH A RACTERISTIC CURVES

    .._;
    QJ
    CJ
    '-'-

    +
    -0

    "'
    ;i:
    ~· l~JO (
    t v/ j
    f_
    '~v
    »: ___j_
    .)

    2
    H1-1 I

    u
    200 - OA f)
    , __ v., NP,H, Per ru mp
    E '"/-'-

    - *d
    ro ~ r---..
    I--.. t----.... Pa al1el O~e ration
    c 175
    e-,
    0
    150
    r-, )-..
    r-- r---... Pu tnp '.curtv e
    '--- --'-- f--r
    <,
    "'
    +-' 125 r-, ~ --
    0 ~ tf Si em He ad vSingle Pum D'- r-;
    f-
    100 k
    LUn I---- r-, ( I rv
    -~ ~~
    75 -
    I
    400 &W
    -
    c,
    :r .--
    = 300
    I ---l

    Gallons Per Minute x 1000


    'I
    ! '

    Unlike the static system, the friction system is always self-correcting to some degree.
    Consider the above system with a requirement of 6,000 gpm at 150 feet TDH. Also assume
    that the discharge tank level may drop 10 feet The new system head curve will be parallel to
    the original one, but 10 feet lower as shown in Figure 12.14. Flow under this reduced head
    will be 6600 gpm at 144 feet rather than the normal 6000 gpm at 150 feel This increased
    flow rate will tend to raise the discharge tank level back to normal.

    The frictional resistance of pipes and fittings will increase as they wear, resulting in greater
    curvature of the system head curve. A slight drop in the pump head curve may also result
    from increasing pump wear and recirculation. These changes will have less effect on the flow
    in a dynamic system (steep curve) than in a static system (flat curve).

    12.9 PARALLEL OPERATION

    It is sometimes desirable to use two or more pumps in parallel rather than a single large pump.
    This is particularly advantageous when the system flow requirements vary greatly. One pump
    can be shut down when the flow requirement drops, allowing the remaining pump or pumps to
    operate closer. to their peak efficiency. It also provides an opportunity for repairs or
    maintenance works to be carried out on one unit without shutting down the entire system.

    - 12(2.2 •
    , ..
    1
    II

    r··;
    '

    275 1----
    r-l
    -Pump
    I I I I. I
    I Characteristic I I
    Curve-
    I
    '---

    'i . .
    1--
    250 ---.- r---. I--. Norma 1 System
    u,
    I----
    r--. "
    :r:: i---Head Curve
    o
    >-----
    225

    I·,
    l
    -- >--·

    1 ; ,_____ -- - ,_
    ~ -· - BHP ~ 1---
    1...----
    · 20 -~· 1---

    .........___ '--'---- -- ..,..,,.


    l,o
    20
    0
    CL »> er
    I
    co NPSHR .-
    L---~ :r:
    V)
    ~
    - ~L-
    ,.....___ - 10 ~

    :: .
    t !

    0 20 .. · -40 60 80 100 120 140 160


    i .
    !
    )

    l .
    i
    I ·.
    ,.. ,
    (

    i
    l :

    (
    l .
    1 :

    FIGURE 12.11- MINIMUM STATIC HEAD


    \.
    )
    I
    \ .

    -17./19-
    t .

    - -------------------
    NPSH problems may also arise when large increases in flow occur. At the rating of 100 gpm
    at 250 feet TDH, the NPSH required of the pump is only 10 feet while the system NPSH
    available is 13 feet. At the lower system head of 243 feet the pump requires 13.5 feet NPSH
    and cavitation will probably occur.

    A better selection would be a pump with a characteristic as shown in Figure 12.12. The
    steeper characteristic will limit the flow lo between 90 gpm at 257 feet and l lOgpm at 243
    feet TDH. The small increase in capacity al low head condition will mean no motor overload.
    Since the maximum flow is 110 gpm, the maximum NPSH required will be 12 feet and the
    pump will not cavitate.

    FIGURE 12.12 - BETfER SELECTION FOR PUMP


    CHARACTERISTIC .f
    !. ~~- i:.
    i .

    Ir kL

    t-
    LL
    . 300

    275
    i~tit Cur~e
    ..,...
    0
    t-
    250
    ste
    225
    curv· . . .. . . . .... ' .
    .
    . -.~ .. ;. .. . .

    200
    o;
    :::::::
    0) 20
    ex:'.
    10 ::r:
    V)
    o,
    :z:
    0 20

    10

    Capacity GPH

    - 12/20 -

    __4_·1i
    -.' I
    ·------- ----- ----------C-
    Consider applying two pumps each with characteristics as shown in Figure 12.'15. The total
    system head at 16,000 gpm is 140 feet. Each pump must be sized for 8,000 gpm at 140 feet
    IDH. NPSH required for each pump must be less than 28 feet for parallel operation. In order
    ;'
    ! .i to study both parallel and single pump operation, the head-capacity curves for both single
    pump operation, the head-capacity curves for both single and parallel operation must be
    plotted with the system head curve.

    Special care must be taken in selecting pumps for parallel operation. Consideration must be
    given to single pump operation in the system as well as parallel operation. Consider the
    system shown in Figure 12.15. The NPSH available is plotted along with the system head.
    ···-. Since entrance and line losses increase with increase in flow, the NPSH available decreases
    '; with increasing flow.

    Care should be taken to ensure that the pump selected for parallel operation has a shut off
    head sufficiently in excess of the operating head. A minimum 20% is preferred. .Station losses
    arid velocity head could be significant especially in situation where the system head is relatively
    low, in which case the system curve or the pump performance 'curve must be corrected to
    reflect these losses.
    ..,,:!.

    The flow required is 16,000 gpm. We want t.o use two pumps in parallel, but each must be
    capable of single operation.

    The head-capacity pump curve for parallel operation is plotted by adding the capacities of each
    pump for several different heads arid plotting the new capacity at each head. The shut-off
    head for two pumps in parallel is the same as for single operation. The NPSH curve is plotted
    in the manner as shown in Figure 12.16. For example, NPSH required for one pump at 8000
    gpm is 14 feet. Therefore, in parallel operation! 16,000 gpm can be pumped with 14 feet
    NPSH required. · · · · ·

    The curves show that each pump will deliver 8,000 gpm at 140 feet TOH when operating in
    parallel. Brake kilowatts for each unit will -be ·340 hp. NPSH required is 14 feet. NPSH
    available is 28 feet.

    With only one pump operating, the flow will be 11,000 gpm at 108 feet TOH. Brake power
    will be 355 hp. NPSH required is 26 feet and NPSH available is 30 feet. A 400 hp motor
    would be required.

    This example shows that if a 350 hp motor had been selected based on parallel operation only,
    the motor would have been overloaded in single pump operation. The. single pump operation
    is also critical in terms of NPSH. For example, if the system NPSH available had been in the
    neigbbourhooo of 20 feet, parallel pump operation would have been fine, but single pump
    operation would result in cavitation

    _
    - 17./23 -

    _______ .,
    FIGURE 12.15 - SYSTEM NPSI-IA, SYSTEM HEAD AND STATIC
    HEAD CURVES

    .J
    -;~.:
    ··~
    ·'

    6" Wrought Pipe

    .µ
    Q)
    a.,
    l.J...
    -0
    t Sys ftem Hea,~ ..
    ~ 160 Cur fie i.>
    ::c !.../
    1----" Fri ct i ( na 1
    u 140 ~ L--- RP< li.s t: nee
    E
    ~ 120 ~
    >, j.
    0
    100 Sta rt i c Hea
    Oif :fen nee

    0 12 3 45 6 7
    Capacity GPM x 1000

    . !i.
    .' !'-,.,
    Z.L.
    : ~-~

    - 12/24 -
    FIGlJRr~ 12.16- PARALLEL PUMP CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

    ....,
    Q)
    (lj
    LL

    r·
    i
    -o

    x
    r<l
    Q)
    '

    -~uE
    -o
    c
    >,
    0

    100
    ro
    .µ
    0 Static pv,tio Ch nge
    I--- 80

    0 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
    Capacity GPM x 1000

    12.10 MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS

    There are several miscellaneous items that should be considered in pump station design.

    12.10.1 SUMP DESIGN

    Care must be exercised in the design of sumps lo avoid localised velocities that might cause
    vortex fonnalion. Vortices can reduce capacity and cause noise, vibration and possible
    damage to thepump. ·Refer to Figurc.12.17, 12.18 and 12.19.

    12.10.2 PIPING DESIGN

    Suction and discharge piping should be sized so that velocities are not excessive. Velocities of
    1.5 m/sec in suction piping and 2.4. m/sec in discharge piping are reasonable maximums.
    Piping should have sufficient flexibility and be adequately supported so that no stresss are
    transmitted to the. pump. For delivery piping. expansion joints or couplings that do not
    provide an axially restrained connection should not be used between the pump and a point of
    anchoragein the piping. Such an installation causes hydraulic thrust on the prunp, pump base
    and anchor bolts.

    - 12(l5 -
    Criteria and Standards to be considered when designing a suction pipe arer-

    (a) for negative suction, an independent suction pipe shall be independent for each pump.
    For positive suction, the suction pipe can be common for many p!Jmps,

    (b) a suction pipe should be as short and with little bends as possible and should slope
    upwards toward pump,

    (c) for submersible pump, the distance berween the tip of inlet of the pump and floor
    s'h,,.,,1~ !:Y- ~;,t l~,:,c,t th.- .... (~) timP.<, thP.. -inlf".f rii::imf'.tt>.r ::inr!

    (d) the distance between the suction pipe and the wall of the pump chamber shall be over
    1.5 times the pipe diameter. For a suction pipe made up of different diameters, the
    distance shall be at least three times the largest pipe diameter.

    Examples of good practices in suction pipe design are shown in Figures 12.20, 12.21, 12.22
    and 12.23.

    12.10.3 VALVES

    Valves should be installed in the suction and discharge of the pumps to permit isolating the
    pumps for maintenance and control of flow. 111.e type of check valve required depends on the f!'.:;
    piping system into which the pump discharges. Ordinary swing check valves may be adequate ·-.['
    in most cases but in some systems, mechanically operated stop-check valves are used to
    control surge or water hammer. If a pump is to be started and stopped against closed valves
    to control transient surge pressures, power-operated butterfly or ball valves interlocked with
    the pump start-stop controls can be used.

    ~r
    .. ·.: l:c

    . .~:
    '..
    J.
    1.1:'7
    ·;;

    - 12(26 -

    -- -·---···------ -------·----·------·. -- ..
    Eccentric Check

    Foot Va 1 ve
    (If Used}
    Strainer
    (A) Correct

    Eccentric Check
    Reducer

    ~ ~~;w Rad i u s__ l,t1J<a--'L-·. --ill-----11l~bl,'--=.. . ._


    !. : Suction pipe slopes Gate
    .... upwa rds -from -s·ource Valve
    of supply

    Foot Va-l ve (if used)·


    Strainer (B) Correct

    Gate Valve Should Not Be


    Between Check Valve and
    Valve

    Air Pocket Because Eccentric Reducer


    Is Not Used and Because Suction Pipe
    Does Not Slope Gradually Upward
    From Supply

    {C) Wrong

    FIGURl~ 12.17 ~ Am POCKETS IN SUCTION pn>ING

    I - 12/1:7 -
    i.
    ..I~.
    ··\\;-• .
    . ,.,;:,.·.·. '\:

    }i"t
    ·.1, .. ..

    Eccentric
    \.lith Top
    Horizontal
    Elbow Must··:Be
    Vertical When
    -.·
    Next to Pump
    Permissible Wrong ~~ r
    ,n,.-t,

    FIGURE 12.18 - ELBOWS AT PUMP SUCTION

    ."t*t
    ff;

    . ,-:~:'"

    FIGURE 12.19-EFFECT OF ELBOW DlliEC"'TLY ON SUCTION fi.'·.

    -:.' i;
    - 12/,28 -

    ---- .. ----------- . --··


    I·,

    -,-- ---·· -,--


    l't
    ~· ·I-

    d1
    Recommended
    ~1-~
    1,
    I .
    It
    .....

    Baffle ~ I
    t

    Recormiended
    = = : . -:.-::.::.::~ '1

    ·· ··· .. J:
    - _Jt11'I
    J·I
    tp

    m
    I11}
    l.l
    '::tO"'
    I~
    \1 · -Recomnende d

    Pump
    suet ion

    ;
    L;

    FIGURE 12..20 - KEEPING AIR our OF PUMP

    - 12/29 -

    ~-
    '!
    I
    ·1c ::,:

    ~-- 3~ f :::r:

    .. j
    : c~i
    :·.i
    ··_J ~i
    ·~ '.,·
    - . ...:.; it
    c J.,
    ~
    -
    .
    .
    7
    ·"·"-·
    ~of- ·~·1
    ..
    • I•
    'J,
    ' f
    '

    <'
    ..

    c
    :,::
    ,µ
    a,
    16

    14

    12
    rn=~r-
    I -1-~·
    --1~+-
    - 1-i·-~~·
    -·r·+- - -
    .
    -~-j-~·
    -r-- ~~,
    t-- --1- -
    -
    -
    . -
    -~

    I
    l/
    ,-
    I
    1/
    J

    -
    (l)
    u, -~ r--· ~
    ,~c 10 ~--
    a,
    v
    u
    c 8 -- /
    -

    i---·
    t\l /
    "' I-
    Q)
    E 6 ~- - ~· - ,-- /

    .o /

    m~~
    :::,
    4 /
    ~
    x
    2
    r- -
    -
    2 4 6 0 10 12 14 16
    Quan. (GPH) x 0.321 G~H-~-~:~~~?
    Velocity ln ft/sec. ~ --Area-{inchesJi or - - Dl

    FIGURE 12.21 - MINIMUM SUCTION PIPE SUBMERGENCE AND


    SUMP DIMENSIONS

    - 12/30 -
    t::

    c
    0
    .... OJ
    t. v 0.
    ! :::i·-
    0..
    i V)

    r ·'.
    ;

    QJ QJ
    Cl. a.
    0.. 0...

    .
    c c
    0 0
    ..., .,
    u v
    :, :,
    VI V)

    OJ
    ......... ...,
    .s:
    a. ):
    C1J (IJ
    :.
    oo"' D
    > ~<U
    s..
    µ
    ~ ~OJ
    (II :>
    ~.-= ,u
    v
    ·~ 0.
    ...... :::.: V)
    0
    >--

    '
    .
    j
    !
    I

    F1GURE 12.22 ~ BAFFLE ARRANGEMENT FOR VORTEX PREVENTION

    -12/31-
    c
    0.
    ::, . s:,-"'
    ..,,

    0
    w
    0
    z ...,
    V1

    >
    a.
    "-

    0
    q
    vi
    _J
    "'
    "'
    II

    ..___
    a
    co

    fc;~ol
    I '--'

    w
    ~
    0
    u
    w
    a=
    I-
    0
    <

    I l l <;

    0®00 00®0
    .. .!.
    -~
    >------·-----<:( u -1

    .....
    .
    0
    V)
    V)
    "' ,_
    VI
    Vl
    (!)
    c; ;:,; "'
    QJ If)
    r--,
    ..>< "' n::: ......
    (lJ u
    .
    OJ
    u > .. ., 0----
    ,._ x:
    0
    0
    "'
    >--
    .""'~
    V1
    0O>

    ..._
    "'
    0.
    "'
    ><
    0.
    ~8
    ~-
    V1
    0. ....
    0
    -o 0
    :r
    0 <.;:, n.
    <( II "O

    0
    u.J
    .:('
    ...-. -0
    C)'C:Vl-
    -0
    J. "O
    •
    "'
    L.
    .._CJ I
    (Z;
    0 -oooc:~ c
    z <t-O::~..&.J,;t" QJ
    s;
    "':c
    ::!:: ::,,.
    0 v, 0..

    0
    u
    "'a=
    J l J l l 1

    ct"000 0101 "10

    ···-~ ~
    . ·--··--;!;.:.
    ·~~!

    FlGURE l'.2.23 - PIPING ARRANGEMENT WITHIN MULTIPLE PUMP PITS

    - 12/32 -

    . --------·- -
    r
    ······:.
    .12.10.4 ARRANGEMENT

    Figures 12.24, 12.25 and 12.26 illustrate several significant features of piping and valve
    arrangements. For example, Figure 12.24 shows an arrangement that permits isolation of any
    one of the three pumps for maintenance by closing the gate valves on the suction and
    r:·~.
    l .
    discharge sides of the pumps. The ·check valves in the discharge lines from each pump prevent
    l
    : ;
    1 I
    backflow through an idle pump.
    ·>::.~
    Figure 12.25 illustrates the arrangement of treated water pump station. Valves permit
    isolation of any of the pumps for removal or repair and check valves prevent backflow through
    an idle pump.
    ' .
    } ;

    '
    t ;,

    1 •
    '

    t••:,,
    i .

    I
    1. ;

    . :.•,).

    f';

    !
    i
    '
    'i .
    j
    ~
    •

    - 12/33 -
    FIGURE 12.24 - PUMP STATION SCHEMATIC LOW-SERVICE
    AND TRANSFER PUMPING

    Pretreatment Units . .:>


    or Clear Wel 1

    J.

    Gates Valves
    Check Valves
    Low Service or
    tr ans fer Pumps·
    Valves

    Low Service Sump


    or
    ~J !

    Filter Effluent \.let Well


    . -ti'.
    Raw \.later From Lake
    or Filter Effluent

    F1GURE 12.25- IITGH-SERVICE PUMP STATION SCHEMATIC

    To Distribution
    System and Storage
    · ·.·f
    i it

    High Service Pumps.


    ·--Gate Va 1 ve s

    Gate Valves

    Clear \.lel I Clear \.lell


    No. 1 No. 2

    - 12/34 .

    .. ----
    Fl(,URE 12,26 - BOOSTER PUMP STATTON SCHEMATIC.'

    i '
    , I
    I '
    ! i

    ,
    ...

    Gate Va 1ves
    I To Next
    Higher Zone

    Check Valves
    System
    Storage
    Gate Valves

    Gate Valve
    '\

    12.11 PUMPS CONTROL

    Pump operation can be controlled by level, pressure or flow. Level controls can start and stop
    pumps at predetermined water levels. Pressure controls can also be used to start and stop
    pumps at predetermined pressure changes in the pipeline. Further, controls of variable-speed
    pumps can be used to vary the pump discharge to maintain a predetermined level, pressure or
    flow.

    Flow control is used to meet the fluctuating demand by varying the speed of the pumping unit
    Speed variation can be provided by magnetic couplings, hydraulic couplings, wound rotor
    motors, liquid rheostats, variable frequency and voltage controllers. Speed adjustment canbe
    manual or automatic. Emergency controls are essential to good pump station design. Low
    level shutoff should be provided in sumps and low-pressure shut-off in suction lines to prevent
    damage to pumping units due to dry running. Similarly, there should be high pressure and
    high level shut-off. High-level alarms and low level alarms should be provided in manned
    station to indicate malfunction of the control system

    Treated water pumping can be automatically controlled but not raw water pumping because of
    the difficulty of automatic chemical-dosage control. The plant operator normally
    predetermines treatment rates, and then monitors flow rates and make changes accordingly.
    The clear water well should have controls .and audible alarms that alert the operator so that he
    can decrease or stop raw water pumping.

    - 12/35 -

    .. ~ · ....
    For pumps control the following provisions shall be adopted:-

    (a) For raw water pumping control

    (i) Level control

    Low-level cut-out using electrodes at intake sump.

    (ii) Pressure control

    Pressure controls are normally.not required for raw water pumps.


    . .

    (ili) Flow control '1;' (§'!


    w_.
    ·'.?.. ~-
    Flow is regulated out by an automatic constant-flow device to ensure flow rate during
    any permissible increase in levels.

    (b) Treated water and booster pumping control

    (i) Level control

    Low-level cut-outs in suction tanks and high-level cut-outs in service reservoirs, using
    electrodes as cut-outs, should be provided. If the distance between the reservoir and
    pumphouse is more than 2km, electrical cable link shall be used for high level control.
    For a plant below 22 mld, a combination of insitu high control (electrode and
    ll ~- ~-
    motorised butterfly valve) and no flow switch on pumpsets shall be used. Above 22 II;(,:·

    ~9,. telemetered level control system shall be used. I


    ii>.•
    §

    (ii) Pressure control 1t


    Pressure control can be used as alternative to no flow control for the above level
    control. They are normally set near closed-head condition of a pump.

    12.12 PRIME MOVER SELECTION AND TYPES

    The almost universal availability of electric power has led to the use of electric motors for
    most pumping units. However, diesel units are still used where electricity suppl_y is not reliable
    or where special considerations dictate. 111e choice between vertical or buizontal drive
    motors depends on .the design conditions of the particular application. Horizontal pumps are ·W
    usually easier to maintain and lower in capital cost, while vertical pumps require less space and . i.
    the motors can be located above potential flood level in dry pit applications.
    w
    · 12.12.1 MOTORS f l:,

    Refer to Section 13 - Electrical Equipment and Installations.

    - 12/36 -
    12.12.2 DIESEL ENGINES
    .:
    t . ~.' ~
    Diesel engines are normally limited to an operating range of 1500 - 1800 rpm. All types of
    ! diesel engines are used in waterworks but the general trend of engine type and applications are
    i
    as follows:-
    -·!
    Below 75 kW - air cooled, condensor cooled, water radiator cooled, 4 stroke engine, direct
    injection, instant start

    t\,bove 75 kW - water radiator cooled, 4 stroke engine, direct injection. Use of turbo-charged
    engines are not allowed for pump application as the stopping procedure of turbo - charged
    ? •
    engines are rarely adhered; especially for those engines fitted with instantaneous
    1 emergency/protection devices.
    \

    Engines are normally sized 1.25 times greater than the power absorbed by the pump to cover
    (
    l ' eventual deterioration of both engine and pumping system. For sizing of generator-set
    .; "·\
    .
    engines, refer to Section 13 - ElectriQal Equipment and Installations .

    All engines should be continuously rated for 24 hours operation.

    12.13 SELECTION OF DRIVES FOR PUMPSETS

    There are basically two distinct methods of transmitting torque from a motor to the pump:-

    (a) direct drive - where the chiving and driven shafts are in-line; either solid or flexible
    couplings are used,

    (b) indirect drives - where the driving and driven shafts are not in line and the torque is
    transmitted by belts, or gears.

    For normal pumping installations, metod (a) shall be used. It is most important when flexible
    or solid couplings are used that the)' are correctly aligned.

    12.14 PUMPSETS PLINTH

    A pumpset should be rigidly fixed in posiuon m its foundation and should be free from
    vibrations. The design of the foundation should comply with the following criteria'-

    (a) the purnpsct foundation should be sufficiently strong for its load, (both static and
    dynamic) and

    (b) it should be sufficiently strong and heavy so as to suppress any vibrations. Pumpsets
    should be installed on concrete block founded on good firm ground.

    - 12/37 -
    The guideline depths of the concret.e plinth shall be as follows:-

    (a) less than 55.0 kW - 600 mm


    (b) 55.0 - 75.0 kW - 750 mm
    (c) 75.0 - 100.0 kW - 1000 mm

    For above 100 kW, the plinth shall be specially designed based on the following standards>

    (a) for electric motor driven pumps, the weight of an independent foundation should be

    weight of pump, motor and frame). ·

    (b) for diesel engine driven pumps, the weight of an independent foundation should be at
    least four times more than the machine kerb weight,

    (c) when anti-vibration material such as rubber, springs etc. is used between the common
    base plate for pump and the prime mover, and the foundation, the weight of foundation
    can be reduced to half the standard weight, and

    (d) where any pipe of a pumping system passes through a building wall, anti-vibration
    material must be employed to prevent vibrations from being transmitted to the building.

    All foundation plinths should have a minimum border lOOmm to 150mm all round while the
    top of the plinth shall be lOOmm to 150mm above the floor.

    TI1e mix for concrete plinths shall be 1:2:4. Figure 12.27 (A) and (B) illustrates the
    arrangement of pump on its foundation.

    12.14.1 SPECIAL DESIGN OF PLINTHS FOR PUMPSETS AND GENERATORS

    If a concrete plinth or foundation is required, it shall comply with the minimum guidelines
    given below:-

    (a) the foundation length and width should exceed the length and width of the
    · pumpset/generator set by a minimum of 150 mm on allround,

    (b) The minimum foundatior '. k~pth shall be as follows.-

    Foundation ;:iepth ( m] = Wx s.f


    2400x Bx L

    where:

    W = total wet weight of set in kg [to be estimated from catalogues]


    s.f = safety factor depending on type of set

    - 12/38 -

    ------··----· -· ··-
    ~·) .
    \
    ! _j

    ... .,
    i
    I s.f for motor driven pumpset = 3
    s.f for engine driven pumpset = 4
    s.f for generator set = 2

    2400 = density of concrete (kilograms per cubic metres)


    B = foundation width in metres
    L = foundation length metres

    The concrete mix is 1 :2:4.

    The foundation should be reinforced with No. 8 gauge steel wire fabric or equivalent,
    horizontally place at 150 mm centres.

    FIGURE 12.27 -EXAMPLE OF USE OF VIBRATION PROOF


    MATERIALS AND EXPANSION .JOINTS

    (A)

    r
    Vibration Proof Rubber ~a~her
    Upper Liner
    Vibrati~n Proof Rubber

    .,\ Under Liner

    m~:p;:~:µ:~:,;;::;~~~~~?;S+5_;~~:+;-.:::;:;~ Hor tar

    I Floor Concrete
    Foundation Bolt I /
    l Adjustment L 1ner
    !L '--=-=-\ !
    _J·
    -Foundation Concrete

    ( B)

    E•pansf·on I
    Joint J,unoozo~ V.)lvt Foundation
    Pump Foun<atlon

    - 12/39 -
    12.14.2 VIBRATION DAMPING USING ISOLATORS

    The vibration mode is assumed to be linear with a mass-spring system. The relationship is as
    follows:

    w = [ elm ]1/.l.
    where:

    w = cnncal anguiar Ve10Ci.:Y


    • • 1 1 , • •
    iii
    ,JI
    .:.aUJ s
    c = spring stiffness in N/m
    m = total mass in kilogram (load plus foundation)

    Normally the critical angular velocity is taken as 0.5 to 0.7, of the nominal angular velocity of
    the load and as the value of total mass can be determined from the volume of foundation and
    its density, the value of 'c' can be calculated. 111e numbers of isolators to be used depend on
    the value of 'c' obtained. There are two common ways of isolating or damping the vibration.
    One way is to use commercial isolators between the frame supporting the load and the
    l
    I
    .l
    foundation. In this method the foundation is normally together with the floor and is referred ·i
    l
    to as monolithic foundation or plinth. This method is very suitable for generator set ;

    application.
    . t'
    ! t;
    Another method of reducing vibration is to use bulk isolator between the foundation block and i -,
    subbase. This is normally known as non-monolithic plinth. The types of material used are
    '
    rubber, asphalt-impregnated felt, fibre glass and cork. This method is suitable for water
    purnpsets application;

    12.15 SURGE SUPPRESSION PLANT

    Water hammer occurs whenever there is a transient surge in pressure in a pipeline. 'These
    normally occur when there is rapid change of velocity of water due to closure of a valve,
    starting and stopping of a pump and a change of speed of a pump.

    To counter water hammer, some of the methods commonly used in waterworks pumping
    · installations are:-

    (a) installation of large flywheel to prolong pump rotation after the primemover is cut-off,

    (b) use pressurised surge vessel to cushion the surge due to column separation and

    (c) surge anticipator valves which open or close at some preset values or mechanism
    w;,
    which lowers surge pressure in pipelines.
    ·- kt
    Method (b) shall be used as standard in surge suppression measure. ..: I
    t

    - 12/40 -

    ----- - ----· .. -~
    12.15.1 EXAMPLE ON PRELIMINARY CALCULATION ON SIZING OF
    SURGE VESSEL

    Consider a pwnping station with the following parameters:-

    Capacity = 179,440 igph


    = 13.6 m3/min
    ThusQ = 0.2268 m3/s
    [ ' Delivery main = 700 mm dia. mild steel cement lined
    '
    Internal diameter of pipe, D = 0.7 m

    Thickness of pipe inclusive of


    cement lining, t = 0.0254 m
    f I

    Length of pipe, L = 18700 rn

    Static head, h = 46.5m

    Total pumping head, H::::: 61.6 m

    Velocity of flow, v = QJA


    = 0.2268 I (3.14 x 0.352)
    :;:;: 0.590 m/s

    Surge wave velocity, a= 1433 I (1 + kr) t/l [m/s]

    Where ~ =. Modulus of elasticity of water ffiw)


    Modulus of elasticity of pipe material (E)

    r = Internal pi:pe diameter Q))


    Thickness of pipe (t)

    Take Ew= 2100 x 106N/m2

    E= 210 x 109 N/m2 (Steel pipe)

    Hence a = 1433 I (1 + 0.01 x 27.56) 1fl

    = 1269 m/s

    Critical time of conduit = 2Ua

    = 2 x 18700/1269 s

    = 29 .47 seconds

    - 12/41 -

    ·----··-- ---· - --·-------------------


    Surge head variation = ±av/g

    = ± 1269 x 0.59/9.81

    = ± 76.32 m

    Total surge i11 pipeline = ± av/g + H


    = 76.32 + 61.6

    = 137.92 m

    ?
    The negative surge = - 76.32 + 61.6 0

    tr
    :IL
    \
    = - 14.72 m ' W,·<

    The total vacuum condition will exist throughout the length of the column and collapse is
    i[
    probable. Therefore surge suppression equipment is necessary.

    Calculation of column stopping distance

    Deceleration due to gravity, f = gH/L


    Assuming maximum suppression, i.e. Iimiting.the surge to the TDH of 61.6 m and suppressing
    it down 46.5 m.

    Thenthe mean head, (deceleration due to gravity)·during the-suppression period.

    Mean head = (H- h) /2


    = . (61.6 - 46.5)/2
    = 7.55 m

    Therefore, f = (9.81 x 7.55) I 18700


    = 0.00396 m/sec2

    From equation of motion v2 = 2fS

    s = 0.592/2 x 0.00396

    = 43.95 m

    - 12/42 -

    -------~---· - . --------·---- _ .. --~-· --··--- -·


    Hence volume of water required to fill cavity left by the column travelling this distance.

    Volume » Distance x Area


    43.95 x 3.14 x 02/4
    = 43.96 x 3.14 x 0.72/4
    16.91 m3

    Allowing the minimum permissible pressure during surge to fall at atmospheric pressure of
    10.37 m head of water. ·

    The vessel capacity can be calculated by

    P1 Vi = P2 V2, withl-i = 61.6 + 10.37 = 71.97 m

    P2 :=:: 10.37 + 10.37 = 20.74 m

    V1 = Required volume of compressed air

    V2 = (V1 + 16.91) m3

    Therefore, V1 = 20.74 (V1 + 16.91) /71.97

    ii Thus V1 = 6.846 m3
    i •
    Therefore Total Volume
    of Vessel = 16.91 +6.846 m3

    ; . = 23.756 m3
    I
    i '
    ).;
    Allow for 10% margin,
    Therefore volume of vessel 23'.756 x 1.1
    ( '
    = 26.13 m3
    I .

    l :
    (
    Design pressure= · 61.6 m

    i
    ! . Volume of air required= V1 = 6.846 m3
    l.
    Assume the volume of air required becomes 7.0 rn3 (allowing for some leakage) and charging
    t time in 30 minutes.
    { :
    ~ ..
    Thus capacity of air compressor = 7/30
    ! .
    I
    l .. · = 0.233 mvminute at 61.6 m working pressure

    - 12/43 -

    ~·i --- ... - .. . . »--··-------------------------·


    !
    12.16 CRITERIA AND STANDARDS FOR INSTRUMENTATION

    In Malaysian waterworks practice, the objective of instrumentation is to measure variables


    such as flow, pressure, level etc. These data are essential for proper operation of plants.

    (a) As a minimum, the following instrumentation shall be provided at all treatment works
    above 50 m3/hr capacity:-

    (i) Raw water flow (L & R)


    (!i). Treated water flew (L & P_)
    (iii) Backwash flow (L)
    (iv) Treated water integrator (R)
    (v) Backwash flow integrator (R)
    (vi) Balance tank level indicator (R)
    (vii) Backwash/Local storage reservoir level (L & R)
    (viii) Blower pressure (L & R) ·
    (ix} All pump discharge pressures (L)

    L = local R :::: remote

    (b) On plants 1500 m3/hr and above, recorders are .to be provided for raw and treated
    water flow.

    (c) On plants above 3000 m3/hr instruments are to be specified on a scheme specific basis.

    (d) Below 50 m3/hr, local direct coupled flow instruments with square root scales and
    mechanical level instruments can be specified.

    Automatic operation has the following purposes>


    ~·

    (a) to control critical tasks,

    (b) to minimise tedious repetitive tasks, and

    (c) to. provide a tool for process supervision.

    It is apparent that in order to control any variable it must be capable of being continously
    measured. With this fundamental fact in mind, the discussion of the physical variables of flow,
    level and pressure provides a basis for further understanding of automation.

    12.16.1 PROCESS MEASURING ELEMENTS

    No process control can begin without proper measuring or detection devices. The different
    types of measuring elements arc discussed below.

    - 12/44 -
    -- I'
    411!!7-I;
    1 . -·.····.. ;

    ., ..... -...-.,~-·_.,~ ..,..- •• ,-.,,- _, •......,..,, ..• ,,.--.;;,,·~•:1,/1:~.'V:;'",·,·.·•: . .J- ..::·•·,".. ,-.:,·~ 'i ',;,;,;<(,
    I... .,
    ;
    (a)

    ., On-line elements are installed such that they are connected to the process media. This allows
    continuous measurement of the process variable without intervention of operating personnel
    Some measuring elements are by nature on-line devices, such as those for pressure, flow, level ·
    and temperature. Others used for the measurement of concentration of chemicals, turbidity,
    pH, conductivity, chlorine residual and fluoride residual have been developed for on-line
    applications.

    (b) Off-line

    Off-line measuring elements are the typical laboratory instruments. They are used either to
    measure process constituents, for which on-line equipment is not available, or to serve as
    calibration devices for on-line measuring elements. Off-line equipment is used to detect or to
    measure hardness and alkalinity. The results of the measurement of these constituents are
    used to change process control such as changing dosage control of chemical feeders.

    · (c): Point measurement

    Point measurement is a noncontinuous type of measurement used mainly on two-position


    control and alarm applications. The most frequently used true point measurement units are
    electrode probes with induction or electronic relays, mechanically actuated limit switches,
    proximity switches, certain capacitance probes and some sonic devices.
    r. !.•
    (d) .Variable measurement

    l Variable measurement is. a continuous type of measurement and is tbe basis for any
    i ' indication/recording of process variables and for most controllers.

    (e) Flow measurement

    The two principal applications for measuring flow are:-

    (i) water flowrate measurement and


    (ii)
    )1 treatment chemical flow measurement

    The measurement of flow can be accomplished in numerous ways. The four common methods
    of liquid flow measurement are:-

    (i) measuring differential pressure,


    i
    (ii) measuring direct discharge,
    i (iii) measuring positive volume displacement and
    t. z

    (iv) flow velocity-area methods.

    - 12/45 -

    . - --- ... ---··-· --- ·-·----- ·---------------------------


    Differential pressure measuring devices include venturi tubes, all tubes, orifice plates for full
    flowing pipelines and venturi flumes such as Parshall and Palmer - Bowlus flumes for open .,
    channel flow measuring. These devices are well suited for measuring process flows in water
    treatment plants.

    Direct-discharge measuring methods include magnetic flow meters, ultrasonic flow meters,
    propeller meters, weir and V-notch. These methods are often applied for measuring process
    flows but have some limitations.

    Positive volume displacement measuring method are almost exclusively used as a form of
    chemical flow measurement. Various types of chemical metering pumps, such as plunger-type
    pumps, diphragm pumps and progressive cavity pumps, operate via positive displacement
    methods.
    "\'1}

    An example of the flow velocity-area method used in the treatment plant is the pitot tube.
    ,• it
    The measurement of flow in many installation does not involve its use for process control but
    is merely for record cir bookkeeping purposes. Totalizers in common use are of the pulse
    duration and pulse rate types with the pulse duration type the most common .

    . (f). . . Level measurement


    The measurement of level in open tanks is fundamental to water treatment and distribution.
    All facilities have unique properties that impose limitations on the methods that can be used
    for level measurement ·· fi\
    :t
    These are:-

    (i) the range of levels is apt to be relatively large,


    (ii) hot condition czn often interfere with or damage instrumentation and
    (iii) usually it is necessary to transmit the information over relatively long distances.

    These constraints make the following methods the most common:-

    (i) directly connected pressure element,


    (ii). bubble tube or diaphragm box and
    (iii) float and cable.

    Toe directly connected pressure element is commonly used to measure the levels in elevated
    reservoirs and sometimes, clear water wells. In order to use this method, it is necessary that
    · the point of measurement be below the minimum level to be measured. The pressure on the
    measuring element is indicated or recorded as metres of water. Once the measurement is
    available, it can be transmitted to a point where operating personnel are present, such as at
    treatment plant. It is common practice to add electric contacts to such instrumentation for
    starting and stopping pumps or sounding alarms,

    I,.
    i i. ;
    - 12/46 -
    The bubble tube and diaphragm box are similar in that the point of measurement is usually
    above the maximum level. This technique is commonly used to measure clear water well level
    or levels in buried tanks.

    The float and cable is the oldest method and consists of a float whose vertical position moves
    a recording drum via a cable. TI1e method, while corrunon, has the inherent drawback of a
    cable that is subject to damage from numerous sources and the requirement that the instrument
    be mounted directly over the point of measurement. Th.is method is usually limited to direct
    local measurement

    (g) Pressure measurement

    Pressure can be measured as absolute (measured with reference to the pressure of absolute
    vacuum, which is zero), gauge (measured with reference to the ambient atmospheric pressure),
    or differential (where the difference between two pressures is measured). All pressure
    transducers can be considered as differential pressure transducers.

    Almost all pressure and differential pressure transducers used in the water industry rely on the
    distortion in a metal exposed to pressure to measure that pressure.

    · hi selecting a pressure transducer for _a specific application, several factors must be considered,
    such as process liquid (e.g., corrosivity), range, span and zero suppression-elevation.

    (h) Analytical measurement and control

    The measurement of such variables as _pH, conductivity, turbidity, chlorine residual and
    selective ions is becoming common pl.ace in large water treatment facilities. · The methods used
    are essentially extensions of. laboratory methods and devices. Because of the complexity of
    equipment, this entire class of measurements does not. .have the· high degree of reliability
    associated with the physical measurements of flow and level. This can be expected to change
    in time. Analytical measurements are commonly applied for:-

    (i) pH measurement and control of chemical coagulation,


    (ii) turbidity measurement for raw, settled and treated water,
    (iii) chlorine residual measurement and control treated water and
    (iv) selective ion measurement of fluoride, hardness and other significant ions.

    Generally, the instrumentation systems of water-works facilities can be divided into the
    following elements:-

    (i) '
    the primary element - an element which senses the parameter to be measured,

    (ii) the transmitting element - an element which conveyes signals through electronic
    transmitter, signal cable or pipe conduit for remote indication and

    (iii) the receiving element - an element which converts the received signal into readable
    information through indicators or recorders.

    · ,2/47 -
    For more complicated instrumentation, a feedback loop is used. In this way, the parameters
    are automatically controlled.

    12.17 CHEMICAL DOSING EQUIPMENT

    Chemical dosing equipment normally consists of chemical feeders, solution mixing tank,
    solution stock tank, stirrers, pipeworks and <losers.

    Chemical feeders refer to the equipment used to handle chemicals, either in liquid form or dry
    form as obtained from the chemical manufacturers. Thus, chemical feeders used in water
    treatment are of two basic types; liquid feeders and dry feeders.

    Liquid feeders refer to the equipment used to handle liquid chemicals. Sometimes, alum is
    handled in this manner. Liquid feeders are preferred over dry feeders as the process of
    preparation of solution from the dry chemical is laborious and involves extra structures.
    Further, liquid feeders are compact and accurate. However, if liquid chemicals are not
    available, the dry feedingsystem has _to be used.

    Dry feeders can be divided into two types namely manual and machine dry feeding. For
    manual dry feeding, dry chemicals are poured by hand into predetermined amount of water in
    order to produce a solution of a certain strength. In machine dry feeding, dry chemicals in
    bags are loaded into the equipment and cutting of bags, feeding into solution tank is handled
    by the equipment Sometimes, machine dry feeding is also known as Volumetric dry feeders.

    Chemicals are always finally dosed as a liquid or solution. The type of <loser used can be ·
    metering pump, jet (eductor) pump and gravity <loser. The jet (eductor) or metering pump is
    preferred over the gravity doser as its rate of dosing can be more accurately controlled.

    The gravity doser is divided into two categories namely, direct gravity and gravity doser with
    ejector. The direct gravity doser is placed as near to the point of dosing as possible and works
    entirely as a result of high potential energy due to it being placed at a higher level to the point
    of dosing. TI1e gravity doser with ejector does notrequire a high potential as the pressure for
    dosing is obtained from motive water.

    12.17.1 LIQUID FEEDERS

    Several criteria should be considered in designing a liquid feeding system:

    (a) selection of materials for the storage tank, valves and piping that are compatible with
    the chemicals used

    (b) capital cost of the system,

    (c) ease and cost of operation and maintenance, and

    (d) efficiency in continuous feeding.

    - 12/48 -

    -·-··-----· .. · ----------
    •••.•...•...... , •. ,,,,··,--·,.,..,.,.,,,.,..-.·.-.· •1..,.,,.,,...__..,..,r..,•'>l:•'t•'0,s.:····r.'t'.''il"'~"--.-·.::•~'(1'1"J.".C··,.yJ/•·''',}'C.P
    Normally, liquid feeders are installed with either jet (eductor) pumps or metering.pumps as the
    dcsers. A typical liquid feeding system with a metering pump is shown in Figure 12.28.

    I.
    ·,-
    FI(;URE 12.28 - TYPICAL METERING PUMP FEEDING SYSTEM
    1
    !
    i

    F 111 line C.:ilibr-1tion

    f ':
    i
    1,- _r~ r-
    Column
    I
    j

    . ~
    J~ l 1
    \. Liquid Chemical
    Stora9e
    Enclosu~ '( , 1
    l.'a 11 . Metering Pu (Flow

    r --
    T pacing by ariabl1
    n Speed Motqr nd · .
    Sampling·
    Tap
    !t ...
    Utility-~
    T c ..
    Dosage ~ett1 g
    Drain
    \.later on Pump Stro-1-e-,.---'l---
    e:
    1
    '
    t !

    '. ······. ····· ....

    To minimise non-uniform feeding patterns, the metered chemical can be diluted on the
    downstream side of a metering device or a pulsation damper can be placed after a pulsating
    metering pump or both. When pulsation pumps are used without a pulsation damper, the
    chemical feeding line should be sized for the pulsating flowrate and not the average hourly
    feeding rate. In this situation, the line typically requires twice the pipe diameter th~n if based
    ~
    ' J on an average flowrate.

    A pressure water foe is also needed to flush out chemicals from the metering device and also
    the chemical dosing line. Without the flushing system, dried chemicals can clog the
    components.

    It is important that the designer consider both the minimum and maximum feed rates which a
    particular liquid feeder will be called on to deliver because of variation of raw water quality.

    - 12/49 -

    T ·-------· --- ·--·-·- ·-· - .. '" _


    The important criteria to consider in liquid chemical storage system design are the
    corrosiveness, crystallization characteristics, stability, viscosity of the liquid chemical, supplier
    situation and weather conditions in the vicinity of the plant. After evaluating these conditions,
    the number and capacity of each storage tank and the proper materials for the storage units
    can be determined.

    12.17.2 MACHINE DRY CHEMICAL FEEDERS ·-~


    1
    Certain chemicals, such as lime, soda ash and most nonionic and anionic polymers, are ii

    available only ii-. dry form and therefore, may require dry che .. iical feeders. 'I\;:;:; ~ pes cf j~· i
    chemical feeders are typically employed; volumetric and gravimetric. Figure 12.29 illustrates a
    typical dry chemical feeding system Volumetric dry feeders are relatively simple and widely
    j
    used in this country. Various types of volumetric feeders are available; the simplest being a
    t l
    l
    vibrating bin unit with a screw-type feeder. ·i
    '

    In addition to selecting the feeder itself, the engineer must also select appropriate dry chemical
    storage facilities, hoppers and solution tanks. Most dry chemicals, especially lime can bridge
    and flush in the silo and hopper. Electric vibrators on the side walls of the equipment do not .1

    solve these problem completely. Proper dimensions and wall angles of the silo and hopper are
    critical design factors toprevenr these occurrences. The hopper sidewall angle should be at
    least 60 degrees from the horizontal plane and positive silo outlet control system may be most
    effective. One or more heavy duty electric heaters should be provided on the hopper; the
    heaters automatically maintaining a constant temperature of 5 to 10° Ce1cius above the
    ambient temperature.

    Toe sizing of the solution tank is dependent on the nature of the particular dry chemical.'
    When inorganic chemicals are used, the solubility of the chemical at lowest water temperature
    at the maximum dosage rate would determine the size and the water supply rate for a solution
    tank for a continuous dissolving system.

    · 12/50 ·

    . ·-·--------- --·- --- . .. --~ ------ --


    Dust Collector

    torage Bin

    c Signal·
    Bin Acti vatcr
    (Option)
    r:
    ii 4 - 20 ~ Flow
    or Grav1metric Type Meter

    Process
    \.later

    Flow
    Meter

    ~~--~
    y Hydraulic Injector
    (Option)
    Orai n

    Utility Water

    ''~
    l .
    ~-- .J

    . F1GURE 12.29 - DRY CHEMICAL FEEDING SYSTEM (fYPICAL)

    -12/51-

    -----. -· . ····---·-·---· .. .,- ---·------ --·-·----


    12.17 .3 CHEMICAL DOSERS
    ·1
    Chemical dosers are used to transfer the chemical solution to the dosing point. The <loser can
    be of the metering pump, gravity ejector or direct gravity type. As mentioned earlier, the
    metering pumps or eductors are preferred over gravity doser as they are accurate and easily
    controlled. The four major categories of metering pumps are:- I
    (a) diaphragm pumps,
    r·I
    (b) plunger pump,
    (c) combination diaphragm and plunger, and
    (d) progressive cavity pump.

    The combination diaphragm and plunger pump is the most frequently used type of metering
    pump.

    12.17.4 CHLORINATION SYSTEM

    In general, a chlorine gas installation consists essentially of three parts; chlorine supply system,
    metering and control system, and the ejector system.
    f
    (a) Chlorine

    Chlorine is stored as a liquid under pressure in steel cylinders or drums, and occassionally in
    large pressure vessels. When the pressure is released, the liquid vaporises to form gas. The
    gas is drawn off through flexible connectors, which are usually silver-plated annealed copper.
    r
    I.

    The recommended ejector vacuum pipe sizing for remote ejector applications for. chlorine feed
    rates up to 3600 kg per day and distances varying from 550 to 760 metres. r
    To ensure continuity of supply it is normal to provide a changeover device which will
    automatically bring a standby set of cylinders into service. If the draw-off requirements are
    more than 4 kilograms per hour it is mandatory to take liquid chlorine from the drums and to
    use an evaporator to turn the liquid into gas. A 'cascading' drum changeover system may then
    be more appropriate.

    (b) Selection of chlorinators

    The chlorinator selected. shall be of the solution feed, vacuum operated I ype and capable of
    continuous operation. It shall be designed with easy maintenance and oper.uion in mind. For r
    dosing rates of below 2 kg/hour of chlorine gas, a wall mounted chlorinator ·liaJl be used and l I

    above 4 kg/hour, a floor standing chlorinator is preferred.

    All components or parts of chlorinator should be made of specially selccte.. plastics or


    corrossion resistant alloys. All the spring used in apparatus should made of platinum or
    tantalum and all the 0-rings gasket should be made of vilton rubber. Further, all major
    components of chlorinator shall be with Acme-thread sockets for easy removal or replacement
    wunout usmg spec1a\ toots.

    - 12/52 -

    ------=----·-· , .. --, -------~-------


    l
    l
    The chlorinator shall be provided with a feed rate indicator, a "V" Notch orifice and a vent
    The ejector shall be installed at the control panel or remote-mounted. The chlorinator must
    incorporate at least 2 regulating valves; a pressure regulating and a relief valve. Toe former is
    to reduce gas pressure to a regulated vacuum, the latter is to maintain a constant vacuum
    irrespective of fluctuations in vacuum created by the ejector.

    Automatic changeover panels shall be supplied and installed in the chlorine room. The units
    shall automatically change over the standby chlorine supply when the chlorine pressure on the
    on-line gas supply falls to a predetermined value.

    (c) Chlorine gas pipework and valves

    Pipework for dry chlorine gas shall be silver lined copper or seamless carbon steel.

    All pipework carrying chlorine gas at drum or cylinder pressures shall be arranged with a slope
    back to the drums or cylinders. Where screwed joints in chlorine service (wet or dry) are
    unavoidable, all threads shall be well formed and cleaned before the pipe jointing compound of
    graphite is employed and the connection made.

    Chlorine solution pipework" including diffusers shall be ABS or better. Diffusers shall be held
    in place with the use of 316 stainless steel bracket fittings.

    Isolating valves on injector water supply pipework shall be ball valves of cast bronze body
    with stainless steel on wetted parts. A filter or y-strainer shall consist of replaceable 316
    stainless steel screening element

    12.17.5 CHLORINE LEAK DETECTOR

    Chlorine leak protectors shall be provided to detect excessive concentrations of chlorine gas in
    the air resulting in the leakage or failure -of chlorination equipment, chlorine cylinder or drum.
    A minimum of two detectors shall be provided. Chlorine leak detectors shall. be. sensitive to
    chlorine gas concentrations of above 1.0 ppm by volume with the maximum response time of
    30 seconds. They shall cause an alarm to ring when the concentration exceeds 2. 0 ppm.

    The detectors shall be enclosed in a sealed case suitable for panel mounting and have gasketed
    doors with transparent windows. The leak detectors shall be of biplati.num ribbons cell
    amperometric type. The units shall be incorporated with a supported battery so that they will
    continue to ouerate
    - even when there is a -oower failure.

    (This system is allowed for in treatment plants where chlorine draw-off is more than 4 kg/hr.)

    12.17.6 EMERGENCY SAFETY SHOWER AND EYEWASH

    One complete set of emergency safety shower and eyewashshall be provided in the vicinity of
    the chlorination site.

    - 12/53 -

    :--._ __
    12.17.7 EXHAUSTFANS

    Exhaust fans shall be of the wall mounted type of capacity sufficient to change the air in the
    chlorine storage or dosing room every five minutes.

    Facilities shall be provided for switch-on and lock-on of the fans from outside the building.
    The fans shall be preferably discharge into ducts and away from the building. The fan
    assemblies shall include an automatic shutter to prevent entrance of insects, wind and rain.

    12.18 FILTRATION EQUIPMENT

    The filtration equipment for a treatment plant normally consists of wash water pumpsets, air
    blowers and filter controls.

    12.18.1 . W ASHW ATER PU1\.1PSET

    Filter washwater is normally supplied either by washwater pumpsets or from washwat.er tanks.
    Washing by means of direct pumping requited large 'capacity pumpsets. For economic reason,
    filter washwater is normally taken from washwater tanks and pumpsets are used to deliver
    water into these tanks. Wash water pumpsets are normally sized to fill up the washwater
    tanks in two hours. Selection of the pumpsets is as per section on pumpsets given in Section
    12 - Mechanical Equipment and Installation.

    12.18.2 AIR BLOWER

    In water treatment plants, air blowers arc used to supply air to agitate media during th~ filter
    filter washing. The performance requirement for blowers depend on the filter de_sign and '-

    backwashing system. Refer to Section 10 - Filters for these parameters. In the design and
    installation of an air blower, the following criteria shall be observedr- t i

    (a) a common plinth shall be provided for the blower and primemover,

    (b) pipe connections to the blower shall be independently supported to prevent straining of
    the casing,

    (c) all pipelines shall be as short and as straight as possible,

    (d) backflow of water into the piping system shall be prevented. Check valves, vertical U-
    bends shall be provided for this purpose. For installations where the blower is located
    below the overflow level of the filters, a portion of the header pipe shall be installed at
    0.5 metres above filter overflow level,

    (e) the intake to the blower shall be protected against foreign materials like dust and rain,
    and located such that cool air can be drawn into the blower and
    ~i
    ;g!,
    ~-':i

    ...'t
    I

    - 12/54 - itt\
    ~-

    ------

    Hoo·r••• .. o·',o•""•••• oY•""•


    ...

    o"o•·"••"••••••rr• .... •-·••••·-• ,·.• -···•····•••--,•••»>"~.._.... ... ,...... ,,_,... ...... ~-~--,.-T',..,,.,.;-cY",-_-~....,..,.,,,~
    -'
    ........ -..,~,..-;~.,.....:,.•
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    0
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    .....0
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    FIGURE 12.30- TWO CYLINDER WALL MOUNTED CHLORINATOR

    - 12/55 -

    ---------------· ---- . '····· - --·-·-------


    L.
    ....,
    0

    v L
    .,,
    <lJ

    w
    ·o
    ....,
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    > ....,- =

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    ,- c
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    L. E ,-
    ::,
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    ::,
    ·~ .....x
    .0 "'
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    >- u,

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    r-
    :,
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    ._,QJ
    0,
    tel
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    FIGURE 12.31- THREE CYLINDER WALL MOUNTED CHLORINATOR

    - 12/56 -
    (f) all air scour pipes shall be of galvanised steel made to BS 1387 : 72 or cast iron to BS
    4622 or uPVC (for concealed installation) to BS 628.

    12.18.3 FILTER CONTROL

    The filter control consists of valves or penstocks positioned at various points; these can be
    operated manually or by electrical actuation. For plants below 2.5 mld, filter controls shall be
    manually operated whilst for plants above 2.5 mld, electrical actuators with manual overide
    shall be used.

    Given below are the types of valves used for filter controls»
    c": ,
    ! .
    \ '
    '! .
    (a) inlet control - penstocks,
    (b) outlet control - butterfly valves,
    1· (c) wastewater control - penstocks,
    t '
    ! : (d) washwater inlet - butterfly/sluice valves,
    {
    (e) airscour control - sluice valves,
    (t) drain valve - sluice valves.

    All pipe works shall be of cast iron, ductile iron or steel. ..

    12.19 .MECHANICAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

    12.19.1 GENERAL

    Various types of handling equipment are used in treatment plants and pumping installations.
    The common types of handling equipment available are cranes, fork lifts and hand trolleys.
    Generally, suitable handling equipment is required when the load to be lifted is 50 kilograms or
    more. Handling equipment is used according to the following criteria:-

    (a) 50 - 100 kilograms - Hand trolley,


    (b) above 100 kilograms - Crane or forklift

    12.19.2 HAND TROLLEY

    Generally, hand trolley is required at chemical houses, or when there is access and the loads
    are easily handled.

    12.19.3 FORKLIFT

    Two types of forklifts are used; diesel driven and battery operated forklifts. Normally, diesel
    driven forklifts are used to handle chemicals from the .store to dosing area when the buildings
    are far apart. When the distances to be travelled are shorter, battery operated forklifts are
    used. Forklifts shall be limited to carrying loads less than 2 tonnes.

    - 12/57 -

    ···- ----· ---·-·-- ·- ----- --~-··--


    12.19.4 CRANES .

    Cranes are employed in the purnphouses, generator houses, chemical rooms and stores, intakes
    and other buildings with heavy equipment and materials. The types of cranes used in
    Malaysian waterworks are monorail and gantry. These cranes are manually or electrically
    operated depending on type of installation.

    The following criteria and standards shall be used in determining the application of these
    equipment:

    (a) monorail cranes are used when a single degree of movement is required and the centre
    line of the equipment is in line with the entry or exit of the buiilding. The beam can be
    either "U" or "I" in shape. When the load to be moved exceeds two tonnes,
    electrically operated lifting and travel shall be used.

    (b) gantry cranes are used when two degrees of movement is required. Electrical lifting
    and travel shall be used when the load is more than two tonnes.

    Cranes shall be sized to withstand l.3;times its SWL. (Safe Working Load)
    i"

    12.19.5 OTHER LIFTING DEVICES

    Other lifting devices are the "A" - frames, rectangular frames and tripod frames which are
    normally used for outdoor applications such as for intakes. Normally, they are manually
    operated.

    r
    l;

    - 12/58 -
    (:.
    -------~-··-- ,. _ J:
    SECTION 13

    ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS

    13.l INTRODUCTION

    Power supply is the 'nerve' of the pumping system. Thus it is to be treated as the most
    :: important aspect of a pumping installation system.
    .i
    ~
    r
    Electrical installation in waterworks can be categorised into:-
    ,.
    I!
    !
    ~.
    l (i) Power intake ( or generation) at the treatment plant
    (ii) Power supply to motors (including controls) and motor control centre
    (iii) Small power and lighting to pump houses and surroundings.
    :1
    ...

    \ All electrical installations are to be installed as per Rules and Regulations of the IEE (or other
    relevent) wiring regulations, the local supply authority and Department of Electricity
    requirements.
    . ·•

    13.2 PO\VER INTAKE (OR GENERATION)

    When electricity supply is required from the Local Supply Authority (eg.TNB,SESCO,SEB) it
    r·l,
    J •
    is advisable that application be made at any early stage, preferably at the time of planning of
    I, .'\-
    the treatment works. It has been found in the past that the TNB could only supply electricity
    in 1 - 1 Yi years time, especially in rural areas. Where TNB supply is unavailable on-site power
    generation is required.

    The total power requirement can be assessed from the flow data and head of the purnpsets to
    be utilised. However, the following rough guide should enable one to assess the power
    requirement at the planning stage:

    • For small plants (<500 m3/h) - allow 2 kW/m3/h

    • For larger plants (>500 m3/h) - allow 1.5 kW/m3/h.

    Gravity supply sources or supply by gravity will need less power requirement and should be
    considered in the initial power assessment.

    13.2.1 VOLTAGE AT WHICH ELECTRICITY CAN BE TAKEN


    I
    !
    L The voltage available is:-

    (a) low voltage 415/240 V


    (b) medium voltage 6.6 kV, 1 lkV or 22 kV
    (c) high voltage 66 kV, 132 kV or 275 kV
    ):
    j
    'ii:

    • 13/l -

    ,_. --
    13.3.3 TYPES OF MOTORS
    ml•
    AC induction motors are used as the prime mover in water treatment plants. Toe advantages ii
    of this type of motor are simple design, rugged construction, reliable operation, low initial
    cost, easy operation, simple control gear for starting, and high efficiency. 11!
    The various types of motors involved are as followsr-
    111:
    l'J ..
    (a) . Squirrel-cage motors

    The rotor consists of a series of bars of copper or other · conductor, usually uninsulated, 11 I
    11
    embedded in the rotor, all bars being completely short-circuited at each end by a conducting
    ring. The squirrel-cage motor exhibits a characteristic speed-torque relationship that is
    determined by the resistance of the rotor bars (a typical characteristic with terminology, is as ;I
    shown in Figure 13.1).

    Advantages of squirrel-cage motors are:- t


    (i)
    (ii)
    (iii)
    · cheaper and more robust,
    slightly higher efficiency and power factor,
    explosion proof, since the absence of slip nngs and brushes eliminates risks of
    ;
    sparking, and
    (iv) cheap maintenance.

    The .disadvantage of .using squirrel-cage motor is that the starting current or standstill current
    has a high value relative to the starting torque. If the load at standstill is maintained for a long
    period, the temperaturerise in the winding will be excessive and will damage the winding.
    '··.·
    'J.

    i:iJ
    ~·!

    Figure 13. i shows a typical torque-speed curve. Figure 13.2 shows torque-speed curves for
    various rotor designs. Figure 13°.3 shows a typical torque-speed and current of a squirrel-cage
    induction motor.

    Typical starting values are 150% to 200% of full load torque and 600% of full load current.
    This type of motor can be for any size, but is to be carefully designed so that the electrical
    power system can sustain such starting voltage fluctuation. (Refer to section 13.4 for further
    details.)

    For submersible motors, only squirrel-cage type can be used. Therefore approval from the
    local authority shall be sought for the special application as the starting current will affect the
    supply from the authority.

    (b) Slip ring (wound rotor) motor

    . As the name implies, the rotor of this motor is wound with insulated wire windings similar to
    the stator winding. The ends of the rotor windings are brought out to three slip rings on the
    rotor shaft Connections are made to the slip rings through brushes and in turn to an external
    resistor of which the value of the resistance can be adjusted causing the motor torque-speed
    characteristics to be changed.

    · 13/4 -
    J
    I
    I
    FIGURE 13.1-TYPICAL TORQUE- FIGURE 13.2 - TORQUE-SPEED CURVE
    t. SPEED CURVES WITH
    ITS TERMINOLOGY
    OF SQUIRREL-CAGE
    MOTORS FOR VARIOUS
    ROTOR DESIGNS

    Starting Torque (Locked


    Motor Breakaway) 325
    300
    275
    Breakdown Torque "'O 250
    'O ( Pul1 Out) "'
    0 225 Design A
    0"'
    _J

    _, 200
    ::, 175 Design 8
    ....._
    ::, Slip 150
    ......
    Speed .... 125
    ....
    0
    0
    100
    ·H
    1l
    r .... Pul -Up Torque . 75
    Cll
    ::,
    - (Minjmum) "'
    ::,
    er 50
    L
    ...0
    CT 0 25
    ......
    ... Rated Speed
    -............
    Synchronous
    0 50 100
    Synchronous Speed, ,.
    Synchronous Speed:

    FIGURE 13.3 - TYPICAL TORQUE SPEED AND CURRENT


    .OF A SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

    l ST~ &OO l 1Rated

    \r~ 150 - 200 x 1Rated

    - 13/5 -

    ........
    ----- ·-·-··. ·-·-----------------------.am1@m&1ti11M!li"!~?l5Sl!P!i7lllffiffllffteb·
    iaierlillllb-.-----------~
    ..
    Figure 13.4(b) demonstrates the Torque-Speed characteristics of a wound rotor induction
    motor for several resistance values. It can be noticed that increasing the value of the external , . :1 ~
    resistance of the control will cause the peak torque of the motor to be 'shifted' towards the
    lower speed until the peak torque occurs at zero speed. Increasing the resistance beyond this
    value will cause the motor to have a limited torque, as for 'example, curves (4), (5) and (6).
    - ,i
    This motor can be used where torque-control is required or where variable speed is necessary.

    One disadvantage of wound rotor over the squirrel-cage is simply its rotor construction. The 1
    wound rotor is with slip ring, commutator brushes and they demand maintenance.

    Advantages of the slip ring motor are:- II


    (i)
    (ii)
    (iii)
    Its ability of speed control by regulating rotor resistance.
    High starting torque of 200% to 250% of full load value.
    Low starting current in the order of 250% to 350% of full load value.
    I
    The disadvantages are its high maintenance cost and limited to only non-submersible/dry
    :[
    · installation.

    13.3.4 TYPES OF MOTOR ENCLOSURES


    rl
    (a) Drip proof (DP) motor. (IP23)
    The motor is protected by a screen in which the ventilation openings are so arranged as
    to prevent the entry of water or any other material falling vertically. This is normally
    used for High Lift and wash water pumps.

    (b) Totally-enclosed
    ....
    - .
    Fan-Ventilated.
    . .... ····· ....
    (IP54)
    A totally enclosed motor with augmented cooling by means of a fan driven by the
    motor itself blowing external air over the motor body. Such motors have ribbed
    construction for efficient cooling. r
    13.3.5 MOTOR INSULATION

    Windings are insulated with materials which are classified as Class A, E, B, F, H. For motor
    application the insulating material Class shall not less than Class F.

    The Class (F) 155 corresponds to the temperature which is in the upper limits of the usability
    range of the insulation under normal operating conditions for satisfactory life. If this limit is
    exceeded by 8 - 10°C, the life of insulation is approximately halved. The insulation of
    windings of the motor is therefore determined by the temperature rise and the ambient
    temperature of motor.

    The winding insulation is normally designed for the temperature at the hottest point in the
    motor at 40 degrees ambient temperature. If the motors are to be exposed to a higher ambient
    temperature than 40°C, the rated output must be reduced (derated) or otherwise insulation
    material of a_ higher class must be used.

    - 13/6 -

    -
    , ...

    i
    J
    TEMPERATURE CLASSES
    ;·· ....
    ;
    1
    ;

    J.
    ('. ·~

    105 120 130 155 180


    (A) ( E) ( B) ( F) (H)
    lS

    15

    10
    j s
    I 80 75 so 100 125

    I '-
    ,o ,o l.O ro to

    I
    I
    r. 13.3.6 MOTOR BEARING
    ·j
    Bearings should conform to the following:-

    (a) Prelubricated ball bearings shall be used on fractional horse-power motors.


    1 ,
    J . · · ·· · · · {b)' · .. 'Eachhorizontal integral motor with rating larger than 1.5 kW shall be lubricated with
    r' .: readily accessible greased inlet and outlet plugs to allow regressing from the motor
    i
    !. .; exterior without any disassembly.
    I

    !
    (c) Each vertical motor shall be equipped with ball-type thrust bearings and adequate to
    support all internal and external thrust imposed upon it while operating in its installed
    position.

    (d) Operating hours of bearing shall not be less than 40,000 hrs.

    13.3.7 COUPLING
    i \
    The major pumps used in waterworks installation are mostJy directly coupled through flexible
    coupling to its driving motor. The use of flexible coupling permits a minor misalignment
    (angular and parallel) between motor and pump shafts mentioned in Section 12 - Mechanical
    Equipment and Insiallancns. However most flexible couplings tend to become rigid when
    they are transmitting torque and therefore can impart thrust into the motor bearing, should this
    thrust. prevail at the time the motor and pump are started.

    - nn.
    FIGURE 13.4 - TYPICAL TORQUE-SPEED CHARACl'ERISTICS OF
    A WOUND-ROTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

    I Resistance
    I I

    Starter

    6543210

    ,,·.,: •t
    '.'.:·'.•.·.·.·&,\].
    ::. ~
    {a)

    250
    Zero External
    ~ 200 Resi s ta nee
    0
    _;
    I
    150

    6 100

    CJ
    .
    6- so Maximum External
    I,_
    0
    t--

    0 100

    I[.-:t
    Synchronous Speed,~
    ( !J)

    I': .· ,.
    :;,;:·

    :0~-

    (,1··
    [
    - 13/8 - ij .
    L
    Table 13.2 shows the different types of insulation protection to be used.

    TABLE _13,2 - TYPES OF INSULATION PROTECTION

    DESIGN A lSTNUMERAL 2NDNUMERAL CLASSrFICA TION •


    TION
    Protection against contact and Protection against water
    against ingress of foreign
    bodies
    Protection against contact by Dripping water falling Drip Proof
    IP21 finger with electricity live or vertically
    moving parts inside the Dripping water falling at an Drip Proof
    IP22 enclosure. Protection against angle up to 15° from the
    ingress of solid foreign bodies vertical
    with a diameter greater than Water falling as spray at an Drip Proof
    IP23 12mm. angle up to 60° from the
    vertical

    IP44 Protection against contact with Water splashed against the TEFVorTENV
    ,··.
    ; live or moving parts by tools, motor from any direction shall
    wires or other objects of have no harmful effect
    thickness greater than lmm
    IP54 AS IP44 TEFVorTENV
    Complete protection against W ater protected· by a nozzle TEFV orTENV
    IP55 contact with live or moving against the motor from any WHEA THERPROOF
    part. direction shall have no harmful or DUSTPROOF
    . Protection against harmful depo effect or HOUSEPROOF
    sit of dust The ingress of dust Motor protected against TENV
    IP56. ... .is .. not totally prevented, but conditions on a ship deck FLOODPROOF
    does not accumulate in an
    amount sufficient to impair Motor can be flooded to a TENV
    IP57 operation of the motor. depth of 3m and will run when FLOOD PROOF
    flood subsides.
    Protection against the ingress of Water projected by a nozzle
    JP65 dust. No dust whatsoever shall against the motor from any TEFVorTENV
    enter the enclosure. direction shall have no harmful DUST-TIGHT
    effect
    Ingress of water into the
    machine in a harmful quantity
    JP68 shall not be possible when tbe TEFV orTENV
    machine is immersed. in water
    under a specified pressure and
    for an indefinite time
    {Submersible machines)

    Totally Enclosed Fan Ventilat.ed - TEFV


    Totally Enclosed Non Ventilated - TENV

    . 13/9 -

    ·-- -··· -------------------------~---·-···-----·-----


    13.3.8 PERFORMANCES

    (a) Voltage

    Voltage rating of motor shall be compatible to the supply voltage guaranteed by TNB.
    Generally it shall be between the range of 415V + 5%, - 10%.

    If line voltage differs from the rated voltage, starting torque and maximum torque varies with
    the square of voltage. Therefore cables shall be sized strictly to comply with the IEE
    regulations.

    For example, assume the pump is driven by a Design B motor (refer to Figure 13.5) where this
    motor will produce 200% maximum torque at the rated nameplate voltage, the motor would
    produce only 49% of its maximum torque value. The pull-out, or maximum torque of the
    motor will then become 0.49 x 200% rated torque. It then becomes questionable whether the
    motor will be able to sustain the pump load and the motor can be expected to lose speed,
    stalled or become overloaded. In a similar sense, motor may be unable to accelerate a pump if
    low line voltage exists. In the example above, this same motor develops 150% of rated torque
    when started at zero speed and rated voltage. If the line voltage is again 70% of nameplate
    voltage, the motor will develop 0.49 x 150% rated torque, or 73% rated torque. However
    this will not be a problem in starting a centrifugal pump because of its square law speed torque
    characteristic. If the motor voltage never increase beyond 70%, the
    centrifugal pump would
    not reach normal operating speed.

    FIGURE 13.5 - EFFECTS OF REDUCTION IN LINE VOLTAGE ON THE


    TOROliE-SPEED CURVES OF INDUCTION MOTORS

    325
    300 ±
    275
    250
    225
    "O 200 Starting Torque
    "'
    0
    _J
    175
    @

    :, 150
    u,
    ....
    0
    125
    F.L. Torque 4ntrifuga1
    ~ 100
    ump Curve
    ~ 75
    Q.J
    :,
    er Star 1ng Torque~ /
    I... 50
    0
    f-
    Ql_B a t e<lJLo l-tdg e
    25

    0 so 100
    Synchronous Speed, t

    -- ·--
    -13/10-

    ----· . - . ~-----~--
    Table 13.J

    The following chart gives a rough statistical idea on the effects of variation in volta ee
    ·
    important · · of an e1ectnc
    c h· aractensncs · motor: · . . ~_ . on

    .
    Characteristics 120% voltage 110% voltage 90% voltage sc % TI>lng~

    Starting & maximum +44% +21% - 19% -36%


    running torque

    Percentage slip -30% - 17% +23% + 56%

    Full load speed + 1.5% + 1% - 1.5% - 2.5%

    Efficiency Full load Small+ + 0.005 to 0.01 % - 0.02% - 0..()4%


    -·. ···-.
    3/4 load - 0.005 to - 0.02 % Practically no Prac ti c.al1y no + 0.005 to+ 0.()2%
    change change

    r 1/l load - 0.07 to 0.2% + 0.01 to + 0.02% - o.o 1 to - 0.02% + 0.07 to+ 0.1%
    l . . ....
    Power factor Full load - 0.05 to - 0.15% -0.03% +0.01% + 0.03 to 0.1%

    3/4 load - 0.1 to 0.3% -0.4% +0.02 to 03% + 0.07 to+ 0.25%

    1{2 load - 0.15 to 0.4% - 0.05 to - 0.6% + 0.4 to+ 0.05% +0.12to+035%
    c ···-
    ... . ... , ..
    ~ · . ·:·11% +11% +20%
    Full load current -7%

    Starting current . +25% + 10 to 12% - 10 to-12% ". -25%

    Temperature rise-full load - 5 to - 6°C - 3 t.o - 4°C +6io+rc + 10 to+ 12°C

    Maximum overload +44% +21% "." 19% ·-· -·-.· -36%


    I capacity

    l
    I
    :l Note: The figure though fairly representative, will vary \i.1th brands of electric motors.
    - _·. -
    .,I .
    -
    - . ~
    --.
    ..

    - .,.. ,----
    _-:..:·:. _,:_,~ ..
    '

    --
    ·-

    .,

    ai
    'I . --
    ···
    . -. .._ ....._- -·

    .·. - -·.- . -.
    . ,_ ...... . . .. ~ ,.,.__.,.._
    (b) Speed

    The synchronous speed of motor is normally 1500 rpm. or otherwise stated by pump speed
    requirement at maximum speed of
    3000 rpm.

    Synchronous speed (rpm) = Frequency ffiz) x 120


    No. of poles

    Relation between frequency and SJ?eed

    No. of voles 50 cycle/sec. 60 cycle/sec.


    2 3000RPM 3600RPM
    II II
    4 1500 1800
    6 1000..
    .. 1200
    It

    ,.
    8 750 II
    900
    fl.
    10 600 720
    II II
    12 500 600

    Besides; the speed of the induction motors becomes lower than the synchronous speed when
    load is applied. The ratio of the decreased speed to the synchronous· speed is expressed in
    percentage and is called the "slip". Under full load conditions, the slip becomes several
    percent This slip becomes larger when the number of poles is larger and when the capacity is
    smaller. · ·

    (c) Torque

    The rated torque of a motor can be obtained using the formula:

    T = 30,000P (Nm)
    N

    Where P = _-Output Power, kW


    N ,:;;
    Speed of motor, rpm

    The starting torque of the motor, which is developed by the motor when stationary must
    always be higher than the torque of the load (the Opposing Torque of the load on starting).
    TI1e difference between the starting torque of motor and the starting torque of load is called
    the acceleration torque, which is needed to run the driven machine up to full speed.

    ( d) Motor output

    Driving motor power to be not less than 110% of the maximum power requirement of the
    driven element

    - 13/12 -
    fI
    I

    IJ
    ( e) Efficiency

    I Efficiency of motor T} rn == Pm
    I Pe
    11.
    r·
    l
    Where Pm = Shaft output power or motor output power
    1·
    Pe = Input kW
    r For squirrel-cage motors efficiency ranges from 85% to 92% for motor above SHP and for
    f
    smaller motors about 75%.

    The efficiency is less in the case of slip ring motors, slow speed motors and under load motors.

    ( Typical efficiency of motors shall be between 80% to 93%.


    I:
    !I (f) Power factor (p.f)
    {{ Effect of low power factor can be understood from the relation of actual power and apparent ·
    power indicated in Figure 13.6.
    ·~··' .

    FIGURE 13.6 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ACTUAL POWER AND APPARENT


    POWER
    ~
    I
    i

    . .... ······ .....

    Reactive
    Powe r (KVAR)

    Useful Power {K~)

    - 13/13 -

    I.
    U sefu I power = Apparent x cos 0
    or kW KV A x power factor = KY A cos 0
    I or Apparent in KVA= Power ink~
    p.f
    I·
    i.c for doing the same useful (kW), the apparent power (KY A) increases in inverse ratio to the
    power-factor.

    Power-factor of a motor depends upon its type, size, rpm and load. However it is specified by
    local supply authority that it shall oe corrected to nor be iesstnan 0.85.

    Power factor correction of each motor shall be improved by individual correction. It must be
    noted that the power factor correction. capacitors must not be connected on to the supply line
    unnecessarily, i.e. the capacitor bank: must be designed such that it will be connected only
    when the motor is being used. Otherwise it will cause 'leading' power factor on supply lines.

    TABLE 13,4 - MULTIPLIER FACTORS FOR P.F. IMPROVEMENT

    l ri1 t ! a 1 Pove r
    factor Proposed Po~er f~ctor

    o.ss 0.90 0.95 0.98 Uri Hy


    {
    o.so 1. It 2
    o.sz
    0.54
    i . 024
    0. 9j9
    i . 248
    ! . l 60
    1. 075
    l.40)
    l.:) ls
    i.ZJO
    1.529
    l.441
    l.]56
    l.732
    "L6H. r
    l .529
    0. 56 0.860 0.996 1 • 151 I. 277 1.480
    o.sa 0. 785 0.921 1. -os
    o. 60
    o. 62
    0.714
    0.6<5
    0.849
    0.781
    1.076
    l.OOS
    0.936
    . ] . 202
    I.UL
    i.062
    l .)J~
    1. 265
    r
    0.64 o.sao 0.716 0. 871 0.99'7 1.200
    0,.66 n.s: a 0.65~ 0.00'] 0.9JS 1.138
    0 .68
    0.]0
    0. 459
    o_:40J
    0.595
    0. 5)6
    0.750
    0.691
    0.876
    d.811
    I. 07 9
    1.020
    .J
    A i

    o. 72 O. HJ o.~79 0.6)4 0.754 0.96)


    O.l~ 0.289 0.425 o.sao Q.700 0.909
    0.16 O. lJS 0.]71 o.526 0.652 o.ess
    0.78 o.tsa 0.)19' ·o.H) 0.594 o.eoJ
    0.60 O. !JO 0.266 0,421 o.SH 0.750
    a.a, 0.078 o. Z! ~ 0.)69 o.489 0.698
    0.84 0.026 0.162 o.Jt7 0.07 0.645
    0.86 . 0. 109 c, 264 0.)90 O. S9J
    0.88 . 0.05~ 0. 209· O.JJS O.SJB
    0.90
    c.sz
    - - 0.155 o.zai o. 484
    - - 0.097 0.223 o, (76
    0.94 - - O.OJ4 0.160 o.J6J
    0.96 . - - - o.2n
    0.98 - - - - O.ZOJ

    - 13/14 -

    -~-~·. -
    J
    J.
    ,:,..-·.
    Notes: l. Multiply the load in KW by the appropriate factor above for the desired
    p.f to arrive at required KV AR rating of capacitors .
    .F
    r-
    2. Values not given above may be calculated by interpolation.

    Example: Supposing it is desired to improve p.f. from 0.6 to 0.95 for a plant with I 00
    KV A load (before correction)
    Load in kW = l 00 x 0.6 = 60kW

    Multiplying factor from Table 13.4 for improving p.f. from 0.6 to 0.95 = 1.005
    KV AR rating of capacitors = 60 x 1.005
    = Say 60 KVAR

    (g) Relationship between the performance data

    FIGURE U.7

    _.Speed
    ·i
    ~Efficiency
    Power Factor
    •/
    '!': Primary

    ,{. !
    l /
    Current
    !
    i
    l- !
    .
    !.
    l .
    { .I

    I
    !

    • Output
    Idling · Half Output Rated Output

    - 13/15 -
    Figure 13.7 shows 'a typical relationship speed, efficiency, power and primary current and the
    output power of an electric motor.

    There are some useful three-phase formulae worth remembering for water works application.
    Consider the block diagram below:

    Pm bhp Pump whp ·

    v p
    Motor
    L D
    11 m
    p.f.

    Where !FL = Full load current (FLC)


    VL = Line Voltage, 415 volts
    PE = Electrical Input Power, Input kW
    11m = Efficiency of motor at full-load
    p.f = Power factor motor at.full-Ioad
    Pm = Output power of motor in kW
    Whp = Water power, in kW
    11P = Efficiency of pump
    bhp = Brake horsep?wer, in kW

    13.4 ELECTRICAL MOTOR ST ARTERS

    The Supply Authority Electricity Act stipulates that all motor starting arrangements shall be
    designed to limit starting arrangements shall be designed to limit starting (standstill) current ~~.-.
    that will limit starting voltage fluctuation to within acceptable tolerances. This essentially
    means that the starters are to be carefully selected so that the stability of the system voltage
    can be maintained.

    For equipment introducing harmonics distortion into the supply system (e.g. D.C.
    drive/variable speed drive) suitable filters or other controls shall be incorporated to limit the
    supply voltage distortion to acceptable levels.

    - 13/16 -

    --······-----··
    13.4.1 GUIDELINES FOR STARTERS FOR MOTORS (GENERALLY)·

    a) Submersible pumps

    The motors are generally of squirrel-cage construction and starters will be one of the following
    depending on its horsepower. .
    (Note: 1 h.p = 746 watt or 0.746 kW)

    • Up to 2.2kW Direct-on-line starter


    • 2.2 kW to 11 kW Star-delta starter
    • Above 11 kW Star-delta closed transitor or auto-transformer starter

    b) Other pumps

    There will be 2 types of motors, viz, squirrel-caged motors for up to 75 kW. Above 75 kW,
    usually slip-ring motors are to be used.

    The choice of starters are sim.i1ar to section 13.4.l(a) stated above .

    . Stator-rotor resistance starters shall be used for slip-ring motors.

    13.4.2 STARTER BOARD


    r
    l. Control for all the major pump motors is effected from a motor control centre or simply MCC
    f
    which is either an independent unit or incorporated into the main switch board (MSB). The
    MCC. is specified to be a cubicle floor mounted extensible type and it houses all the starters for
    all the major pump motors. It has to sustain the standard 415V prospective fault level as
    defined in BS:166. The MCC is normally 'located in the pumphouse of the treatment plant
    5·
    I '·. The starter board for raw water pumphouse can be located in any purnpnouse which is near to
    ! : the intake chamber. However, if there is no structure around, the raw water MCC is usually
    of anoutdoor construction (IP56) and mounted as near as possible to the intake chamber but
    ,:,
    well above flood level. ·
    i

    Control for the other minor motors is effected from individual starter panel located at strategic
    places. Described below are the various methods of starting.

    (a) Direct-On-line (DOL) starting

    This is the simplest method where motor is directly switched on to full line. In other words,
    full-voltage is applied to the motor stator windings. Full values of locked rotor (starting)
    current is drawn. Strong torque can be obtained -frorn this starter. The disadvantage,
    however, is the high starting current (up to about six times the full load current). This method
    has its limitations.

    Motors below 3 hp are normally D.O_L. starting.

    - 13/17 -

    --
    Advantages of D.O.L. are as follows:.

    (i) simple control gear and wiring,


    (ii) high starting torque, ·
    (iii) less maintenance, and
    (iv) less initial cost

    Disadvantages of D.0.L. are as followsr-


    . . .~
    (.i( . high voltage '1!0~, 0!:. aCC01..!~t of the large in-rush current at start, can trigger-off the
    :·. no-volt devices. of the other machines in the vicinity. This aspect can be taken care of
    · · : ·:: by providing supply main large enough to keep the voltage drop within 10%,

    (ii) other motors working nearby to full load capacity may stall because of the excessive
    voltage drop in the mains.rand
    '{,)[
    (iii) flicker in lights on account of voltage fluctuation.
    u.
    "'.. . -·.·1
    FIGURE 13,8- DOL STARTER
    i'.

    0/l
    rr1 P
    s .. itch

    (b) Star-delta (SID) starting

    This method of reduced voltage starting applies only to three phase, "delta" · connected
    squirrel-cage motors. During starting, however, the stator winding will be connected in "star"
    so. that each phase receives 1/3 of the normal supply voltage. Subsequently, the starting
    current and the starting torque will be reduced in proportion to the square of the voltage ratio,
    i.e, to approximately 30% and 25% respectively, of the DOL values.

    - 13/18 -

    ------------·-----~-·--------· --·
    When the motor is running at or near its actual speed, a change-over will take place such that
    the windings are connected in delta, where each phase receives the full mains voltage. A
    ~.··.
    momentarily surge in voltage is normally experienced. To apply this principle to star-delta
    starters, it is necessary to bring six leads out of the motor so that they can be interchanged
    when connecting from star starting to delta running. Figure 13.9 illustrates a simplified star-
    delta power and control circuits.

    This type of starting may not be popular in water supply project installations because of the
    low starting torque.

    t•M•.
    In the star-delta closed transition version, a resistance bank is connected momentarily via
    i contactors while the starter changes from star to delta configuration. The presence of
    resistance banks is essentially to absorb the energy and reduce transcient "spikes" in the power
    system

    I
    l
    !l ;

    r
    i
    r!
    I

    - 13/19 -
    F1GURE 13.9 - SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM OF A STAR-DEL TA
    POWER AND CONTROL CTRCUlT
    luins

    TOR!

    Stoo
    TOii
    II

    II

    T 1 T 0
    ro112
    P-i
    ~o-UZ~
    Control Circuit

    C\

    s, Lz
    /A~
    CJ / f \_ \
    I
    \ A
    I
    s
    -r~ r·. r· Pa'"'· er· Circuit
    · · ·

    Figure 13.10 illustrates the current and to_r_que for star-delta starting._

    FIGURE 13.10- CURRE:r,rr AND TORQUE FOR-STAR-DELTA STARTING OF


    SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTOR WITH LOAD TORQUE, TL

    I
    600 --Q..
    -- ......
    ' <,
    r
    "" '
    ..., ""
    ~ '
    ..,0 -1
    -~ ....
    , -; 180
    ';; 'a ISO
    ...
    ., J
    e
    e ~"~ )7. S
    ...0
    u
    ::,

    O Spee d , K

    ID = Current with Delta-Connected Winding


    To == Torque with Delta-Connected Winding
    LY== Current with Star-Connected Winding
    TY = Torque with Star-Connected Winding

    - 13(20 -
    (c) Auto transformer starting (An')

    These are the most widely used reduced-voltage starters because of their efficiency and
    flexibility. Basically, the starter comprises of a 3 phase auto-transformer on which tappings
    are provided on the secondary side. Taps on the transformer allow adjustments of the starting
    torque and in-rush current. The following characteristics are produced by the three voltage
    taps (other% taps may be arranged as required) as shown in Table 13.5.

    TABL~ 13.S - CHARACTERISTICS PRODUCED RY VOLTAGE TAPS

    Taps% Starting Torque % Locked


    % Locked Torque Current
    ..
    50 25 28
    65 42 48
    80 64 67

    In water supply projects motors specification, it is specified that the starting current (in-rush
    I . time) must be limited to· '150% of the full-load motor current. This would mean that a 50%
    ! tap will meet the requirement, A simplified diagram of an AT. starter is shown in Figure
    13.11.

    Motor current varies with the terminal voltage across the motor terminals, the link current
    drawn from the supply mains is further reduced by auto-transformer.

    FIGURE 13.11 - SIMPLil?IED POWER AND CONTROL CIRCUIT·DIAGRAM


    OF AN AUTO~TRANSFORMER STARTER

    Hains

    SP
    TOR
    T
    Ir,
    -~· ~TOR2 • _ I
    lo~
    LCq SP2

    0/L
    Device

    - 13(21 -

    ·--- ---· -· - ----------------···-· ... --


    ,
    .... . .....
    .....
    (d) Stator-Rotor resistance (SIR) starting
    :I
    If direct start is not permissible and starting torque is too low with star-delta or auto-
    transformer starts, a slip ring motor is selected. The disadvantage of this type of starter is the
    power loss in the starting resistance. Figure 13.12 shows the power and control circuit of a
    stator-rotor resistance starter, and Figure 13.13 shows current and torque curves for rotor
    resistance starter of a slip ring motor.

    13.5 CONTROL STRATEGIES

    Before any control is applied to a process, it is important to evaluate and understand the
    process, and know the requirement of the accuracy to which the process is to be controlled. A
    basic factor in the decision regarding the level of automation to be provided must be control
    reliability, which is dependent on the availability of local technicians for maintaining the
    equipment. Malfunctioning of automatic equipment can cause operating problems due to false
    reliance. Table 13.6 shows the c!?ntrol strategics required for pump operation.

    Normally the operation of the pump motor is designed to be controlled by any one of the
    following or a combination of them i.e .. pressure, differential pressure or the water levels in
    both the suction tank and the Storage tank. Th.is J.S done by installing stainless steel electrodes
    in the tanks as a water level sensor and sends a signal to thefloatless' relay which will in turn
    trigger the motor starter to start or stop as the case may be, or pressure switches at the suction
    or delivery pipe lines. Control cables of minimum size 2.5 mrn2 PVC /SW A/PVC multicore
    i:t
    cables are normally laid between the tanks to the starter board to transmit the requirement for
    level control as mentioned in water supply specification ..
    [l
    Lately, with the reduced cost of PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) it is quite affordable to
    incorporate PLC control of pumps and valves for effective running· of treatment works.

    13.6 A.C. MOTORS PROTECTION

    13.6.1 OVERLOAD PROTECTION OF MOTORS

    Motors in common with all machines have a breaking point. Overloading is not always
    intentional. It can be produced by:-

    • error in application
    • obstruction in the drive (or drive machine)
    • excessive friction within the motor itself
    • attempting to obtain greater output from its designed value.

    One of the above conditions can cause the current in a motor to exceed it's rated current,
    heating may increase as the square of current increase. Thus there is a danger of overheated
    windings, melted connections and burned-out bearings. ·

    · 13/22 -
    I.

    FIGURE 13.12 - POWER AND CONTROL CIRCUIT OF A SECONDARY ROTOR


    RESlSTANCR STARTER

    Mains

    0/t J_Stu t LC
    Stop c.e>-<:>-------l'""r-T-1
    ~

    LC! ,\

    -~·21

    { . ~- ~J
    FR2
    Res is ta nee_
    Bank

    I'
    (

    . -The-resistance Rr is obtained by means of format formula>


    Rr = Yr

    ~ .'
    -./3 x Ir ..
    Where Vr = rotor voltage when starting
    Ir ~ rotor current at
    rated output

    FIGURE 13.13 - CURRENT AND TORQUE CURVES FOR ROTOR RESISTANCE


    ST ARTER OF A SLIP RJNG MOTOR WITH LOAD TORQUE-TL·
    1 '
    AND THREE STEPS OF ROTOR RESTSTANC~
    j
    -l
    r;
    j
    2.5

    1.8

    ;
    ;
    (
    >.. T
    Rated
    1.0
    [
    Rated

    ' -,

    i
    I
    0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 'Speed. H

    - 13/23 ·
    IABLE 13,6 ~ CONTROL STRATEGIES REQUIRED FOR PUMP OPERATION
    Pumpsets Requirement Remarks

    Raw Water Level relay with low level cut-out", high Remote control and monitoring of raw
    Pump Motor level cut-out" or differential pressure water intake pumps is normally provided
    switches to detect flow in pipelines. at treatment plants. However if the route
    between treatment plant and raw water
    intake pumps is occupied by other users
    then it may make maintenance difficult or
    =-~~~~H:!e. Thus general guideline is if
    intake is within treatment plant, full
    control and monitoring are to be provided.
    lf intake is outside treatment works but
    less than 0.75 KM, remote operations are
    still to be provided but cable routes are to
    be carefully marked. If exceeding 0.75
    KM no remote control by cable is
    recommended. [[
    Treated. Water • Controlled by water level in both All manned stations shall have treated
    Pump Motor clear water
    reservoir.
    tank and service water pumps manually started and shut
    · down. Controls will be provided to detect
    "''I
    '"'.~
    ::.a;
    ·.

    water consumption .. rate at receiving


    • Detection of differential pressure at reservoirs. If distance between treated
    delivery pipelines is commonly used. water purnphouse and receiving reservoir
    is 1 KM level switch shall be provided by
    • flow switch shall inhibit pump when cabling. If the distance exceeds 1 KM,
    low flow is detected. then pressure switch at delivery pipes will
    provide· some form of controls. For large
    pumps (5 MGD) and long distance
    reservoir radio control/telemetry shall be
    installed.

    Wash Water • Level switch to inhibit operation of 'Automatic or semi-automatic operation is


    Pump Motor pump when low level is detected at done through signal. cable and floatJess
    contact/clear water tank. relay. dilferentiai pressure relays or timers.

    • Water levels in the filters are


    monitored by level switches.

    • Differential pressure will need to be


    monitored too, usually by installing
    "pressure bulbs".

    • These signals will trigger off the -~


    backwash cycle. The sequence of
    controls for valves, air scour and
    washwater can be by timer or PLC
    control.

    Note: * cut-out = motor switch 'off


    cut-in = motor switch 'on'

    - 13(24 -

    • ·-·----·-· ~ .... -~-~---L- •


    -
    t:
    To safeguard such overloads, motors are given various forms of overload protection. In most
    cases, a thermal element .is connected to the starter (or power circuits) to the motor. Heat
    l. from the element operates an overload relay, opening the circuit to the motor.

    r The setting of overload relay in respect of current and time lag is so adjusted as to effect
    protection against sustained overload, without taking notice of transient overloads lasting ten

    I to fifteen seconds, that occur during starting period. ·

    When an overload relay operates, it has to be reset before the motor re-start. The resetting
    may be automatic or manual. · In the automatic-reset type, the relay re-sets itself after a
    predetermined time, when the motor has cooled off. In the manual reset type, the relay should
    be reset by hand, after allowing enough time for the motor and the relay element to cool
    down. Other wise, the relay will operate again during starting.
    1·
    ;
    Automatic resetting relay should be used only if the whole system is fully automatic ..
    l
    1·.
    I.,. Whenever an overload device operates, the cause should be investigated. It should be taken as
    i a warning. The operation of the overload device could be due to low voltage, overload on the
    .i'
    r machine, jammed or hard bearing, excessive belt tension, rotor rubbing against the stator,
    single phasing, etc.

    • I
    13.6.2 SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTION
    l .

    1; Breakers used are normally moulded case circuit breaker (mccb) sized to take the starting
    current of the motor during the instant of starting. In cases where HRC fuses are used, level
    ( . of short circuit protection given is as per types of HRC fuse links chosen.
    1
    13.6.3 SINGLE PHASING IN 3-PHASE MOTORS

    Protection against single-phasing is incorporated in the overload protection.

    13.6.4 OVERHEATING PROTECTION DEVICE

    Direct protection against overheating or burning of motor windings is provided by means of


    \l
    temperature sensors built into the motor. It consists of thermostats or thermistors embedded
    { in the windings of the stator. These devices are sensitive to the winding temperature and when
    incorporated into the starter circuit will open. the control circuit when the winding temperature
    exceeds certain value.

    For water supply projects, motors rated at more than 37 kW shall be equipped with such
    protection.

    13.6.5 MOTOR PROTECTION RELAY

    For motors exceeding 75 kW it is advisable to install dedicated motor protection relays which
    will monitor and protect the motors from running single phase, earth fault, short circuit,
    I
    t
    I - 13/25 -
    \
    t _
    thermal overload, overheating of windings and phase reversal. In large treatment plants 4 - 20
    mA signal may be useful for relaying signal for central monitoring and supervision.

    13.7 SIZING OF MOTOR

    13.7.1 TOTAL HEAD OF A PUMP

    "Total head" represents the sum of energies, compnsmg those of pressure and velocity,
    imparted by a pump to the liquid pumped and is expressed in terms of the height of the liquid
    column. In other words, "total head" is termed as the difference i..~ :::-:~:gi~:; per ~~it weight of
    the liquid at the inlet and the outlet of the pump.

    It should be noted that the relationship between "head" H, in meters arid "pressure", P. in Pa is
    always expressed by equation (13.1).

    H = P/pg ..... (13.1)

    Where p : density of liquid (kg/m3)


    g: acceleration of gravity(= 9.81 m/s2) I
    For a horizontal pump under operation, the total head being produced is obtained by equation
    (13.2). 'I
    H = Ha - Hs + Vd2/2g - Vs2(2g ····· (13.2)

    Where H total bead (m)


    Hd
    Hs
    discharge head referred to pump center (rn)
    suction head referred to pump center (m) I
    Vd2(2g: discharge velocity head (m)
    Vs2(2g: suction velocity head (m)
    l

    J·

    FIGURE 13.14 - TOT AL HEAD OF HO RIZO NT AL PUMP

    • 13(26-
    f
    __!/J'
    I

    For a vertical pump of wet pit type with the pumping element submerged, the total head is
    given by equation (13.3).

    H = Hd + Hs + V d2/2g . .... (13.3)

    Where Hd discharge head referred to discharge nozzle center (m)


    Hs distance from suction level to discharge nozzle center (m)
    Vd2/2g: discharge velocity head (m)

    r:
    I.

    , ..
    t :
    --
    . . . . -- I .
    ! ·,
    --:1:1~=~
    -
    --.
    ----
    - -·
    ---·
    ----·
    Ha 11,+ H, +
    .
    ..{,'
    iI·
    \l: .:
    F1G.13.15 TOTAL HEAD OF VERTICAL PUMP

    13.7.2 EFFICIENCY AND REQUIRED POWER

    The efficiency of a pump is defined as a ratio of the pump output to the shaft power input.
    The pump output refers to the theoretical hydraulic power imparted to the liquid leaving the
    pump and is obtained by a multiple of liquid specific weight, capacity and total head as given
    by equation (13.4).

    WHP = p.g. (Q/3600) H / 1,000 (kW) (13.4)

    Where WHP pump output (kW)


    p density of liquid (kg/m3) = 1000 (kg/rn'') for water
    g acceleration of gravity (~J<:.2) = 9.8! (:!:/s2)
    Q capacity (m3/hr)
    H total head (m)

    Equation (13.4) is normally expressed for water as:-

    Pump output (KW)= Head Cm) x Flow (m3/b) x 9.81


    3.6 x 1000

    - 13/27 -

    . s -; r--- ~ -::-: .. '!.'- .·. ·.,, ·. ~·... . . -- ----~------- ..... -···--·-


    !
    I l

    I!

    Then, the efficiency of a pump is given by:-

    T)p WHP
    BI-IP

    Where WHP = water horse power (kW)


    BHP = shaft horse power (kW)
    Ii
    Thus BH? =
    3. 6 x 1 000 x Tl p

    I, The variation of pump efficiency, 11P is generally is from 75% to 95% depending on size,
    specific speed and discharge, Q.

    13.7.3 KW RATING OF MOTOR

    The required prime mover output is determined from the motor output power which is given
    by,

    Pm= !2HP x (l+a) ..... (13.6)


    t

    Where Pm = driver or motor output power in (hp)


    a allowance factor for electric motor, usually 10%
    transmission efficiency
    1 for direct coupled
    0. 9 for flat belt drive
    0.65 for V-belt drive
    ~ 0.92 - 0.98 for gear reducer

    In most application, the pump and motor is direct coupled and therefore,

    Pm = BHP x (1 + a) ..... (13.7)


    I'.

    Thus the kW rating of a motor is expressed as follows:-

    Motor (kW) = Head (m) x Flow (m3/h)~x~9~.8_1


    x 1.1 rif.
    3.6 x IOOO x np

    13.8 RA TING OF CABLES FOR MOTOR WINDING


    ..
    if
    The size of cable for the motor should be selected keeping in view not only the full load
    current but also to ensure that the voltage drop is acceptable.

    - 13/28 -
    Jl
    I
    j
    1,

    1!
    In the case of star-delta starters for induction motors, where six cables are used· between the
    starter and the motor, the maximum current that will flow in each cable under conditions of
    service should be taken as 58% of the motor rated current and the size of the cable selected
    accordingly.

    ·II For the secondary circuit of slip-ring induction motors, the size of cables should be as shown
    in Table 13.7.
    •·
    1. TABLE 13.7 - SIZE OF CABLES FOR THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT OF
    SLIP RING INDUCTION MOTORS

    Resistor Duty Current Carrying capacity of secondary wire


    1i.I. in percentage of F.L. current
    f. ·•

    (i) Light starting duty 35%


    (ii) Heavy starting duty 45 - 55%
    (iii) Medium intermittent duty 75%
    ... .....
    \· (iv) Heavy intermittent duty . 85%"" . ...

    (v) Continuous duty 110%

    13.8.1 MOTOR WTIUNG TABLE

    The sizes of cables and fuse links for use on motor-wiring circuits for various motor sizes are ..
    given in Table 13.8.

    13.9 GENERATOR

    Generators are used when there is no supply of electricity around the area.

    A licence is to be applied from the Department of Electricity Supply. Normally it will- be


    beneficial to coordinate with the local supply authority (company) to plan for generating
    capacity.

    Normal practice is to allow for at least one standby 1.2.._T!i! so that scheduled !:!'<>;_':.~:!Z.::~e can be
    carried out.
    ,·1 •: ..
    An auxiliary set is normally installed for off-peak load because it is not advisable to run the
    i
    ( .·
    larger set at below 40% nominal load.
    I
    I
    J
    ( .

    - 13/29 ·

    r-
    j
    t
    i't'
    13.9.1 SIZING OF GENERA TOR
    rl1
    _{

    After the pump has been sized, then the prime movers will be sized thus the mainloads can l
    now be obtained. · The generator should be sized according to the Code of Practice of
    ABGSM (Association of British Generating Set Manufacturers) or to any other standards. I
    One example of sizing is as shown in section 13. 9. 3.

    I
    r

    - 13/30 -

    ·---- •-,. - -
    f TABLE 13.8 - MOTOR WIRING AND FUSE LINKS DATA

    L Assumed starting conditions


    (based on manufacturer's data)

    r Motor Rating Assisted Start

    J: Up to l kW 2. 5 x FLC for 20 seconds


    Above 1 kW 3. 5 x FLC for 20 seconds

    Ir
    -

    220Y 380Y 415Y Minimum cable size (sq. mm)


    ; MOTOR Standard Standard Standard Copper, rnulticore, armoured
    ' RATING fuse link fuse link fuse link 41 SV system
    (
    I kW HP Amp Amp Amp XLPE PVC
    \ 0.37 0.5 4 2 10 - 2.5
    r, 0.55 0.75 6 4 10 - 2.5
    \ . 0.75 l 6 4 10 - 2.5
    I l) 1.5 10 6 10 - 2.5 •·
    .... ..... . . ...... . •' .

    r·! 1.5 2 16 10 10 - 2.5


    l .
    t 2.2 3 16 10 10 - 2.5
    3 4 20 16 16 - 2.5
    4 5.5 25 16 16 - .. 2.5
    5.5 7.5 32 20 20 - 4.0
    7.5 10 35 25 25 - 4.0
    11 15 50 32 32 - 6.0
    15 20 63 40 35 - 6.0
    18.5 25 80 50 40 - 10.0
    .}
    i
    ':' .. 22.0 30 100 63 63 - 16.0
    l. . : 30.0 40 125 80 80 16 25.0
    37.0 50 125 80 80 16 25.0
    45 60 160 100 100 16 25.0
    55 75 200 125 125 25 35.0
    75 100 250 160 160 35 70.0
    r\ . 90 120 315 200 160 35 70.0
    I
    110 150 400 250 200 50 95.0
    ,···, 132 175 450 315 250 70 120.0
    ' 'f.) 1.s0.0
    ! i50 200 500 3i5 3i5
    ( '
    160 215 - 315 315 120 185.0
    200 270 - 400 400 150 240.0
    240 320 - 500 450 '185 300.0 } Not commonly used size.
    280 375 - 560 560 300 400.0 } May use dual circuit of
    300 400 - 630 580 300 400.0 } smaller cables with multi-
    320 425 - 630 630 300 500.0 } plying factor 0.8

    - 13/31 -

    ~"":"1'1'-~-~-~---·-,-··-:-·.--
    -~ -· ::· -·· ···----:.---~""'°'. · ,_,....._'!"---· ., ... . . ._ __
    Note 1: If other types of cables are used, cable size may differ. Generally XLPE cables have
    higher current carrying capacity. ~

    Note 2: Cable sizes to be checked for allowable voltage drop is essential for cables more than
    80 m in length.

    - 13/32 -

    --··---··-". ----··.
    1
    13.9.2 USEFUL CRITERIA AND DATA

    L The following criteria for generator set sizing are based on an Alternator Transient Reactance
    of 0.20 per unit (i.e 20%). A maximum voltage dip of 25% and an output frequency drop of
    less than 5%. All these are from the nominal value.

    (a) Applied Peak kVA must be less than 1.5 x Rated Continuous Generator output kVA (In
    one step). ·

    (b) Peak kVA must be Jess than 2 x Rated Continuous Generator output kVA (During
    starting).

    ( c) Applied kW must be less than 0. 7 x Rated Continuous Generator output kW.

    (d) Total Peak kW must be less than 1.1 x Rated Continuous Generator output kW.
    Generator output is at a power factor of 0.8.

    DATA: Starting Factor (K)

    Direct on line 6.5


    Star/Delta 2.2 - Open transition
    Rotor Resistance 1.5
    (Stator Rotor)
    Auto Transformer 3.6
    · Star/Delta 2.0 - Closed Transition

    Energy F:i.ctor (E)

    Direct on line 0.45


    Star/Delta 0.45
    Rotor Resistance 0.90
    Auto Transformer 0.45

    - 13/33 -

    ..
    -
    TABLE 13.9 - ELECTRICALLOAD EST™A TE

    Project: ..

    No. Description No. of No. of Motor Motor Electrical Motor Electrical Type
    Connected Operating Output Efficiency Connected Power Connected of
    L-Oad Load . (kW) %. Load Factor Load Starter
    (kW) "' (KVA)

    1. Raw Water Pump 2 1 75 90 83.3 0.85 98.04 A.T


    2. Treated Water Pump 2 1 150 92 163.0 0.85 191.82 S.R
    3. Wash Water Pump 2 1 15 85 17.6 0.85 20.76 S.R
    4. Air Blower 2 1 3.7 82 4.5 0.85. 5.3 I S.D
    5. Air Compressor 2 1 3.7 82 4.5 0.85 5.31 S.D ,J
    6. Hydropneumatic ; ,_ l
    power back 2 1 1.5 80 1.9 0.85 2.21 DOL
    7. Electrical crane 1 1 0.75 78 0.96 0.85 1.13 ,.... DOL
    8. Electrical Hoist 1 l 0.75 78. 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    9. Chemical mixer
    i. Alum-mixer 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    • Booster pump 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    11. Polyelcctrolyte
    - Mixer 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    iii. Lime-Hooper
    predust collector 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    - Screw Feeder 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    iv. Fluoride
    ..
    - Hopper 2+ 2 ( ·o:is · 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    - Crusher 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.1 J DOL
    - Metering Pump 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL
    V. Alum-mixer· 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL

    10. Sampling Pump 2 1 0.75 75 0.96 0.85 1.13 DOL

    Total Power 20 1 20.00 -


    11. Lighting and general
    power
    r
    ·r·': ··,:

    306.5 357.0

    *· Motor power factor assumed to be corrected to 0.85

    - 13/34 -
    ""'!
    13.9.3 METHOD TO SIZE GENERATOR

    (i) First to calculate total possible load which can be operated at any one time (i.e.
    Maximum demand) as shown in Table 13.9, i.e. 306.5 kW or 357.0 KV A.

    (ii) Assume that the largest single motor is to start up when base load is maximum (at its
    worst case), then subtract the largest motor from maximum demand from table 13.9
    gives

    base-running load= 306.5 kW - 163 kW= 143.5 kW

    OR 357 kVA - 191.82 kVA = 165.2 kVA

    (iii) Apply the limits to give the required Generator Rating to see if it exceeds the
    maximum demand load calculated in (i) above.

    These criteria are worked out as given below.

    (a) Applied Peak kVA

    Applied Peak kVA = -largest Motor F.L. Input kVA x Starting Factor (K) (refer data in
    13.9.2)
    r·· 191.8 x 1.5 = 287.7 kVA or 244.5 kW

    (' Proposed Generator Rating kVA = Applied Peak kVA


    1.5
    = 287.7 = 191.8 kVA
    1.5

    (b) Peak kVA

    Peak kVA = Applied Peak kYA + base Running kVA


    = 287.7 + 165.2 = 452.9 kVA

    Proposed Generator Rating kVA = Peak kVA = 452__,__2_ = 226.5 kVA


    2.0 2.0

    (c) Applied Peak kW

    Applied kW= Applied Peak kVA (a) x Energy


    Factor (E) (refer data in 13.9.2)
    = "287.7 x 0.9 = 258.9
    ..

    Proposed Generator Rating kW = fill.P.lied kW = 258.9 .: 369:9 ~!~r: · -


    0.7 Q7 ~.::.~~/~'
    .;:·;~--~

    ., 13/35 ·
    Proposed Generator Rating kV A kW 369.9 462.4kVA
    0.8 0.8
    ( d) Total Peak kW

    Peak kW = Applied Peak kW+ base running Load kW


    = 258.9 + 143.5 = 402.4 kW

    Proposed Generator Rating kW = Peak kW 402.4 365.8 kW


    1. 1 1.1

    Proposed Generator Rating KV A = kW 365.8 m = 457.3 KVA


    0.8 0.8

    (iv) Summary:-

    • Maximum "Demand 357.0 kVA (i)


    • Applied Peak KV A 191.8 kVA (iiia)
    • PeakKVA 226.5 kVA (iiib)
    • Applied Peak kW (KV A) . 462.4 kVA (iiic)
    • Total Peak kW (KV A) 457.3 kVA (iiid)

    The generator rating to be selected shall be the highest calculated kV A of the values
    from above, i.e. 462.4 kV A.

    Thus choose the nearest available unit, say 480 or 500 kV A

    13.9.4 GENERA TOR ROOM/HOUSE

    The generator room/house shall be as near as possible to the main load center, usually the
    pumphouse. This is for better distribution of load, at more economical installation cost as
    cable lengths are much shorter.

    The room/house shall have easy access for ease of operation and maintenance. It shall have a
    large door for removal of engines in case of repair and a personnel access door for easy
    access. The components involved are as follows:-

    (a) Ventilation

    The engine of a generator generates heat during running. Therefore the heat must be
    effectively conducted out of the room or otherwise the temperature in the room will increase
    which will cause the engine or the switchgears to trip at certain temperature. High
    temperature also will affect the engine performance and also the switchgear life.

    Radiator airduct, exhaust pipes outlets and exhaust fans should be provided to dissipate the
    warm air out of the room. Radiator airduct shall be as short as possible but at least leaving 0.5
    m distance from wall to the radiator. The outlet shall be free from any obstruction such as
    building or slope. A typical example of a generator room ventilation is shown in Figure 13 .16.

    · 13/36 ·
    Exhaust pipe installation shall be free from the crane path. Ventilation can be calculated as
    follows:-

    V (cfrn) = ___H~---+ Engine Combustion Air


    0.07 x 0.24 x llT

    V (m3/min.) = ---~H~--- + Engine Combustion Air


    1.099 x 0.017 x LlT

    Where, V ;;: Ventilating Air (cfm) (m3/min)

    c· !
    H ;;: Heat radiation (Btu/min)/ckw)

    !IT= ambient temperature rise (°F) (°C)

    Density of air at 100°F = 0.07 lb/ft? (1.099kg/m3)

    r . Specified heat of air -- 0.24 Bt u/°F (0.017kw/°C)


    ii

    Locate room air intakes to provide maximum cooling air to the generator set, yet avoid hot,
    stagnant air in other areas. Multiple sets necessitate additional openings and fans.

    (b) . Generator plinth

    Plinth size should be estimated from wet weight of the generator. The size of generator to be
    used must be made known. Provision of 300mm width all around the engine should also be
    '' ,
    l
    considered for maintenance purposes. The plinth should be so positioned such that the
    ..
    · radiator air duct is short and free from obstruction. Plinths are to be at least 1.2 times the
    width of an engine apart from ·each other.

    Plinth sizing shall be as follows:-

    Pd = Ww
    DcxLxW

    Where, Pd = Plinth depth


    Ww = Wet weight of generator set (lb or kg)
    !)(: == De!!S!~Y cf concrete (!!)/£!2 er kg /!'.:'.2)
    L = Plinth length (ft or m)
    w = Plinth Width (ft or rn)

    · 13/37 -

    ta:;:::. l£J...f ;!"!?'l::..l! ,_ __,_. .,. ·- - • -----·-··. -


    FIGURE 13.16-AN EXAMPLE OF A GENERATOR ROOM SHOWING THE
    REQUIRED VENTILATION

    t·, ··(
    ·.·.·.·.·•·.

    /1.

    -~
    .L

    - 13/38 -
    t ! (c) Switch board

    Switch board shall be installed separately from the set and shall sit on plinth of at least 1 OOnun
    above floor level. It shall also be positioned away from the daily fuel tank. Trenches shall be
    provided for cable routes from the generator set .to the switch boards and thence to other
    switch boards in the same room or adjacent room. In case where generators are used as
    standby sets to Supply Authority's power, the switch board must provide interlocking and
    sensing to prevent synchronising generators on to the Supply Authority's power. No
    automatic transfer arrangement is necessary since the treatment plant ought to be manned
    round the clock. · ·

    If generators are installed at unmanned stations, automatic transfer arrangement (auto mains
    failure sensing) will be installed only if the station has fully auto re-start facility.

    (d) Fuel

    At least l no. day fuel tank shall be provided for each pair of generator sets and it shall
    'preferably be located higher than engine level.

    Tank size shall be able to accomodate 8 hrs of fuel, calculated from manufacturer's data in
    litres/hr. (assume Gen. Set runs at l00% load).

    A rough guide is to allow 0.25 litres/hr/kW for below 200 KVA sets. As generators get
    larger, fuel consumption usually improves.

    Thus for a 200 KV.A Generator Set (i.e. 160 kW)


    fuel required is = 0.25 x 160 x 8
    = 320 litres.
    r
    i
    ; Physical size of tank must allow 10 - 20% spare capacity.

    Fuel trench shall be provided from the day tank to engine and it shall also be connected to
    outside drain at a suitable gradient for draining off leaked fuel.

    Bulk storage tank shall be provided for at least 7 days in easily accessible areas and 20 - 30
    days in remote areas. Where the bulk storage tank may not be able to be located on high
    ground then the day tank to take advantage of gravity feed, the fuel transfer pumps may be
    installed for filling up the day fuel tank

    In cases where fuel transfer pump is to be operated in auto-mode, it must be ensured that the
    auto-mode can be cut off in case of fire in the generator room.

    Easy access to facilitate loading of fuel from the supply tanker shall be provided.

    - 13/39 -
    (e) Fire fighting precautions

    Fuel dumping system shall be installed in the generator house. It can be a mechanical system
    (levers with fuse wires) where high temperature in generator rooms will trigger the fuel
    dumping system, thus minimising the chance of explosion within the generator house itself.
    (f) Earthing

    Earthing for generator's neutral must be checked frequently. The installation of a complete
    earthing system shall comply with IEE wiring regulations.

    13.10 GENERAL LIGHTING AND POWER

    General lighting and power are provided for all the buildings i.e. at the pumphouse, filter
    house, chemical house, generator house (if any) and staff quarters.

    There is no specified lighting requirement in the treatment plant except for the chlorine room
    whereby anti-corrosive fittings are specified to protect. against the corrosive chemical that
    exist. Otherwise, general purpose tubular fluorescent lamps are proposed for all the main
    areas. These· fluorescent fittings come with a metal reflector type· for most areas. but with
    louvres for offices in· treatment plant building for instance. Occassionally, high bay fittings
    with mercury vapour discharge lamp are installed in pumphouse with ceiling height above 8m.
    The staff quarters are installed with channel fluorescent fittings, globe fittings for toilet etc. in
    accordance with JKR electric practice.

    Emergency lighting shall be provided at strategic points in the case of power failure.

    The proposed lighting level for each of the main areas in the buildings are as 'shown in "I'abte
    13.10.

    TABLE 13.10 - PROPOSED LIGHTING LEVELS

    Chosen
    Buildings Room Illuminancc

    i. Pump house All 200 lux


    2. Raw Water Intake House/ All 200 lux
    Area
    3. Filter House Laboratory 500 lux
    Office 300 lux
    Operating Gallery 200 Jux
    Air Blower Room 200 lux
    Entrance Hall 150 lux
    4. Chemical House All 200 lux
    5. Generator House All 200 lux
    6. Storage Space 150 lux

    - ]3/40 -

    .. , .... ~--- ....... ··-·--· ·····~-----·~---~···-,--·-··"'•" . , ............ ,~ '"'"' v.


    l:

    l: The installation design on general power socket outlets is based on the functional needs of
    each area under consideration. Where metering equipment or maintenance apparatus are likely
    to be used, additional socket outlets are provided. The chlorine room, for example, is

    i
    L provided with corrosive-resistance socket outlets in order to cater for the installation of
    chlorinating apparatus. Maintenance equipment such as electric drill and soldering iron are
    I usually anticipated in ·the air blower room and in the chemical house. There are also socket
    outlets provided in the laboratory and office to cater for measuring and testing equipment used
    J . in water quality control.
    !
    \

    13.11 INTERNAL ELECTRICAL WIRING

    The internal wiring uses PVC insulated copper cables both sheathed and without. The wiring
    systems employed for the various parts of the treatment plant shall generally be surface
    galvanised iron conduit with PVC cables. In very corrosive area, either use concealed conduit
    or surface PVC conduits.

    For living quarters, offices and laboratories, usually concealed wiring will suffice.

    13.12 EXTERNAL LIGHTING


    'i '

    Water treatment plant and pumping stations are considered high security areas. To comply
    with this requirement, it is necessary to install compound and street lighting, security lighting if
    required.

    The lanterns proposed arc normally of the 70W sodium high pressure (SON) type for the
    street lighting and 150W SON for the compound lighting. These lanterns are mounted on Sm
    to 8m height galvanised steel ·pole which has a longer lifespan against rust.

    Compound lighting is important in areas such as the entrances to pump houses, generator
    house, electrical substation, chemical house, raw water intake area, the sedimentation tank,
    flocculation tank, mixing channel and especially the filter. Sometimes it is advisable to choose
    250W mercury vapour discharge OvffiF) lamp either wall mounted or pole mounted for mixing
    channel or flocculation channel.

    Since samples of raw water, settled water and filtered water are available in the plant
    laboratory, it is not necessary to provide mercury vapour lamps at the raw water intake site,
    sedimentation tank/filters. Designer should bear in mind that the types of fittings are to be
    standardised for easy maintenance and stock keeping.

    13.13 MAIN SWITCH BOARDS/SUB-SWITCH BOARDS/DISTRIBUTION FUSE


    BOARDS, ETC.

    The main switch board (MBS) is normally located at the pumphouse which forms the load
    centre of the treatment plant. It receives its. supply of electricity from a nearby local supply,
    substation or generator set as the case may be. Fault level of switch boards sha1l comply with
    allowable fault levels.

    - 13/41 -

    .. 1r:::r· r- -
    From the MSB, one feeder will be to the MCC if this is a separate cubicle. Otherwise, the
    MSB incorporates the MCC and from here, cables of normally PVC/SW NPVC or
    XLPE/SW NPVC are laid in the cable trench provided for in the pumphouse, to feed the water
    pump motors. The MCC forms the control panel for starting and control of all water pump
    motors in the pumphouse. There will also be separate distribution fuse boards (DFB) in the
    pumphouse for general lighting and power. Time-switches for the control of compound and
    street lighting are installed at the pumphouse MSB as well. Clearance for cubicle type shall
    not be Jess than 450mm from the wall.
    This· MSB shall also cater for loads in the filter house, chemical house and the raw water
    I
    :_._
    l.Jll..~V n 'T'ha
    ;_,0 c .. i...~..,;"~ From
    --0
    O,.J. "-'(l, A MC::l=l tn thf' sub-switchboards (SSB) at filter house chemical
    J.&...., V\.A...,,•44_,,,..__.,..,.

    house and raw water intake area are run by underground PVC/SW A/PVC or
    .-.. ~ .... ~ ..... .,..~--J '"._ .,. __ .._,. ""'~ ·.., ~ ~ "

    I
    XLPE/SW A/PVC cabling. These SSBs normally incorporate the starter board for controlling
    the motors that are installed in those houses. [
    The sub-switchboards (SSB) at the raw water intake area is an outdoor type fabricated and
    specified to be waterproofed (IP 57). This feeder pillar which is also known as the raw water
    control panel in waterworks, is mounted on 1 OOmm high concrete foundation located above
    flood level. Control for the raw water pump motors will be effected from this feeder pillar
    with their starters. If the river intake is easily accessible throughout the year, then remote
    control is deemed not necessary. However, if there is a likelihood of flooding along the route
    to the river intake in the monsoon period, the remote operations of the intake ought to be
    provided.

    The distribution fuseboards (DFB) for the general lighting and power will be distributed from
    the MSB to the main buildings.

    13.14 LIGHTNING PROTECTION SYSTEM

    A complete lightning protection system is installed including air termination networks, down
    conductors and earth termination for the purnphouses, chemical house, elevated water tower,
    reservoir etc. in accordance with the standard JKR specification and British Standard Code of
    Practice BS 6651 : 1985 (formerly CP 326).

    All control cables shall be terminated through surge diverter before the final termination at the
    switchboard and at the instrument panel at the reservoir and instrumentation panel in the pump
    house.

    Remote reservoirs with no electrical or instrumentation equipment need not have lightning
    protection unless the probability risk exceeds that allowed in BS 6651. (1 in 100,000
    probability is considered reasonable risk since no flammable materials are involved; no
    -: electrical equipment in the reservoirs and no threat to personnel since the tank is unmanned).

    General guideline used in areas with less than 100 lightning day per year is that if the sum of
    radius of the tank and height of tank exceeds 22m; then lightning protection is required at
    remote reservoirs with no electrical or instrumentation equipment.
    i
    .,

    - 13/42 -
    l

    SECTION 14 - WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEIVIS

    14.1 INTRODUCTION

    The water distribution system consists of transmission, distribution and reticulation pipelines,
    balancing and service reservoirs and, where required, booster pumping stations.

    Balancing and service reservoirs are dealt with under Section 15 - Storage Tanks and
    Reservoirs.

    Transmission pipelines, as described in this Section, carry treated water from a treatment plant
    or a pumping station to a reservoir as well as treated water from a reservoir to another
    reservoir. Reticulation pipelines are the pipelines that distribute treated water within the water
    demand areas. Distribution pipelines are pipelines that distributewater to the reticulation
    pipeline from the service reservoir, a treatment plant or booster station.

    14.2 OBJECTIVE

    The objective of a water distribution system is to supply potable water, at sufficient pressure
    and quantity, to the consumers.

    14.3 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS


    i
    i..
    A water distribution system may be. classified into three types, namely a gravity system, a
    direct pumped system and a gravity and pumped combination system. There are many
    possible layouts of the gravity and pumped combination system. Figure 14.1 gives a
    diagramatic representation of three typical systems. · ·

    The choice of type of distribution system depends on thetopography.Tocationand extent of


    the distribution area, elevation and site conditions.

    Where adequate elevation of the supply is available and other site conditions permit, the
    gravity system shall be the most preferred type of distribution. Where the gravity type of
    system is not feasible, the gravity and pumped combination shall then be considered. The
    gravity and pumped combination . system is the most commonly used system. The direct
    pumped system is least preferred and may only be used in certain circumstances.

    - 14/1 -

    :--.
    Supply Source

    . ·~~reatment Plant .

    \\ /~ . a ::::~::ir
    Service Area

    Gmity F1,L--~1111+J
    a, GRAVITY SYSTEH

    Serv~ice A~rea [ I I I I I·
    Treatment Plant Pump

    Supply Source
    C8J·~-,,
    t
    ~---------I,__-

    ~ b. DIRECT PUHPED SYSTEH

    Service Reservoir

    Service Area
    Treatment Plant

    Gravity
    flow

    c. GRAVITY ANO PUMPED COMBINATION

    FIGURE 14.1 DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE TYPICAL


    TYPES OF DISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS.

    - 14(2 -
    Table 14. l gives a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the three types of
    distribution systems.

    TABLE 14.1 -ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF


    THE THREE TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

    · System Advantages Disadvantages


    -

    1. Gravity • Most reliable

    • Low operational costs

    2. Pumped and Gravity


    ,.
    . Least cost option under . Problems associated
    Combination certain topographical with operation and
    conditions maintenance of
    pumping systems
    .3 .. Direct pumped • Pressure and flow can
    be easily regulated • Problems associated
    ... with operation and
    • Remedial action can be maintenance of
    . .
    speedily taken. pumping systems.

    .., .. 14.4 DISTRIBUTION AND RETICULATION LAYOUT


    ~
    ~1
    General considerations to be taken during the planning of dist;ibution and. . reticulation
    . . layouts
    •'.. '
    ..
    ,· are:- ..
    i
    \
    ' '
    (a) The service reservoir shall be as close and central as possible to the water demand area.
    The pipeline shall be as short as possible, thus providing the least capital and operating
    costs.

    (b) Where the service reservoir cannot be sited close to the demand area, a twin pipeline
    layout shall be considered.

    (c) The reticulation pipes shall be laid so as to form a network system. Dead ends shall be
    discouraged.

    (d) Where extreme topographical conditions prevail in demand areas, such as greater than
    40 metres difference in elevation, pressure zoning of service areas according to ground
    elevations may be necessary. This can be achieved by using pressure reducing valves
    or break pressure tanks.

    ( e) Pipelines shall preferably be laid adjacent to roads so as provide easy access for
    maintenance.

    - 14/3 -

    --------------·· -····
    14.5 PIPES

    14.5.1 PIPE MATERIALS

    This section discusses the commonly used types of pipes. A brief description of each type of
    pipe, its characteristics and available sizes are given. Table l~.2 lists principal advantages and
    limitations of selected pipe materials. Further details can be obtained from the GUIDE TO
    PIPE MATERIALS SELECTION FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS published by the
    Malaysian Water Association.

    (a) Cast Iron (C.1.) or Grey Iron Pipes.

    C.I. pipes shall conform to MS 708: 1981. The pipe is strong but brittle. It usually offers a
    long service life and is reasonably maintenance free.

    Because C.I. pipes have relatively good resistance to corrosion, the JKR Standard
    Specifications only require an internal and external coating of either hot applied coal tar or hot
    dipped bitumen.

    C.I. pipes are manufactured in standard lengths of 3.0, 4.0 and 5.5 metres. C.I. pipes to this
    Malaysian Standard have outer diameters which are the same as ductile iron pipes and as such
    allow the use of ductile iron fittings. Current available sizes are of 1 OOmm to 250mm nominal
    diameters, though the JKR Standard Specification allows nominal diameters up to 600rnm, as
    given in Table 14.3. ril . .
    ·J! ,

    The cast iron pipes usually used are of spigot and socket or flanged ends. No
    screwed-on type
    'f
    of flanged pipes shall be used. CJ. pipes are less used nowadays in preference to other pipe
    materials.

    (b) Ductile Iron (D.J.) Pipes

    Ductile Iron (D.I) pipes shall conform to BS 4 772: 1988 or ISO 2531. D.I. pipes resemble C.I.
    pipes in appearance and have many of the same characteristics. However, D.I. pipes are
    stronger and tougher than C.I. pipes.

    AJI DJ. pipes shall have an external zinc coating before coal tar epoxy or bitumen is appliedon
    its external surface. The internal surface shall be cement mortar lined ..
    F
    Standard lengths of D.I. pipes vary from 4.0 metres to 6.0 metres. Nominal diameters range /
    ·-~--
    ;
    from 80rnm to l 600mm. Table 14.4 gives the standard JKR specification for thickness and
    diameter of D.I. pipes.

    The ductile iron pipes usually used are also of the spigot and socket or flanged erids. D.I.
    pipes with screwed-on flanges shall not be used.

    - 14/4 -

    .J:!_
    I·I.
    t,

    TABLE 14.2 - PRINCIPAL ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF SELECTED


    WATER SUPPLY PIPE MATERIALS

    Pipe material Advantages Disadvantages

    l Asbestos Cement (A.C.) • Strength and rigidity • Susceptible to impact damage


    • Corrosion resistant to most • Low beam strength (0
    r soils and water
    i • Ease of jointing •
    <200mm)
    Susceptible to corrosion in
    • Flexible joints tolerate some certain soils and conveyed
    deflection. waters.
    • Permeable to certain organic
    contaminants when dry
    • Relatively high number of
    joints per unit length.
    r·· - .. Retrospective installation of
    t fittings /rcpaircornplicated
    • Need for precautions against
    asbestos dust risk during
    r
    ll machining
    • Pipe-location difficult
    • Leakage detection
    complicated

    Copper Cu. • High pressure capability • Susceptible to corrosion in


    r1 •'. • Good formability certain conveyed waters
    ';' • Good general corrosion • Requires external protection in
    resistance aggressive soils
    r! • High strength and ductility
    i • Ease of jointing
    • Easy to trace.
    • Ease of leak location

    2Ductile Iron (DJ.) • High mechanical strength • Heavy


    and toughness • Susceptible to corrosion if
    • · High fatigue resistance internal or external protection
    • Ease of jointing systems damaged
    • Flexible joints tolerate some • Potential high pH problems
    deflection when conveying soft waters
    • Pipe impermeable to gas and • Retrospective installation of
    > ' organic contaminants fittings may be complicated on
    lt '
    " Easy 'to trace ungauged pipes (0 >350mm)
    • Leakage detection and
    location straightforward
    • Well established methods of
    repair

    - 14/5 -

    ··--- -----··---·-·--·--.
    Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic Corrosibn resistant Susceptible to impact damage
    (GRP) Relatively light-weight • May suffer strain corrosion J

    Ease of jointing attack in soils/water of low pH


    • Flexible joints tolerate some • Reliant on stable support from
    deflection soil.4
    • Pipe location difficult
    • Leakage detection complicated
    • Retrospective installation of
    fittings/repair complicated
    • Susceptible to
    ,......,.~ .. .o.-,t:.r"l,.../<:f...-.,rt•,.,.."111
    t'V• ••w-,w•• v•• v v•v • v,

    degradation by certain organic


    contaminants

    Polyethylene (MDPEJHDPE) • Corrosion resistant • Fusion jointing requires skilled


    • Relatively light-weight installers and special equipment
    • Flexible • Reliant on stable support from -~
    • Alternative installation soil.4
    techniques possible (moling, • Need to pressure derate where
    etc) risk of long-term fracture exists
    • Can be welded to form leak- (nominal sizes ~ 315).
    free, system that will resist • Susceptible to permeation/
    end load degradation on prolonged
    Out-of-trench jointing exposure to direct sunlight
    possible • Pipe location difficult
    • Leakage detection complicated
    Retrospective installation of
    fittings/repair complicated in
    large dia.meters (nominal sizes
    >335 mm)

    Prestressed Concrete (PSC) Strength and rigidity • Heavy


    • High fatigue resistance • Retrospective inclusion of
    Corrosion resistant in most fittings difficult
    soils and waters • Poor ability of joint to
    • Cylinder types im-permeable withstand ground
    to organic contamination movement/su bsidence
    • Susceptible to corrosion in
    certain soils and conveyed
    waters
    • Non-cylinder types permeable
    to certain organic contaminants
    when dry
    • Leakage detection complicated
    • Repair difficult
    ..•..
    :,ii

    'i
    • ~:A·:_

    '
    - I 4/6 -
    -~·
    • High mechanical strength • Welded jointsrequire skilled
    and toughness installers and special equipment
    • High fatigue resistance • Susceptible to corrosion if
    • Flexible protection systems damaged
    • A vailabte in long lengths (up • Welded joints normally
    to 13.5 m) required reinstatement of
    • Can be welded to form a protection systems on site
    leak-free system that will • Cathodic protection requires
    r··.
    resist end load regular monitoring/
    i
    l • Easy to trace maintenance
    i • Pipe impermeable to gas and • Potential high pH problems
    organic contaminants when conveying soft waters
    • Leakage detection and • Reliant on stable support from
    location straightforwad soil4
    • Retrospective installation of
    fittings/repair may be
    problematical if non-standard
    pipe size used

    Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride • Corrosion resistant • Susceptible to impact damage


    (uPVC)·· .. • Relatively light-weight • Susceptible to poor installation
    · Ease of jointing practice
    • Reliant on stable support from
    soil4
    • Ultraviolet degradation on
    prolonged exposure to direct
    sunlight
    • Susceptible to permeation/
    degradation by certain organic
    rl contaminants
    • Pipe location difficult
    • Leakage detection complicated

    1. Bitumen dipped
    2. PE sheathed/cement mortar lined internally
    ....
    .) . Coated & cathodicaliy protected. Cement mortar lined internally
    4. Dependent on pipe stiffness
    TABLE 14.3 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF CAST IRON PIPES

    Nominal Diameter External Diameter Wall Thickness


    (mm) (mm) (mm)
    -
    80 98 8.6
    100 118 9.0
    150 170 10.0
    200 222 11.0
    250 274 12.0
    300 326 13.0
    350 378 14.0
    400 429 15.0
    450 480 16.0

    ... 500 532 17.0


    600 ..
    635 / 19.0
    I
    (c) Asbestos Cement (A.C.) Pipes I
    I
    I
    I
    I
    A.C. pipes shall conform to MS 712:1981. The n1\nimum class of A.C. pipes used shall be of
    class 20: I
    \
    Almost all A.C. pipes are used without. any further ~oatings.
    I

    A.C. pipes are manufactured in standard lengths of 4.0 metres. Nominal diameters range from
    80mm to 600mm. The thickness and diameter of A.C. pipes is given in Table 14.5.

    A.C. pipes shall not be used in marine or corrosive soils.

    (d) 'Steel Pipes

    Steel pipes are widely used in the water industry. The pipes shall conform to the requirements
    of BS 534: 1990, with the exception of their external diameter and thickness, as indicated in
    Tabte 14.6.

    Steel pipes are larger than 900 mm diameter may be designed to A WW A Manual M 11 in
    accordance with the pressure ratings and installation requirement such as external load due to
    soil pressure, etc. Pipe shell may be designed to API SL or API 5LS.

    - 14/8 -

    .---- . -
    J

    l
    j
    TABLE 14.4 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF DUCTILE ffiON PIPES

    1
    Pipe Diameter (mm) Pipe Shell Thickness (mm)
    \ .
    Nominal Outside Pipe With Flexible Pipe With Cast-
    Diameter Diameter Joints And On Flanges
    ; .
    Welded-On (Kl2)
    t
    Flanges (K9)
    80 98 6.0 7.0
    \ :

    100 118 6.1 7.2


    150 170 6.3 7.8
    200 222 6.4 8.4
    250 274 6.8 9.0
    300 326 7.2 9.6
    350 378 7.7 10.2
    ..... 40(). . ... -· .. · 429 8.1 10.8
    450 480 8.6 11.4
    500 532 9.0 12.0
    '~ .
    _;
    600 635 9.9 13.2
    700 738 10.8 14.4
    800 842 11.7 15.6
    900 945 12.6 16.8
    ~ :
    1000 1048 13.5 18.0
    1100 1152 14.4 19.2
    1200 1255 15.3 20.4
    1400 1462 17.1 22.8
    1600 1668 18.9 25.2
    ,

    - 14/9 -

    ---~----··------------------~-~·· ·---
    The external coating shall consist of a layer of bitumen containing a mineral filler. It is
    reinforced with an inner and outer wrapping of glass fibre resin bounded tissue and reinforced ,
    in the longitudinal direction with parallel glass threads. The internal lini.ng for the steel pipes
    shall be cement lined. Steel pipes which are to be used above ground shall not be coated but
    painted with zinc chromate and aluminium paint

    Steel pipes may be as large as 2.0 metres diameter but steel pipes used in general usually range
    from lOOmm to 900mm diameter. In this country for steel pipe diameters up to 600mm, the
    external diameter is the same as that of asbestos cement pipes.

    Pipes having 450mm diameter and above have a standard length of 9.0 metres while those of
    450mm diameter and below are 6.0 metres long. However, steel pipe manufacturers can easily
    porduce pipes to various specified lengths.

    TABLE 14.S · THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES [

    Nominal Class '.2_0. ...... Class 25


    Size of
    Pipe Min. Ext. Int. Min. Ext Int
    Thickness Dia Dia Thickness Dia. Dia
    (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

    80 9.8 95.6 76.0


    100 10.2 121.9 101.5 12.5 121.9 96.9
    150 13.1 177.3 151.1 16.1 177.3 145.1
    200 17.2 232.2 197.8 21.0 232.2 190.2
    ,-
    250 18.3 286.0 249.4 22.5 286.0 241..0 ...
    300 22.1 345.4 301.2 27.2 345.4 291.0
    350 25.5 399.3 348.3 31.4 399.3 336.5
    400 29.0 453.1 .395.1 35.6 453.0 381.9
    450 32.4 507.0 442.2 39.9 507.0 427.2
    500 35.8 560.3 488.7 44.0 560.3 472.3
    600 42.6 667.0 581.8 52.4 667.0 562.2

    · .,: 14/10 -
    L TABLE 14.6 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF STEEL PIPES..-

    Nominal Internal Finished Concrete Finished


    Diameter Diameter Minimum Steel Lining External
    Shell Thickness Thickness Diameter

    (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

    100 93.7 4.1 10 121.9

    150 149.1 4.1 10 177.3

    200 204.0 4.1 10 232.2

    250 257.8 4.1 10 286.0

    300 313.8 5.8 10 345.4

    350 361.7 5.8. 13 ,_.... 399.3


    '"""
    VY>
    400 415.5 5.8,,. 13 - 453.1

    450 469.4 -·. _ 5.8 13 5.7.0


    . .
    500 522.7 5.8 13 560.3

    600 628.0 6.5 - 13 667.0

    650 651.2 7.4 13 692.0

    ( 700 701.2 7.4 19 754.0

    75P 751.2 7.4 19 804.0

    800 801.2 7.4 19 · 854.0


    ..
    850 851.2 7.4 19 904.0

    900 901.2 7.4 19 954.0


    ,··.
    I

    l .

    - l 4fl l -
    (e) Polyethylene Pipes.

    Polyethyelene pipes (PE) are manufactured in Malaysia and conform to MS l 058: 1994. The
    previous MS 1058: 1986 edition has been revised to take into consideration development of
    new resin materials. Under the revised edition of MS 1058: 1994 materials for the
    manufacture of PE pipes are designated as PE63, PE80 and PElOO. The level of minimum
    required strength (MRS) and the corresponding maximum allowable hydrostatic design stress . I
    (a) are as follows:-

    - . -------- ---- .~-.--· - "Maximum allowable


    Material type strength (MRS) design stress (a)
    I
    MP a M Pa ((a} 20°C)
    .
    PE 100 10 8

    PE 80 8 6.3

    PE 63 6.3 5

    * cr = :rvms Factor of Safety(F.S) :c:= 1.25


    F.S
    Dimensions for wall thickness and pipe diameter are given in Table 14.7(1), Table 14.7(2) and
    Table 14.7(3) for PE63, PE80 and PEIOO pipes respectively.

    The recorrunended maximum working pressures at 30°C are given below:-

    Nominal Recommended r
    '·
    Material type Pressure (PN) Pipe Series Maximum Working
    (bar) s Pressure
    . (bar)

    PE 100 16.0 S-5 12.8


    12.5 S-6.3 I 0.0
    10.0 S-8 8.0

    PE 80 16.0 S-4 12.8


    12.5 S-5 10.0
    10.0 S-6.3 8.0
    8.0 S-8 6.4 J'.•
    ":' i
    6.0 S-10 4.8
    -

    PE 63 10.0 S-5 8.0


    8.0 S-8.3 6.4
    6.0 S-12.5 4.8
    4.0 S-16 3.2

    - 14/12 -
    l
    I
    J TABLE 14.7(1) - WALL THICKNESS FOR PE 63 PIPES
    l
    :,
    Wafl thickness !or rE GJ pipes
    Jl
    il PE 63 a == 5.0 MPa
    I
    ( Noci~rul PN 3.2 PN-< PN G f>N 10
    o_r...;. S..16 s.iz.s S-e.3 S..5

    ~ "W:a.11 Th1d<ncs:s (mm)

    I !
    d, (mm)

    20
    25
    3.2
    c. •. -- -c,.-· <', .... _ e ,.-· c,..-- t,.-· tr .. -

    2...3
    2.9
    c,.-

    -!J

    z.s
    3.-<
    "40 2.3 2.8 3.7 .(..3
    50 2.3 2.8 2.9 3.~ -<.6 S.3
    6J 2.3 2.8 2.-< 2.9 · 3.6 .(.2 5.0 6.6
    75 2.3 2.8 2.9 3. .( -<.3 5.0 6.8 7.7
    so 2.8 3.3 3.5 ~- l s. 1 5.9 8.2 9.3
    .. ,,
    4.2 ...
    110 3.-< . ,<;Q" -i.9 6.3 7 .2 10.0 11.3
    125 3.9
    - .(.5 -c.e 5.S 7. 1 . 0.1. . I 1 .4 12..8
    140 ·<..3 5.0 S.-< 6.2 8.0 s.r 12.7 1-4-2
    160 4.9 ~-6 6.2 7.1 9. 1 10.3 1.(.6 16.3
    180 S.S 6.3 6.9 7.8 10:3 i i.s 16 . .( 19.l
    200 6.2 7.1 7 .7 8,7 11.4 12.8 18.2 21.2
    22.5 6.9 7.8 8.5 9.7 12.8 1"-.3 20.5. Z3.8
    zso 7 .7 8.7 9.6 10.8 14..2 15.9 . 22.7 26.4

    2.80 8.6 9.7 l0.7 12.0 1S.9 17.7 25.4 2.9.5


    315 9.7 10.9 12. 1 13.6 17.9 20.8 28.6 - 33. 1
    355 10.9 12.2 13.6 15.2 20.2 23.5 -32.2 37..3
    400 12.3 13.8 15.3 17 .1 22.8 26.5 36.3 42.0

    i,,. A.SO
    500
    560
    13.8
    15.3
    17.2
    IS.-<
    17.1
    20.0
    18.2
    19.l
    21..(
    21.2
    22.2
    24.9
    25.6
    2~.4
    3\.9
    29.7
    32.9
    36.9
    ~.9
    .($,.(

    50.8
    "17.3
    $2.5
    58.7
    ' 6..~ 2<.1 \..( 'SJ .2 66.0
    19.3 2.2.4 28.0 35.0 .( ..
    1
    i; no 21.8 25.3 27.2 31.5 40."1 46.7
    800 24.5 28.4 30.6 35A 45.S 52.6
    900 27.6 32.0 34.7 40.2 51.2 59. l
    10Xl 30.G 35.4 38.S 44.5 56.9 65.7

    The calculation (or wall thickness tolerance is:·

    i .· For ct 1G.o mm, 1x = 0.15 c -1· 0.2 mm

    i·

    i
    !

    i
    j

    I - 14/IJ -

    -----·-~---- . . ····------ -~ ..
    TABLE 14.7(2) - WALL THICKNESS FOR PE 80 PIPES

    Wall thickness for PE 00 pipes

    PE ao o = G.3 MPa ·,t

    r f'N G PN 8 PN 10 ?N 12..5 rN 1G

    ()Jfu< S-10 s-e S-{;.3 S-5 ~


    ~ '"Wall Thickness, (mm)

    cl (mm) c, ....... ~ c,.-... er.-• e,.-· ir,...-.. t,.- .. c, .-- t . -, e,.--e,.-·


    16 2.3 2.0
    20 2.3 2.8
    2:5 2.3 2.8 2.3 2.8 2.8 3.3
    3.2 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.9 2.9 3.~ 3.5 4.2
    40 2.3 2.6 VI 2.9 3.0 3.6 3.7 ..(_J .4..5 5.2
    50 2A 2.9 3.0 3.6 3,7 4.3 ,\.6 5..3 5.6 6.-4
    63 3.0 3.6 3.8 -4.-'I «r 5A 5.8 6.6 7. 1 0.1
    7$ 3.6 ,t.2 4.5 52 5.5 6.3 s.s 7 .7 8.4 9.5
    00 ,t.J S.O S.-'I 6.2 6.6 7.5 B.2 9.J l0.1 .11,,\,

    110 5.3 6.1 6.6 7.5 8. l 9.2 10.0 11.3 · 12.3 13.8
    125 6.0 6.9 t .« aA 9.2 10.4 lU 12.8 1-4.0 15.7
    1-40 6.7 7.6 8.3 9.-< 10.3 l 1.6 12.7 H.2 15.T 17.5
    7.7 8.7 9.5 10.7
    I
    160 l 1.B 13.2 l<.6 16.3 l7.9 20.8
    180 6.6 9.7 10.7 12.0 13.3 H.9 16.~ 19. l 20.1 23.4
    2CX) 9.6 10.8 13.3
    11.9· 14.7 16 . ..( rn.2 21.2 22• .ol zs.o
    225 10.8 12.1 13.4 15.0 16.6 19.3 20.5 23.8 25.1 29.1
    250 .. ' 11.9 13.3 H.8 16.S 18.4 '21A 22.7 ?6 .... 27.9 32.3

    280 13.4 15.0 16.6 19.3 20.6 23.9 25.,t 29.5 Jl.3 36.2
    315 15.0 16.8 18.7 21.8 23.2 26.9 28.6 3..3.1 35 . .2 40.7
    355 16.9 19.7 21. l 24.5 26.l 30.3 32.2 37 .3 39.7 45.9
    «o 19. l' 22.2 23.7 27.5 29.4 34. 1 .'.l6.3 Q.O 44.5 51.4
    ..(50 21.5 25.0 26.7 31.0 33.1 38.3 .(Q.9 ~7.3 5J.3 5<\. 1
    sec 23.9 27.7 29.6 3-4.3 36.B 42.6 45." 52.5 55.8 64.4
    560 26.7 31.0 33.2 3S.4 41.2 47.6 50.8 58.7
    6JO 30.0 3-4.8 37.3 '43.1 46.3 53.5 57.2 &5.0

    710 33.9 J9.2 "12.1 -48.7 52.2 60.3


    80J 38.1 M.1 47.4 5--4.8 5..'l.8 67.9
    S(X) .ol2.9 49.6 5.J.5 61.8
    ICXXJ 47.7 55.1 59.3 58.~

    The calculation for wall thickness tolerance is.-

    For e < 16.0 mm. + x "' 0.10 e + 0.2 mm


    For c i 16.0 mm. +x "'0.15 e + 0.2 mm

    - 14/14 -
    TABLE 14.7(3) - WALL THICKNESS FOR PE 100 PIPES·

    II..
    watt thickncs s for PE 100 pipes

    ,PE 100 a = 8.0 MPa

    No<Jw=' PN 10 PN 12..S PN 16

    • ().rlo< S-8 S-6.3 S-5

    r::>:arnct:o< -W;all Thid<n= (mm)

    d.. (mm) t:,.- . . c,.-· c , ... ... (,.-... c, ....... c ..


    16
    i
    20
    25 2.3 2.8 2.3 2 ..8
    r 3.2 2.3 2.0 2.4 2.9 2.9 J . .(
    I1. 1.0 2.4 2..9 3.0 3.6 3.7 4.3
    50 3.0 3.6 3.7 4.3 ·C6 S.3
    tiI.
    63 3.8 "4.-< 4.7 5 . .( S.B 6.6
    I .. ..
    I 75 -< .5 5.2 5.5··· 6.3 '$.$ 7.7
    ! 90 5 . .( 6.2 6.6 7 .5 8.2 9.3
    !
    i.
    110 6.6 7.5 8.1 S.2 10.0 11..3
    125 7 . .( 8 . .( 9.2 10.4 11.4 12.8
    \.40 8.3 9.4 10.3 11.6 12.7 1-<.2
    160 "9.S 10.7 11.8 13.2 l~.6 16.3
    180 10.7 12.0 13.3 \~.9 15 . .( 19.1
    200 11.9. 13.3 1-<.7 16.-< 18.2 21.2
    22:S 13.4 15.0 16.6 19.3 20.5 2..3.6
    250 14.8 16.5 18.~ 21 . .( 22.7 26.4

    280 16.6 19.3 20.6 23.9 2S.4 29.5


    315 18.7 21.8 2.3.2 26.9 28.6 33.l
    355 21. I 24.S 26.1 30.3 32.2 37.3
    ;I.OJ 2..3.7 27.5 29A 3-4.1 36.3 ..C2.0
    I. :

    li .(5() 26.7 31.0 33.\ 68.3 4().9 47.3


    500 29.6 3-( .3 36.8 42.6 ~5.4 52.S
    550 .33.2 38.~ 41.2 H.6 50.8 58.7
    630 37.3 -<3.1 46.3 SJ.5 57.2 66.0

    710 (2., -46.7 52.2 60.3


    f·; · 800 .(],.(
    .· ~.6 se.e 67.9
    l !XX) 53.S 61.6
    iooo 59.3 68.•

    The calculation for wal! thickncs s tolerance is:-

    F0< c < 16.0 mm. + x "' 0.10 e + 0.2 mm


    for e z 16.0 mm. +x "' 0.15 c +· 0.2 mm

    l I
    1;

    t - 14/15 ·

    I
    ~
    (f) Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (uPVC) Pipes

    uPVC pipes are semi-rigid pipes. They arc required to comply with MS 628: 1982.

    The standard length for uPVC pipes is 6 metres. Nominal diameters can range from 80mm to
    575mm, but pipes larger than 300mm have yet to ·be used extensively in the water supply
    system in this country.

    Table 14.8 gives the thickness and diameter of uPVC pipes.

    TABLE 14.8 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF UNPLASTICISED


    POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PIPES (uPVC)

    Nominal
    Size
    Mean Outside
    Diameter
    Maximum of Average Walt
    Thickness (mm) ft .
    -·.,·.····.1
    .

    Min. Max. Class C Class D Class E


    (mm) (mm) (mm) 7.2 bar 9.6 bar 12.0 bar
    rl
    { ··1

    80 88.7 89.1 4.1 5.3 6.5 :=:-;-


    .· .... :.··
    :· .·.·.:··!
    100 114.1 114.5 5.2 6.8 8.3 ?\ 't
    I
    125 140.0 140.4 6.3 8.3 10.1 J
    155 168.0 168.5 7.5 9.9 12.1
    175 19:t,5. 194.0 8.7 11.4 13.9
    200 218.8 219.4 8.8 11.6 14:1
    225 244.1 244.8 9.8 12.9 15.8
    250 272.6 273.4 10.9 14.3 17.5
    300 323.4 324.3 12.9 17.0 20.8
    350 355.0 356.0 14.1 18.6 22.8
    375 405.9 406.9 16.2 21.1 26.0
    400 456.7 457.7 18.2 23.8 -
    450 507.5 508.5 20.2 - -
    500 558.3 559.3 22.1 - -
    575 609. l 610.l 24.1 - -

    - 14/16 -
    . .,
    l ,•

    I t

    L
    I
    (g) Glassfibr~ Reinforced Plastics (GRP) Pipes

    GR.P pipes are relatively new ·and have not been used widely in Malaysia. GRP pipes shall
    I conform to BS 5480: 1990. No coating has been specified for GRP pipes.

    u The GRP pipe manufacturer shall design the pipe wall thickness based on various parameters
    as spelt out in the British Standard. Standard lengths of pipes are 3.0, 5.0 and 6.0 metres.

    r· I
    Since GRP pipes are easily deformed and there is little experience on the use of these pipes,
    I
    ,.i nominal diameters shall be limited to a maximum of 1600mm though BS 5480 allows for much
    larger diameters.
    ,·.
    )
    I
    { 14.5.2 PIPE CLASSfFICATION

    l
    { .
    The values of maximum permissible working pressure for the various classes of pipes, made to
    the above-mentioned standards, are as given in Table 14. 9.

    TABLE 14.9 - MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE WORKING PRESSURE


    (Table for A.C., PE, uPVC, Steel and GRP. Pipes)
    r
    l Maximum
    i Pipe Material Class/Series Permissible
    r:
    l of Pipe Working Pressure
    (Bar)
    !
    !
    {
    l . Asbestos Class 20 10.0
    •,'
    Cement Class 25 12.5
    ,..
    I ..
    { .
    Polyethylene Series 5 to Series 16 Depends on pipe series

    L
    l
    Un plasticised
    Polyvinyl
    Class C
    Class D
    7.2
    9.6
    \
    Chloride Class E 12.0
    J
    I .
    Steel * 16.0
    L
    )

    \·
    I Glassfibre
    Reinforced
    6.0 - !2~5

    ~
    Plastics
    I I I
    * Maximum permissible

    1 ·
    j

    I -14/17-

    L l ; .. ·-------------------~--------------
    (Table for C.I. and D.I. Pipes)

    Maximum Permissible Working Pressure


    Nominal
    Size Pipelines incorporating flanges to Pipelines without any
    DN flanged joints

    Ductile
    Iron
    Pipe
    PNlO
    bar
    (Gauge)
    PN 16
    bar
    (Gauge)
    l PN 25
    bar
    (Gauge)
    bar
    (Gauge)

    80 lo 300 10 16 25 40
    350 to 700 10 16 25 25

    Cast
    Iron
    Pipe

    80 to 700. 12.5 "''


    .80 to 300 12.5
    350 to 600 10.0

    The pipes shall be selected such that the maximum operating pressure or the internal design
    pressure, including surge · pressure, shall not exceed the maximum permissible working
    pressure rating of the pipe. Where there is a substantial amount of surge pressure, protective
    surge devices shall be installed to ·ensure -that pressures do not exceed the maximum
    permissible working pressure rating of the pipes.

    14.5.3 SELECTION OF TYPE OF PIPE


    >•
    .~,!-

    The major factors to be considered when selecting the type of pipe are:-

    (a) Working and test pressures, including surge pressure.


    (b) · Strength of pipe to withstand designed internal and external loads.
    (c) Durability of the pipe.
    (d) Suitability and workability for laying and operating requirements.
    (e) Capital, operation and maintenance costs.
    (f) Extent of possible leakage.

    Having considered the above factors, recommendations on the use of the various pipes are as
    given in Table 14 .10. These recommendations serve only as a guide and the above-mentioned
    factors, as well as other pertinent factors, may well determine the type ·of pipe to be used.

    - 14/18 -
    TABLE 14.10 - PIPES AND THEIR RECOMMENDED USE

    Pipe Material C.I. D.I. A.C. Steel PE uPVC GRP


    Usage

    Within pumping
    stations, ** x • x x
    reservoir
    sites.
    I:
    ,c ..
    Built into water
    retaining
    x x x x x
    structures

    Under crossing, •• ** x ** x x
    road crossing

    Over crossing,
    overhead bridge * x . ,. x x x
    and culvert
    l
    (, .•
    crossing
    \, ,I
    )
    i
    Transmission * x x x
    pipelines
    '
    Reticulation
    pipelines • • * •• '· x

    . _l?ist.ri~u.~ion ..
    pipelines * • • •• • x

    Submarine x x x x x
    pipelines

    Cross-country
    pipelines * x • ... x x

    Corrosive
    environment,
    • * x x ** *
    I
    . coastal areas
    I Highly recommended
    **
    * Recommended
    x- Not recommended

    - 14/19 ·

    ·--------
    ·, -------~--------·· ---~-
    14.6 JOINTS
    A particular type of the pipe can be joined with one or; more types of joint to suit the
    circumstances in which the pipeline is laid and has to operate. Table 14.11 gives the types of
    joints which are commonly available for pipes and specials. Typical sections for the various
    joints are given in Figure 14.2(a) & Figure 14.2(b). Many other less commonly used joints are
    available but not described below.

    (a) Flanged Joint.

    Flanged joints are used for exposed pipework., in booster pumping stations, spanning overhead
    crossing and where rigid pipework is required.

    Flanges can be. cast-on as an integral part of the pipe or special, or welded-on to the pipe or
    special. The thickness of the flanges, their diameters, the number and size of bolts are
    determined by the duty the pipeline has to perform. Further details on these can be found in
    BS 4504 and BS 4772.

    For maximum permissible working pressures of 16 bar and below, steel flanges shall conform
    to Table 16/3 - BS 4504 : 1969, whereas cast iron flanges shall conform to Table 16/11 of the
    same B.S .. AJl other flange. types shall be dimensionally similar to that of Table 16/11.

    (b) Welded Joint

    Welded joints are commonly used for steel pipes. They····· are suitable
    , ' .
    for all pressures and can
    be used on pipelines above and below ground. .

    The socket and spigot welded joint is usually used when jointing long lengths of pipeline. This
    joint can be deviated up to 2· degrees, so that the pipeline can be laid on a gentle curve. Collar
    joints are also sometimes used for short lengths of exposed pipelines. Pipes having outside
    diameters greater than 700mm shall be welded internally and externally to enable testing of the
    joint.

    Butt-welded joints are least preferred and are used on small pipes up to l 50mm.

    ( c) Gibault Joint.

    A gibault joint is a flexible, cast iron detachable joint. It is used extensively when connecting
    asbestos cement pipe with plain-ended pipes and specials of the same external diameter such as
    steel pipes.

    Available gibault joints are made to maximum permissible working pressures of 10. 0 and 12. 5
    bar.

    -14/20-

    -· ·- • • , 04-----·
    , ,,, , ... ,.,.,., ..... __.~·.~.,·.v,•-,.•,...., .. •;"-'-"· ,o.• ·-····~.e··v,a:-~,:.,I'·'
    (d) Flexible Mechanical Coupling.

    A flexible mechanical coupling will join plain-ended pipes and fittings of the same external
    .,...
    ' diameter and can be made to specified external diameters. 111e coupling is suitable for pipes
    -liable to be subjected to ground movement and settlement, thermal expansion and contraction
    and along vertical pipelines. The Viking Johnson coupling is one such example.

    (e) Butt Fusion.!Electrofusion

    The butt fusion technique involves heat welding the pipe, either as two butt ends or as a
    socket fitting, using a heating plate. This joint enables long lengths of flexible P.E. pipelines to
    C' be formed and are suitable where there is ground movement or when the pipeline must be laid
    ! .
    I on a curve.With electrofnsion socket jointi.ng,an electrical resistance element is incorporated in
    I : the socket of the fitting which when connected to a appropriate power source.melts and fuses
    the material of the pipe and fitting together.Electrofusion fittings are available in the size range
    16mm to 355mrn in Malaysia.

    (f) Sleeve Coupling.

    Sleeve couplings join plain-ended pipes of the same diameter. The material for the sleeve is

    r·
    ~.
    t
    usually of the same material as the main pipe. Sleeve couplings of the solvent type are used
    for uPVC pipes not exceeding 155mrn nominal diameter. The more common sleeve couplings
    use the rubber ring, as in uPVC coupler, A.C. sleeve and the G.R.P. pipe joints'.
    s :'.

    l: . The sleeve couplings of the rubber ring type arc flexible which allow varying degrees of
    deflection, depending on the type of the sleeve coupling used; A.C. joints for example, allow
    r· 4 to ·g degrees deflection for pipes up to 250mm diameter, while pipe diameters larger than
    l .
    250mm allow 1.5 to. 3.5 degrees.

    (g) Push-on Spigot and S~ket.


    These joints are formed by a rubber ring, forced into a sealing position by the . entry of the
    spigot end into the socket end of the pipe. These joints are also flexible and permit some
    I
    degree of deflection. Many ductile iron pipelines use this push-on type (sometimes called T-
    L
    i
    type) of joint, T-type joints allow. deflection of 4 to 10 degrees. Other types of spigot and
    t
    1 socket joints are also used in jointing uPVC as well as G.RP. pipes.
    i
    i
    1 .. (h) Single Gland - Mechanical Joint.

    The joint is sometimes referred to as the Kstype mechanical joint and is also commonly used
    with spigot and socket ductile iron pipes. This type of joint is also flexible and permits varying
    degrees of deflection (3 degrees to 10 degrees), depending on the diameter of the pipe.

    -14/21-

    - -· ----·----~--------..~----
    (i) Stepped Coupling.

    Stepped couplings are used to form joints of plain-ended pipes of small clifferences in external
    diameters.. A V.A. dresser joint, which connects a uPVC. and an A.C. pipe, is a typical
    example.

    TABLE 14.11 - COMMONLY AVAILABLE JOINTS

    Tvpe of Joint
    ..
    * * Flexible Push- Single
    Pipe Range Weld Gibault Mecha- Sleeve. on Gland
    Mate- nical Butt Couolinz Spigot
    ..
    rial ...
    Coupl- Fusion/ Solvent Rubber & Mecha-
    .. Rinao nical
    . ing Electro Cement Socket
    fusion

    CJ. A A

    DJ. A A A A

    A.C. A A A
    ..
    Steel A A
    A
    .. ...A
    PE A A ..... . . . , ... ·····."

    uPVC A A A

    G.R.P. A A A

    Note:- Flangejoints include cast-on and welded flanges.


    Weld joints include butt weld, collar and welded slip joints r
    A - Available. t·

    -14/22-
    l·
    l
    t:
    l·
    i; :
    I
    . 1;
    \ .

    rLAIIG(D JOINT A.(. Sl((V( (OUPL!HG

    \
    ~,_,_~

    ' J' :[l0[0 SllP 0,, JOlel


    ,,
    \ t

    I
    )"
    !
    COUAR JO !HT
    f '."""P~'T"'
    uPYC COUPLER ( RUBBER RlHG )
    ~
    l
    i
    r·
    \ .
    I

    l - r:= ~"' GlOAULT JOIHT


    iF 111,zzoa.1111~11111

    i:m====i
    , •tnz,u:{

    PUSS OH S, 1G Ol A>,o SOC<[ T I

    ' .
    i
    i
    '

    VIKING JOHHSOH COUPLING M(CHAHICAL SIHGL( GlANO ( ( TYPE )

    }"""""'
    r :
    rm ,_ ~

    ST(PP(O COUPLING
    l

    FIGURE 14.2(n) - TYPICAL SECTIONS OF JOINTS

    - 14/23 -

    """:------------------------
    ELECTROFUS!ON. JOINT

    BUTT FUSION JOINT

    FIGURE 14.2(b) - TYPICAL SECTIONS OF JOINTS

    - 14/24 -
    14.7 FITTINGS AND SPECIALS
    I

    l
    .( A wide range of pipe fittings and specials is available to facilitate a change in pipe diameters
    t .

    r and joints, change in pipeline direction and the installation of miscellaneous items in the water
    ii distribution system. Only the commonly used types of fittings and specials are discussed
    i below. Figure ·14.3(a) shows various typical flanged fittings and specials and Figure 14.3(b)
    J.
    l
    standard fittings and specials for use with PE pipes.
    il

    I (a) Tapers

    Tapers, whether concentric or flat/eccentric, are used to connect pipes and fittings of different
    Ll
    diameters. Concentric tapers are widely used in most pipelines whereas flat tapers are widely
    used at suction pipes. Tapers can be made from C.I., D.I., uPVC, PE, GRP or steel and may

    Ij ;
    I .
    be plain-ended, double flanged, or one end flanged and the other plain-ended.

    (b) Flange Adaptors

    1f When transferring from a flexible to a rigid jointing system, for example incorporating a
    double flanged sluice valve in a plain-ended pipe, flanged adaptors are used. These specials
    Ic:
    )
    are available in C.I., D.I, steel and also PE ..

    (c) Bends
    f
    r. Bends are used when allowable pipe deflections are insufficient to complete the change in
    l: pipeline direction. Bends are usually · of the standard 11.25, 22.5, 4 5 and 90 degree
    deflections. However, .mild steel bends may be fabricated for any deflection angle. Short-
    radius bends are used in confined spaces such as within a booster station. Medium and long
    radius bends. are more commonly used, when space permits. These specials are available in
    C.I., D.I., PE, uPVC, GRP or -steel. They may be plain-ended, double flanged, or one end
    flanged and the other plain-ended, or one end socket and one spigot.

    Duckfoot bends are used where the change in direction involves a long vertical pipe. They are
    t
    i made of C.I. or D.I. and are usually.double flanged.
    ;
    L ;

    (d) Tees

    There is a wide range of tee sizes that are available to permit changes in direction. Such tees
    have the centre line of the branch outlet coinciding with the centre line of the main pipe. The
    specials are available in C.I., D.I., PE, uPVC, GRP or steel, and may be plain-ended, double
    flanged, or having a combination of flange and plain-ends.

    Level invert tees are used for scouring purposes. They are usually all flanged or having a
    flanged offiake with a plain-ended main body.

    - 14/25 -
    ~]
    -~.
    ,~!J
    =s.

    J
    r:r .;
    {!)

    (e) Angle Branches and Crosses.

    Angle branches and crosses can be used in special situations. They can be fabricated from !Fl
    steel or to special castings of C.I. or DJ. They can be plain-ended, all flanged or having a
    combination of flange and plain-ends.
    I
    (f) Puddle Flanges I

    Puddle flanges shall be used to provide a water bar, where a pipe passes through a wall, as
    ~nl
    well as for anchorage purposes. They are attached to the main body by welding or cast-on to
    the main pipe body. Materials used are of steel, CJ. or D.I. .r,;t
    ·(g) Bellmouth

    Bellmouths shall be used at the scour, inlet and overflow pipes. They are usually made of C.I.
    or DJ., and are flanged.

    (h) Rose Strainer

    Rose strainers shall be used at outlets, and are made of cast iron, aluminium or stainless steel.
    The strainers shall be flanged.

    (i) Blan~ Flanges

    A blank flange shall be used when a temporary or permanent end cap is required. Materials ·
    available are CJ., D.I. and steel. Since blank flanges are used together with a flanged pipe or
    fitting, the bolt holes shall be dimensionally similar to BS 4 504 Table 16/11; unless a higher
    pressure class is required.

    14.8 VALVES

    A wide range of valves are available to stop, isolate, start or regulate water flow in a water
    distribution system. Only commonly usedvalves are discussed below. Figure 14.4(A) gives
    typical sections for the valves discussed. All flanged valves shall have flanges 'which are
    dimensionally similar to BS 4504 : 1969 Table 16/11, unless a higher pressure class is
    specified.

    (a) Sluice Valves/Gate Valves

    Sluice. valves shall be used to stop the flow of water and to isolate a section of the water main.
    Flanged sluice valves have very wide applications but plain-ended valves shall be limited to
    Felda reticulation networks. Flanged sluice valves (up to 600mm) shall conform to BS 5163 :
    1974, while plain-ended sluice valves (up to 10 inches) shall conform to BS 1218 : 1946.
    Standard flanged sluice valves used shall have a maximum permissible working pressure of 16
    bar. All sluice valves shall be of the non-rising stem and cap type and clockwise closing.

    - 14/26 •
    J
    :,

    l_ '
    ~
    HAT TAPEA

    90 OEGR((S __~

    COHC(NlR IC TAP[R

    HANG, ADAPTOR
    ANGLE BRAHCH

    CROSS
    l(V(L 1HVERT T((

    T(( PUOOLE HANG(

    .:S ;
    0Ell t'OVTH
    r__ ~3
    I
    ROS(
    • • .• •
    STRAIH[R

    FIGURE 14.3(a) - TYPICAL FLANGED SECTIONS OF


    FITTINGS AND SPECIALS

    -14/27-

    ---------------·---- ..
    FIGURE 14.3(b) - ELECTROFUSION FITTINGS

    COUPLER REDUCING COUPLER ,t


    '...· ,..
    '.'.

    r~ !

    ,,
    I~

    ELBOW 90 Deg. EQUAL TEE

    TAPPING TEE BRANCH. SADDLE

    0
    TRANSITION COUPLER STUB FLANGE
    - 14/28 -
    L
    Il Sluice valves of 600mm diameter and above shall be supplied complete with a built-in bypass.
    i For valves of 600mm to 900mm diameter, the bypass diameter shall range from 75mm to
    1 OOmm, while for valves 900mm to 1200mm diameter, the bypass diameter shall be I OOmrn to
    150mm.

    f
    j 300rnm diameter sluice valves and above shall be supplied with spur gearing for operation by
    \

    one man under an unbalanced pressure of 5 kg.f/cm.sq. Hand wheel-type shall be provided for
    installation within booster stations.

    The normally recommended interval for the spacing of the sluice valves shall be 1.S km on
    most transmission and distribution pipelines. However, the interval can be increased to J km
    on pumping lines. At junctions, the number of sluice valves shall be such that it allows
    flexibility and ease of operation. Sluice valves shall always be placed downstream of scour
    chambers.

    (b) Scour Valves


    r
    !
    Sluice valves are used as scour valves. They shall be flanged and conform to BS 5163 : I 974.
    The maximum permissible working pressure shall be 16 bar.
    !
    1
    l
    .i
    Scour valves shall be installed at the low points and at points where scouring may be required
    .,, . so as to drain sediments from the pipeline.
    \ The recommended size of the valves shall be about 1/3 the size of the pipelines.
    r
    l
    t (c) Air Valves
    \,;

    Two types of air valves are used, namely the single orifice and double. orifice air valve. -The
    single orifice air valve shall be of the small orifice type. The purpose of this valve is to ~
    !
    discharge air which may accumulate in sections of a pipeline under working conditions. The l
    !''':

    f :"
    double orifice air valve is of the combined smalJ and large orifice pattern. The large orifice !
    ;
    serves to dischargeair during the filling of the pipeline and to admit air while the pipelines are !l
    emptied. Both types of air valves shall be designed for operation at a maximum permissible i
    i
    t'·,
    working pressure of 16 bar. t
    l :
    1 i
    Air valves shall be positioned in accordance to the following criteria with reference to Figure I
    Ficr
    - ·o· · ·· .,-r
    1 t:1 M'R\ i\

    i ·'

    o Single large orifice air valves should be located just downstream of the pump delivery Ii
    i\
    valves (Location A). f
    !

    • Dual orifice air valves are required at all peak points (Location B). These high points are
    !l
    defined relative to the hydraulic gradient and not necessarily to the horizontal. A peak i
    i
    may be considered as any pipe section which slopes up towards the hydraulic gradient or
    .i. runs parallel to it.

    -14/29-
    'i~
    '~

    ti. ~
    !1
    • When the pipe section runs parallel to the hydraulic gradient the minimum requirement is
    a dual orifice air valve at each end of the section (Location B).

    • Additional intermediate single large orifice air valves are required on longer lengths at
    approximately 800 m intervals (Location C).

    • Longer pipeline sections of uniform profile also require ventilating and dual orifice air
    valves should be installed at approximately 800 m intervals on these sections (Location
    E).

    • Single small orifice air valves or dual orifice air valves on lines above 450 mm diameter
    are required at major changes in pipeline gradient (Location D).

    • At small up over culvert crossings, a single small orifice air valve should be installed. On
    larger stream and river crossings double orifice air valves should be used.

    • Where the above conditions give rise to the situation where a single or double air valve
    could be used, a double air valve should always be installed.

    • The above distances between air valves (800 m) are given as a general guideline only.
    The pipeline engineer/designer should review each case individually and come up with the
    ·?l
    .."'.':.-.: -.···1
    optimum design. Some distances may be slightly more, some slightly less. ·ii

    • Additional air valves may be required after detailed surge analysis.

    r .
    ~:

    - 14/30 -
    L

    r·
    I
    t
    SLUICE VALVE eurrran Y VAL VE HYDRANT VAL V£
    r
    I
    \ .
    !

    ,··
    l .
    ! .
    {.

    I' S[NGLE AIR VALVE DOUBLE AIR VALVE RfflUX VALVE

    I!
    l.'

    i' -.
    i
    I

    PRESSURE SUSTAINING PRESSURE.REDUCING


    !:
    \
    VALVE
    VALVE
    i .·:
    !
    .,
    1, •.

    I
    t BALL VALVE ALTITUDE VAL VE

    FIGURE 14.4(A) - TYPICAL VALVES

    - 14/31,

    L
    ------------·
    -·
    co <st:
    ~
    I

    I
    I
    I
    I I
    I

    0-
    ' ,
    I LtJ

    I
    I
    I
    I
    I
    J
    ~. I w

    i3 ~I w

    01

    <5/
    !:! I

    -:
    ~,
    ~l
    i5 '
    '
    w

    l Q)

    +.>
    •.-1
    r.n
    ~ ~I
    ~
    0
    jl
    0
    • .-1
    .4-,)
    co
    I
    o
    0
    ....-I
    I
    <l)
    ::>,
    ,-(

    ro
    >
    ...~. . .
    co
    ,-(

    ro Q_
    o
    •M
    E
    J
    o, (0 ~
    a

    FIGURE 14.4(B) - AIR VALVE LOCATION POINTS

    • 14/32 -

    ----· --··-.AJ··-······-··- ...


    J\.. .,
    i

    t'I Flanged double orifice air valves shall be installed with an isolating sluice valve to facilitate
    maintenance of the air valve. Single orifice air valves used shall be complete with an isolating
    stop valve for the same purpose.

    Table 14.13 gives the recommended air valve sizes for a particular range of pipe diameter.

    TABLE 14.13 - AIR VALVE SIZES

    r··._
    Air Valve Size (mm) Pipe Size (mm)
    -
    25 up to 200
    50 200 - 400
    75 400 - 600

    Ir·'·: 100 600 - 750


    ..
    ~ . 150 750 - 900
    1 .
    t i' 200 900 and above
    J. ..

    (d) Butterfly Valve

    Butterfly valves are generally not designed to be leak tight. As such, butterfly valves in the
    water distribution system are used mainly for flow regulation. The valves shall be made to BS
    515 5 : 1984 . Standard valves shall have a maximum permissible working pressure of l 6. bar.

    All butterfly valves to be used in water distribution systems shall be flanged and of the metal
    i~- ;.
    seated type. Butterfly valves smaller than 300mm shall have single disc spindles while larger
    r···,
    valves can have two piece studded spindles.
    t .
    When inlet pipes to reservoirs are greater than 450mm, and where electrical supply is
    available, butterfly valves with electrical actuators and level control systems can be used to
    regulate water inflow to reservoirs.

    (e) Reflux Valves

    Reflux valves are also sometimes called non-return valves or check valves. They are valves
    through which flow can proceed in one direction only. Reflux valves to be used in distribution
    systems shall be of the rapid but non-slam closure under high velocities and surge conditions.
    Only reflux valves used within pumping stations shall incorporate a bypass complete with an
    isolating valve for priming purposes. All reflux valves shall be flanged.

    The reflux valves shall be of a maximum permissible working pressure of I 6 bar.

    l - 14/33 -
    (f) Ball or Float Valves

    The float valve is used at the end of the inlet pipe to a suction tank or reservoir when flow into
    the reservoir or tank is by gravity. The function is to allow water to flow until a
    predetermined level is reached. The design of the float valve shall be such that the valve is
    closed when the water level coincides with the centre of the float bait.

    The float valve shall be designed to BS 1968. Only standard valves up to 450mm diameter
    can be used. The maximum permissible working pressure shall be 10 bar. For thin walled
    tanks S'...!-:!: as FR.P and pressed steel tanks, the maximum size of float valve used shall be
    300mrn.

    A sluice valve shall always be installed at the inlet pipe so as to enable the pipeline to be shut
    when the float valve is being maintained.

    (g) Altitude Valves

    Single-acting altitude valves are used in JKR distribution systems since a separate outlet pipe
    from the 'reservoir is required. The altitude valves are used to control the level of water in
    elevated reservoirs: They may also be installed at ground reservoir inlet pipes greater than
    I
    450mm diameter. Double acting altitude valves allow the flow of water to and from a tank
    and are seldom used because terminal reserovirs are not preferred. . 'I
    .:... _·._'.:i.:.f.:··i"
    :

    Altitude valves shall be installed in chambers and shall be. provided with a bypass pipe
    arrangement so that disruption to the supply of water is minimised when the valve is being ·t..·~·· ·:.!{
    ,·.
    c;

    maintained.

    (h) Pressure Reducing Valves


    lL

    The function of the pressure reducing valve is to reduce the· upstream pressure to a constant
    downstream pressure. As such the type of valve to be used need not be of the zero outlet flow
    type. The valve shall be used only after consideration has been given to other methods of
    pressure reduction in view of the valve cost and associated maintenance problems. r
    Pressure reducing valves shall also be housed in chambers and shall be provided with a bypass
    pipe arrangement.

    (i) Pressure Sustaining Valves

    A pressure sustaining valve sustains a pre-determined pressure immediately upstream of its


    position in a pipeline. It is a modified form of the pressure reducing valve.

    Pressure sustaining valves shall be used only after careful_considerations have been given to
    other means of meeting the desired objective. The valve is also costly and may pose problems
    associated with its maintenance. The pressure sustaining valves shall also be housed in
    chambers and shall be provided with a bypass arrangement.

    - 14/34 - n
    . irr
    --1=
    G) Constant Flow Valves

    A constant flow valve is used to maintain a constant rate of flow of water. It may be used in
    domestic connections where the demand is estimated to be more than 45 cubic metres ofwater
    per day. The valve shall be set such that the demand is met in 20 hours.
    : I.
    (k) Hydrants
    Ii '
    'il •.
    Fire hydrants provide the main means of drawing water from the pipeline for firefighting. It
    may also be used as additional points for scouring the pipeline.

    The hydrants can be of either the wedge gate type conforming to BS 7 50 or the pillar hydrant
    type as detailed in JKR Drawing No. PBA H/310/15. All fire hydrants shall have a maximum
    permissible working pressure of 16 bar.
    f
    '
    l(\ Hydrants shall be placed at intersections, branches and generally at a spacing interval of not
    more than 180 metres. High fire risk installations shall have hydrants placed not more than 90 ·
    metres walking distance from the installations.

    Ii
    ,i.
    14.9 PIPE DIAMETER SELECTION
    \
    i
    . I 14.9.1 GENERAL
    I
    ;
    I

    rl. • The selection of pipe diameter depends on the following general factors:-
    l
    (a) For gravity systems, the difference in elevation between the source and the point of
    discharge.

    (b) For pumping systems, in general, the cost of power needed to deliver the water.

    (c) The major frictional losses in transmission, distribution and reticulation pipelines
    caused by the pipe.

    (d) The minor frictional losses in transmission, distribution and reticulation pipelines
    through valves and fittings, Generally, these losses are usually minimal as compared to
    major friction losses.

    14.9.2 CRITERIA FOR SIZING PIPES

    The criteria for determining pipe sizes shall be discussed under the following categories>
    i""•
    1 '

    I , (a) Transmission pipes - (i) Gravity flow.


    l
    I .
    (ii) Pumped system.

    (b) Distribution/Reticulation pipes.

    -14/35-
    (a) Transmission Pipe - Gravity Flow

    The gravity pipeline shall be designed to suit the head available, taking into consideration the
    designed flow, residual head requirements and the hydraulic gradient.

    (b) · Transmission Pipe « Pumped System

    For projects with an estimated capital outlay of less than $1.0 million, as a rule of thumb, the
    diameter of the pipe shall be such that the total head loss is approximately 30 percent of the
    total static head.

    For projects with an estimated capital outlay of more than $1.0 million, the optimum diameter
    'of the pipe shall be selected based on the least capital and operation costs of the pumps and
    pipelines. The comparison shall be made over a period of 30 years.

    (c) Distribution/Reticulation Pipes

    All distribution/reticulation network pipes, except Felda reticulation pipe network, shall be
    designed to meet peak demand requirements as well as fire demand requirements, according to
    the. relevant risk category,' with average demand taken at all other points in the network. For
    both requirements, the minimum residual heads required shall be met. Felda reticulation
    pipelines shall be designed based on peak demand requirements only.

    14.9.3 DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

    (a) Flow in Pipes

    In analysing a water supply distribution networks, it is ve1:y important to obtain the most
    accurate analysis possible within the constraints imposed by time, available staff and
    computing facilities. Two formulae widely used to calculate flow in pipes are the Hazen
    Williams Formula and the Colebrook-White Formula.

    The Hazen-Williams Formula is much simpler to use on pressure pipes than the Colebrook
    White. Formula, and is readily adaptable to use with programmable hand calculators.
    However, it does have some limitations on its range of accuracy.

    The more accurate Colebrook-White Formula must essentially be used in its graphical or
    tabular form as it is not readily suited to hand calculation techniques. This formula, due to its
    accuracy, is the usual method of solution used by computer analysis programmes.

    Either one of these two formulae shall be used for the design of water supply networks. ·
    Designers will need to make their own choice as to which of the two formulae they wish to
    adopt. However, it is recommended that for preliminary planning, the Hazen-Williams
    Formula be used as by the use of a· programmable calculator or just two nornogram charts a
    wide range of solutions may be quickly obtained. ·r!i·
    ~-:~

    All analyses should include an allowance for head losses at bends and fittings.

    -14/36-
    t··

    ~--

    l
    !i
    These formulae will be discussed in detail in the following subsections.

    (b) Hazen-Williams Formula


    r:
    I The Hazen-Williams Formula is generally not considered to be suitable for pipe diameters less
    ! L-,
    .
    [
    than 50 mm or flow velocities greater than 3m/s. It is also considered that the formula is not
    entirely accurate for values of the roughness coefficients which are substantially less than 100.

    r·
    l
    The formula for circular pipes may be stated in metric units as follows:-

    coo.63
    r· V= 0.355 S o.s»

    and
    ,·.
    t
    I Q = 0.279 CD2·63 S 0.54

    where, V -- Velocity of flow in mis= Q/A


    !
    t : Q -- Flow rate in m3/s
    A = Internal cross sectional area of conduit, in m2
    c = Roughness coefficient taken as 100 for planning purposes to allow for
    operation of pipes in poor condition.
    D
    ,....
    = Internal diameter of pipe considered, in m
    o = Hydraulic gradi_enr in m/rn

    and: s =

    where: Hr= the loss in head due to frictional resistance of fluid flow, in m
    L = length of main, in m

    The formula for Q may be rearranged to give the following convenient expression for head
    !, . loss:
    i'
    i:,,
    i
    ,6.78L (VI 1.s5

    I: Dl.165 l CJ
    I Nomograms for the use of the Hazen-Williams formula are contained in Figures 14. 5(A) and
    14.S(B)

    (c) Colebrook-\Vhite Formula

    The Colebrook- White F ormula is suitable for all pipe sizes and flow ranges. However because
    · its solution is presented in graphical form its use is limited to graphs prepared for specific
    values of roughness coefficient ks-

    - 14/37 -
    ., .

    The formula is stated in metric units as follows:-

    V= 2"'12gDS log r _k.L'+ 2. 51 V I


    l3.7D D"'12gDSJ

    where: ks= Colebrook-White roughness values, in mm


    V= velocity, in metres per second
    s = hydraulic gradient, in metres per metre
    g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
    v == kinematic viscosity of water,
    = 1.011 x lo-<> mis at 20°C
    D = pipe internal diameter, in metres

    Charts for the use of the Colebrook-White Formula are contained in Figures 14.5(C) to
    14.S(M)

    A guide to the choice of roughness coefficients and fitting losses is contained in Section (d)
    and Section 14.9.4.

    (d) Roughness Values and Coefficients

    TABLE 14.14 - ROVGHNESS VALUES AND COEFFICIENTS

    Type of Pipe Colebrook-White Hazen-Williams


    k, in mm c
    Asbestos-cement - all ages 0.15 140
    .. Cast iron - new 0.3 130
    (good condition) - 10 years old 1.5 100
    - 20 years old 3.0 90
    Cast iron coated - good condition old ages 0.3 135
    Welded steel - uncoated - new 0.6 125
    - old 1.5 100
    Coal tar enamel coated steel - new 0.15 100
    Concrete lining centrifugally spun
    - all ages 0.15 140
    Galvanised iron - new 0.3 130
    Polyethylene I ABS - all ages 0.015 155
    uPVC - all ages 0.015 155

    The above coefficients are consid.ered appropriate for normal installation conditions. Slime
    can occur under certain conditions. A heavy build up of slime can significantly reduce the
    capacity of pipes.

    - 14/38 •
    [.
    14.9.4 ESTIMATION OF MINOR FRICTION LOSS

    The head loss through valves and fittings can be expressed as the loss through an equivalent
    length of straight pipe or as a function of the velocity head as given below. Table I 4. Is· lists
    the K 1 and K2 values for various types of valves and fittings.
    !i·. . :
    .
    Equivalent length of straight pipe = KI . d
    Minor Head Loss = K2 . V2/2g

    where,
    Kl & K2 = constants
    d = fitting diameter (rn)
    V= Velocity (rn/sec.)
    g = acceleration due to gravity (rn/sec.sq.)

    Calculations for such minor losses are only made for station losses, such as within a booster
    station.

    r·
    f .
    l ;
    ·1 '

    I
    t
    f
    1I
    I
    ; .

    \,

    (
    j;

    !'i'····
    .
    II
    '1

    - 14/39 -

    ~---
    i
    l
    TABLE 14.15 - MINOR PIPELINE LOSSES

    Types Of fittings Types Of Fittings


    And Va1ves Kl K2 And Valves· Kl
    Entry losses lntennediate losses
    Sharp-edged entrance 22 0.50 Angle Branches
    Re-entrant entrance 36 0.80 F1ow in 1 i ne 16 0.35
    Slightly rounded line to branch or
    11 0.25
    Gell-mouthed entrance 2 0.05 30 degrees angle 18 0.40
    Footv~lve i strainer 113 2.50 45 degrees angle 27 0.60
    90 degrees angle 36 0.80
    lnteritiediate Losses
    El bows Sudden Enlargement•
    ( RID " 0.5 approx. ) Inlet~ Outlet p
    22.5 degrees 9 0.20 4 : 5 7 0.15
    45 degrees 18 o. 40 3 : 4 9 0.20
    90 degrees 45 1. 00 2 : 3 16 0.35
    1 : 2 27 0.60
    Close Radius Bends l : 3 36 - 0.80
    ( RIO " 1 approx. ) l : 5 t. over 45 1.00
    22 .5 degrees 7 0.15
    45 degrees 14 0.30 Sudden Contractions*
    90 degrees 34 0.75 Inlet .il Out1et ii
    5 : 4 7 0.15
    long Radius_ Bends 4 : 3 9 0.20
    ( R/D 2 to 7}
    1
    J : 2 14 0.30 .;;;~
    ·:· "J
    22.5 degrees s 0.10 2 : 1 16 0.• 35
    45 degrees 9 0.20 3 : l 20 0.45
    90 ... d_eg,ees 18 0.40 5 1 t. over 22 a.so
    Sweeps Te pcr s=
    ( R/D ~ 8 to 50) Fl OW' to sma 11 ends negligible
    22.5 degrees 2 0.05 Flow to large end
    45 degrees 5 0. 10 ( Inlet to Ovt1 et Dia.)
    90 degrees 9 o. 20 4 5 1. 5 0.03
    ) : 4 2.0 0.04
    Mitre El bows
    7 0 .1 S 1 : 2 6.0 0.12
    22.s degrees - 2 piece
    30 deg r.ees - 2 piece 9 0.20 Valves
    45 de q r e c s - 2 or Gate - fvl ly open s 0. 12
    J pieces 14 0.30 - 1/4 cfosed 45 l. 00
    60 degrees - 2 pcs. 29 0.65 ~ l /2 closed 270 6.00
    - 3 pcs 11 0.25 - 3/4 closed 1080 24.00
    degrees - 2 pc s 56 1.25 Globe 450 10.00
    - J po 22 0.50 Ou tterfly - fully open 16 0.30
    - 4 pcs 14 0.30 Reflux 45 l.00

    1& 0.35 Exit Losses


    / Sud~cn enlargement 45 1.00
    or
    . Bcllmouthc:l outlet 9 0.20
    54 1. 20
    can" JO 0.80
    capacity o l '

    o l ar-qement , contraction and tapers apply to


    'r.

    - 14/40 -

    ~------- -~--····---·· , .. -·-· ....


    '
    J!
    J
    I CU>f - t JOO
    • 000

    ""'
    "
    '
    J ''° see
    >oo

    ....
    (00

    ""' \00

    <C>O

    )o¢ 4
    -)',()

    -,~----,
    J<>O

    ----
    ....................
    ).)

    -, .. ''°
    l_O

    J CU1
    l>O
    ,., '-'

    6.)
    (..) )Jl
    w
    r-••o , .. o.,

    t :~
    _J
    0
    CD 0 0.1
    ~ - '"
    a:
    <
    E ·,o 1)0
    .. 0.1
    ~Lo.,.
    > E
    u _:!:~ E
    0.1 -- C)~ IHI : "-
    0 ,oo ·::,:
    c: -~ --1

    -
    so >-
    ,_
    ,_
    UJ

    '" w
    x ''° "">O u
    0
    ....z a., -< .J
    UI
    0 "" >

    I o., ,:,, "°

    l
    J
    Q

    u
    a.,
    ... '"'
    \('

    ..
    ..J
    f
    ~
    c:
    0
    r >-
    ::,:
    I ""'
    I )<)
    e.r
    O.IO
    0.."1

    r - Z.D
    ..
    "'
    e.s
    ·o:,
    o.,
    0.l'S.
    o.oe
    0.01

    e. ,
    l.) o.,
    0,)
    c.c,,

    l 0.)
    o.o,

    o..o,

    Norz : For values of Cother than 100 .. use inverted scale on left of ch:ut. The com::sponding value
    of hydr.iulic gradient for C - 100 i1 found on the scale of hydr.rnlic gradient .it right o( chart by
    drawing • stnight line through the required value of Con the srna l] central scale,
    EXAMJ"LO:
    I. Given: C - JOO; Q - 97.0 lb; Hydn.ulic iindicnt - I percent
    Find: D,.. 300 mm; V - U8 m/s...
    1. Given: C - 80; Q - Jl.8 U»; Hydraulic gndicnt - 0.5 percent
    Find: D - 2jO mm; V - 0.67 m/l. .

    . NOMOGRAM - HAZEN ANO WI.LLl.t:tMS FORMULA


    C -.SO to 160: D -.50 mrn co 500 mm
    (B:ued on Hxz en and Wllll:im1 Io rrnu la for pipes Oowlng full)

    FIGURE 14.S(A) - HAZEN-WILLIAMS NOMOGRAM


    (FORD = 50 mm to 500 mm)

    - 14/41
    0.0<.

    ~
    1 •• 0,01
    -oc ()OQ
    ,.
    Jwo ,0
    00 00()
    0.04
    "'000
    .,, 00() ,,
    0,0>
    ).l)()QO

    0.10
    vo oOO

    ..
    JOO,
    )0 000
    - '""'
    11¢0
    10 C)()()

    G.Pi • XX)
    ,, 000
    .. oo
    ,.,
    I<) 000
    Q. lO
    • 000
    - LO

    <, 1 COO
    • 000
    0.J1 u
    ~ 00()

    u
    w
    Q.] "Z 4 000
    0
    ;.' ,.
    ..J
    m
    "-., }000

    ...
    e. ,
    <
    0:
    "'°
    ,w
    (J

    ,( O.l HO u c.,
    ---
    O.l
    > I: oo
    E --i___ IJO • -.!('_
    ~.,
    .
    c Q
    I ~00
    lL no
    <,
    E
    .: J.O 0.
    <>-•

    ..
    u
    c,

    a.
    0.1
    0:
    w
    ,_
    0
    roe
    ,o
    -;:;--..._
    >- z
    - IU

    .,
    ...z <>.4 w
    :I:
    O<Xl
    xx,
    1---
    u
    0
    ~
    ~~........____
    w
    0
    w < sco
    10 ..J
    w <, ~
    0 o., 0 -l') e, )
    -c 100, co >
    a: u O.J-\
    .t::l ti.• coo 10
    __,
    y r.o ::,
    ..., o., <
    :)
    )00
    _,_ e. ,
    -- -- ·O,_
    er
    0, ><>

    <(
    er
    0
    1,0

    ,00
    ... :i: 0.ll
    >- e. ,
    :x:
    I'.><)
    c.,
    O.IQ

    ·-~ W> soo


    o.' "·"'

    - I.a
    ·~ 00
    10
    co
    '-~
    - o.,
    D,Ql

    coe 0,01
    40
    0, l
    u }O
    ..,.,
    {
    l~
    ._,.,
    • (1.0)
    JO

    c , ro G.DH
    11

    0.0)'()

    Non: For v,Juc:1 of Cother lhan 100, use inverted scale on k(1 of c har t, the c or rcs po o d io g v>luc
    o( hydraulic c.r.idknc Ior C - 100 h found on the scale o( hydraulic vadicni i! right o( c h a r t by
    dr a wing • str.1lgh1 line through Che required value o( Con t hc mo.ill central scale ,
    £xAMrLU;
    l. C - JOO; Q -
    Given: 2-40 tJs; Hydr.:.ul.c g r a djc n t - 0.18 percent
    flnd: D - 601 mm; V - 0.BS m/s. .
    2. Given: C - 120; Q - l no L/s; Hydraulic gr~d,cnt - 0.20 percent
    Find: D - lOOO mm; V_- 1.-49 mls,

    NOMOGRAM z: HAZEN ANO WILLIAMS. FORMULA-


    C""' SO to 160; D - 300 mm to 2500 mm
    (B:uc:d on Haz cn an d Wllll::ims formul:i Co, plpci nowlng full)

    FIGURE 14.S(B) - HAZEN-WILLIAMS NOMOGRAl\.1


    (FORD= 300 mm to 2500 mm)

    ~ 14/42 -

    I
    J,
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, percent
    0 0 0
    ''io .'o -~ 0
    ·~o ·~ '':, ·~o':i>'l,,
    0

    a:
    °" ·ro-''<2,
    0000000

    ...,
    0
    ,r
    O
    ·i .,. '2,r 0·a
    ~

    L
    i

    (I)
    <, E
    I E
    _J

    0 C)
    w 0:
    o .,_
    w
    a:
    < w
    I '.2
    u <
    Cf)
    0

    f
    '
    0
    '160

    140

    no

    HX)

    90

    60
    ..
    70

    60

    50

    LO

    )0

    VELOCITY V mis

    HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k.c= 0.003 mm


    [Based on Colebrook-White Ior rnula for plpe s flowing full with water 2t 20°C)

    FIGURE 14.S(C) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks= 0.003 mm)


    1.
    · 14/43 -

    l;-.....___ ·----
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT. percent
    0 0
    Oo 00000000
    ·~ '<o o..,0 o~ ~.... o-::,"tj,~ 'b_,<b.,. 'b.,. 'b,.
    0
    0
    ~
    0
    co..,

    _J
    "'.
    ...... E
    E
    0 C)
    w
    o a:·
    cc w
    }-
    <( w
    I 2
    0 <(
    o»
    0 0
    '60

    lLO

    90
    00 t:.,

    50

    JO

    VELOCITY V. mis

    HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k = 0.006 mm


    5
    (B:.ued on Colebr ook-vvhtc s for mula for pto e s flowing full wlch water H 20°C)

    FIGURE 14.5(D) - COLEBROOI<-WHITE (Ks: 0.006 mm)

    -14/44-
    HYDRAULIC GRAOlc'NT, percent
    0 0
    ·~ '/
    (2:, <ro

    r
    1

    f.
    (

    r
    t\ V)
    ....... E
    -1 E
    r: 0 a
    i w. a:
    ' o w
    a: r-
    <{ w
    r I ~~~~~~_,.)f'd,i~~~.:+:~~~~~-X,-l~~~~~~r..-llOJ 2
    0 <
    1 (/) ·"!-:;><"~>.'""ir"l::=ff·-::r~.>t"il't,''F--lvL>.r\,PE::k""":;t~~µ..:--),,,µ<;:.-~~µ.,.~:c:,){:::"~>;.~e>¥--'--b~l....,,_-:k<c.,,...,1<r-,;,,q..).,;.)~~~....,.
    t&a O
    0
    !:/''\

    100
    !-:;,~-f;>-;;>'t-''vl<~c:rl7<'&-~;i.r-:--\,..l~~~-c:t,c'S,-~~~~-8,~~~!d.:::'.~a\.;i.;::+,...~-J~~~~~~~.;:::.1.90
    60
    i
    !
    i. j

    so

    )0

    ; ·~
    i
    'i ,

    VELOCITY V. mis

    HYDMULIC DESIGN OF PIPES -COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA- k.s== 0.015 mm


    (~:ucd on Colebrook-White formub for pipes flowing full with w2ccr at 20'C}

    FIGURE 14.S(E)- COLEBROOK-WIDTE (Ks;::: 0.015 mm)

    ;i
    J.~
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, percent
    0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 O 0
    "d" ·..r ·i- ; , o o o ·o o o a
    °o °o °o .,.Jo 0oJJodo ~ 4;::, ~ <"o ~

    E
    E
    a
    0 a:
    w w
    <.? l-
    a: w
    -c L
    ~
    :r:
    0 0
    CfJ
    0 \60

    ao
    Ir\'
    _.......,.,!:1
    • ,-~~
    120
    ~
    100

    ~o
    DO

    70

    60

    50

    LO

    )0

    is

    VELOCITY V, mis

    HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - ks= 0.0J mm


    (B:ue<l on Colebrook-Whlce [or rnula for pipes flowing full wlt h w~cer ,c 20°q

    FIGURE 14.5(F) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks =0.03 mm)

    - 14/46 •
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT.' percent
    0
    ·...1
    0
    -~ 0. .,.
    q, "o "'o

    ~:
    'l
    : !

    (/)
    .......
    E
    ..J E
    0 a
    w a:
    o ur
    }-
    a: UJ
    .I
    -< 2
    0 <
    .
    l .'2,''
    )"
    CJ)
    160
    0
    0
    '160

    1LO
    ~-~:
    110

    ,oo
    90

    Ila

    g iO

    .
    J
    i
    60
    n
    ·i
    '>O

    LO
    (
    i

    l- ;,
    ~ !
    )()

    .'
    I
    j
    i.,
    ~ 0 "'
    0 "'
    0 0
    .....
    0 0
    '"

    VELOCITY V. m/s

    I
    f
    ;
    - ":

    HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FOR.HULA -


    (B:isc:d on Colebrook-White: [o r rn u la for pipes flowing full with wat er :i.t 20°q
    \=- 0.06 mm

    i=s

    ; .,
    L
    l
    FIGURE 14.S(G) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks= 0.06 mm)
    I
    f
    14/4 7 -
    ~ 1-

    : ~
    -~
    '~
    I
    ~
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT. percent l
    .,,0000 O O
    .__,
    0 !i.
    ~ ~ .'<2, 't>
    ·°qy-f;/-b-bo 0
    ' 2>.., I
    I
    !
    1
    i
    !

    I :'
    I
    i

    E
    E
    0 a
    w a:
    (9 w
    a: r--
    w
    <
    :r: 2
    0 200 <:;
    Cf) 0
    160
    0
    l60

    1<0

    120

    100
    ···· ....
    90
    ~o
    ?I)

    60

    50

    LO

    )0

    0 <t- ..,
    2S
    - 0 0 0 0 0 0

    VELOCITY V. mis

    HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES- COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA- ks,:, 0.60 mm


    (B.ucd on Colebrook-White Ior mula for plp es flowing full with W'ltcr :i.c 2o·q

    FIGURE 14.S(J) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks= 0.06 mm)

    - 14/50 -
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, percent
    o o oc-0000 o o o
    ·o -~ -~ '<?,>b~-w~ -~· ''b 'Q,,
    ~ 6' -'O".Pcr:..Sa-.r< '(:>

    -..
    <I)

    .J
    E
    E
    0 a
    w a:
    o w
    a: t-
    <t: l!J
    .. I
    0
    :z
    (f)
    <
    0
    0
    160

    JtO

    90
    .!10

    50

    ·t··:· tO
    ~

    )O

    VELOCITY V. mis

    HYDMUUC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k "' 1.50 mm


    s
    (Bas ed on Colebrook-Whice Ior mula for plpe1 nowing full with w~cer at 20°C)

    FIGURE 14.S(K) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks= 1.5 mm)

    - 14/51 ·
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, percent

    ._··:-:,-·

    (f)
    <,
    ...J
    E
    E:
    0
    w a
    o .a:
    a: w
    <( 1-
    I. w
    0 L
    if) <(

    0 0

    roo
    90.
    ~o
    70

    60

    so

    ( 0

    JO

    0 er- "" v, 1 s
    c:, 0 C') C) 0 0 0

    VELOCITY V. mis

    HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHl!E FORMULA- ks= 3.00 mm


    (B:ued on Colebrook-White for rn ula for plp e s f1owlng full wlch wner n 20 C) 6

    FIGURE 14.5(L) - COLEBROOK-WHJTE (Ks= 3.00 ru m)

    - ! .J/52 -
    HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, percent
    .
    l'
    .N
    ·1
    ·.•

    i~,
    l
    :!·

    !
    !"
    l
    i
    !

    r·
    i
    Ir

    I'
    !.
    't
    ,.i E
    IIJ.
    .....
    .(I)

    ....I E
    I 0 a
    \
    I UJ 0:
    o LU
    cc I-
    w
    I <(
    I 2
    t1 0
    <f)
    <
    1&0 0
    0
    '60
    !
    ·t
    I wo

    1
    120
    r:
    100
    \
    90
    4'0

    70

    £,0
    r
    ,I
    ~. 50

    io

    )0

    VELOCITY V. m/s

    HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - le."" 6.00 mm


    .s
    (Based on Colebr ook-vv htr e [or rnula for pipes Oowing full with wicer H 2o•q
    11_!,,.

    FIGURE 14.S(M) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks= 6.00 mm)

    - 1-1/5] ·
    I.

    14.9.5 ESTIMATION OF PUMP OPERATION COST


    . I
    The total dynamic head, His expressed by the following equation:-

    H == Hs + HI + V2 + 10000 (Pd - Ps)


    2g p

    where,

    Hs = total static head (m)


    H1 = total frictional head loss (m)
    V2/2g discharge velocity head (m)
    Pd = pressure exerted on discharge water surface (kg.f/cm.sq.)
    Ps = pressure exerted on suction water surface (kg.f/crn.sq.)
    p. = density of water (kg.Im.cubic) .

    The input power, P required to runthe pump isgiven by:-


    - ............

    p = g.g. Q. H (Watts)
    17 p . r;m
    where,

    p = density of water (kg.Im. cubic).


    g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec.sq.) ·
    :..
    Q discharge quantity (rn.cubic/sec.)
    H = total dynamic head (m)
    .TJp - efficiency of pump
    17 rn = efficiency of motor

    The excess rated power is not considered in the cost calculations.

    The approximate pump efficiencies, for ·the designed discharge and head, shall be obtained
    from pump catalogues. Approximate motor efficiencies to be used shall be as given in· Table
    14.16.

    The total pump operation cost, over 30 years, shall be obtained by multiplying the power (kW).
    by the number of hours of operation per month (hours), the electrical tariff or generating
    power cost (per kW hr.) and the number of months (360 months).

    - 14/54 -
    '.
    ~
    JL
    __..;~
    II-·.
    -·

    l
    f ..
    r' TABLE 14.16 - APPROXIMATE MOTOR EFFICIENCIES
    i
    (
    i .
    .,l Motor Type Motor Size

    r! . Below 37 kW Above 37 kW
    ir
    a. Squirrel cage 80% 85 - 90%
    i .
    !. . b. Slip ring 85% 85 - 92%

    , ... _

    1
    I
    j
    14.9.6 ANALYSIS OF RETICULATION NETWORK
    '·
    r.·'·\
    ' . Where not more than 4 loops are present in a reticulation network, manual calculations using
    i the Hardy-Cross method can be allowed. Corrections to the assumed flows in the network
    shall be carried out until the summation of head loss around each loop is near zero.

    A range of computer software programs are availablefor hydraulic network analyses.Programs


    will handle a very large number of pipes and ncdes.pump stations.reservoirs and control
    valves.

    The methodology for a large network analysis is:


    (,
    I .
    l a) Compile data in the for.m of pipe size and length ,pipe roughness characteristics.pump
    characteristics,reservoirs dimensions.topographical levels etc

    b) Establish a representative network model


    f'
    I
    .} c) Determine water consumption data including flow variability
    '
    I
    d) Model of the network basically in two ways:
    f'
    f (i) single runs (ii) time simulation runs
    i

    e) Validation of results
    For an existing nerwork.fiow and pressure measuremems should be obtained from field
    measurements and adjustments made to the model to replicate field measurements
    i ::

    •1
    t

    ! .
    j

    - 14/55 -

    r·L-.----------------------~-
    This step is essential to obtain confidence in the analysis results

    f) Present the results

    Network analysis software includes graphical packages for presentation of

    Residual pressure and hydraulic grade line contours

    Pumo- and Reservoir ooeration


    .
    Node pressure with time

    Output tables also include head loss,hydraulic grade at nodes.pipe velocities


    pump, reservoir and valve status

    Software available for large projects include: LRETIC available from JKR Computer
    Center; WA TNET; WES NET; WA rs YS and many others.

    14.9.7 DESIGN FACTORS IN PIPE SIZING

    (a) Flow Velocity

    The maximum flow velocity used in the water distribution system shall generally be 2.6 metres f
    L
    per second. This is to prevent erosion due to turbulence at high velocities. The suction side
    of a pumped pipeline shall not have a velocity more than 1.2 metres per second to reduce
    problems of cavitation. f·

    (b) Peak Demand

    Hourly variations in water demand result in the use of peak factors in the design of pipelines.
    Average demand in a water distribution system is the total daily demand requirement divided
    by 24 hours. Peak demand is obtained by multiplying the average demand by the peak factor.
    Table 14.17 gives recommended values of peak factors to be used in design.

    - 14/56 -
    TABLE 14.17 - VALUES OF PEAK FACTORS

    Peak Factor

    Area In Distribution/ In Gravity/Transmission


    Reticulation Network Pipelines

    Urban and Rural areas


    excluding Felda schemes 2.5 1.2

    Felda Schemes 3.0 1.2

    ( c) Fire Flow

    Table 14. 18 gives the required quantity of water to meet fire demand requirements during
    reticulation network design.

    TABLKl4,.18. -:-FlREFLOW REQUIREMENTS

    Average Total Flow Maximum No. Of Hydrant


    ( Litres ) · Spanning Outlets Used
    (Per Minute ) (Metres) Simultaneously ·
    l
    Class A Risk

    Large buildings,
    .
    shopping complexes,
    high rise buildings,
    large industrial estate, 4100 90 3@ 1370 lpm
    warehouse and ports.
    . .
    Class B Risk

    Congested areas with


    buildings up lo 2700 90 2@ 1370 lpm
    5 storeys

    Class C Risk

    Shophouse up to 3
    · storey, light industry 1.)/V --
    ":IV i

    Class D Risk

    Residential terrace 120-terracc


    house, detached, I 140 150-<letachcd I I
    semi detached semi detached

    Class E Risk

    Others 680 180 I

    • 14/57 •
    (d) Recommended Residual Pressure

    The minimum and maximum recommended residual pressures in a reticulation pipe shall be as
    in Table 14.19.

    TABLE 14.19 RECOMMENDED RESIDUAL PRESSURES

    Residual Pressure Rural Urban Felda


    .
    Minimum 10 metres 22 metres 10 metres
    Maximum 60 metres 60 metres 40 metres

    (e) Minimum Pipe Diameter. rl


    The minimum pipe diameter in the distribution system shall be lOOmm.
    the minimum pipe diameter shall be l 50mm.
    For housing schemes,
    rl
    ~ i~·

    14.10 DESIGN OF PIPE PROFILE

    Pipe profile design follows after the completion of pipe hydraulic design.
    common considerations given to pipe profile design.
    The following are
    r l

    14.10.l COVER REQUIREMENTS

    The depth of cover shall be measured from the ground to the crown of the pipe and the depth
    shall satisfy the following requirements.

    (i) l 200rnm below the ground level for pipes buried at the side and under the road.
    (ii) 900mrn for pipes buried in ground, away from roads.

    Pipes \lmtf.!L~ivfai&1?dfflj~j~\f61:it~flm;i~fi-'i~}1faJl_ij'.f(gmg' s
    under the following
    circumstances:-

    ,~·"' (i)
    i)~ (ii)
    (iii)

    =I,
    .F
    -~'·
    ·t.,
    ~.:-,,

    .
    'r.
    ~;:

    - 14/58 - .
    ~
    t:I
    I ~ (b) Maximum Cover
    i

    Generally, it is not desirable to exceed 2 metres. However, it can be deeper to suit location of
    valves.

    r) 14.10.2 GRADIENTS
    !
    '
    All pipes shall be laid to a smooth grade. The minimum gradient shall be 1 : 500.

    The danger of pipe sliding shall be taken into consideration when pipes are laid on a gradient
    greater than 20 percent for a pipeline laid on the ground, and 25 percent for a buried pipeline.
    ; In such cases, concrete anchor blocks shall be constructed. For slope which are 20% or
    L smaller the general rule practised by the JKR is:- . .

    c 12 slope one in every 3 pipe lengths. 'c :. ·1.)


    i.;,
    8 slope one in every 2 pipe lengths. ,·:, ·; : ~'
    5 slope one in every pipe length. 2.0 10

    14.10.3 DEAD ENDS

    The reticulation network shall be designed such that it will have as few dead ends as possible.
    All dead ends at housing estates shall be by the hydrant or scour valve arrangement. For Felda
    reticulation network, the scour valve arrangement is used oh dead ends for pipe diameters
    150mm and above, while pipe diameters smaller than 150mm shall be of the end cap
    arrangement.

    14.10.4 VALVE CHAMBERS

    All valves which are to be placed underground shall be housed in chambers. There are three
    common types of valve chambers, namely precast .,.concrete, brick and reinforced concrete
    chambers. Table 14.20 lists the recommended use of the different types of valve chamber
    materials. Figure 14.6 gives typical sections of valve chambers.

    Brick and reinforced concrete valve chambers shall have the following general features:-
    ..
    the internal dimensions of the chamber shall depend on the size of valves, fittings and
    joints to be placed in the chamber. The distance between the wall and the edge of the
    joint shall be at least 150mm for pipes not exceeding 450!'!!!'!! while pipes greater th?-!!
    450mm shall have a distance of at least 300rnm. The chamber width or length shall not
    ,. be smaller than 750mm,
    >
    'I·
    (ii) the base shall have a minimum thickness of 150mm,
    /
    .\
    ;f,:
    (iii) valves shall be installed on mass concrete supports,

    ~ (iv) chambers deeper than 1.0 metre shall be provided with 20mm diameter wrought iron
    ,t . steps spaced at 300mm interval,

    IJ._ ---- -14/59·


    .s .
    ··~ ..
    _,,;~l- •

    ·:·~

    .1
    ....
    ~
    ..

    ~
    14.10.5 CULVERT CROSSINGS .·;:<>!11·
    .
    . fi
    .•
    ·
    :..:
    ·-:~ ...
    Where the pipe has to cross culverts, three types of crossing shall be used. Straight pipes shall ·-cn-
    ~a-a
    .:' '.i1,
    be laid in the ground, but above the culvert, provided that the cover requirement for pipes can . -::li':'"I~
    ,,
    be met and that the pipe is also at least 300mm above the culvert.
    .... ii
    - ~~.d
    Straight pipes may also be laid below the culvert. The minimum distance between the pipe
    crown and the culvert bed shall be at least 300mm. This type of crossing is, however, least .] ~:t
    preferable.
    ·:,ii-··.,
    The pipe can also be laid over the culvert, but with a portion of it protruding above the

    t
    ground.

    Figure 14.7 shows the three typical types of culvert crossing.

    14.10.6 STREAM AND RIVER CROSSINGS

    Where a bridge is present, the pipe shall preferably be laid on the bridge, where possible, or
    held on to the bridge along its side. To hold the pipe at the side of the bridge, bridge supports
    or hangers are used to support the pipe and shall preferably be on the downstreamside of the
    river. A minimum of two supports per pipe length shall be installed for ease of maintenance.
    The invert level of the pipe shall not be laid lower than the soffit level of the edge· beam.
    Where the span of the river crossing is large, movement joints shall be placed to cater for
    appreciable changes in length due to temperature variations. When attaching a pipe to any
    bridge, the Bridge Section of the JKR Headquarters shall be consulted.

    Another method to cross rivers and streams is by the use of reinforced concrete piers. When
    piling is required, the piles can be extended to take the place of piers as another method of
    overcrossing. When using this method of crossing, DID shall be consulted with regards to
    river reserve and future plans for river improvement. The pipes shall be designed as a ·
    structure beam as well as to be able to withstand longitudinal stress due to internal water
    pressure. The pipes shall be constructed such that it is situated above a flood level of a I in 50
    year frequency or in the absence of data, above the level of flood experienced. Crossings
    using trussed frames shall be used if intermediate piers are not allowed.

    Underwater or submarine crossing technique is the least preferable method of crossing and is
    only used where preliminary investigations show that the above two types of crossings are not
    feasible. This technique shall be carried out by using the settling method or the propelling
    method. The method to be selected will depend on preliminary survey results, such as soil
    conditions, obstacles and local authority requirements. It is recommended that underwater or
    submarine crossings shall have a twin pipeline system and laid at some distance from one
    another.

    Spike guards shall be provided to prevent unauthorised usage of the pipe on both ends of the
    crossing.

    Figure 14.8 shows some typical stream and river crossings.

    - 14/62 - ·

    ------· ·------- -- ~ ---- -- -·-- --- ~ --- ·-···


    ...•..•...•... ,...,-4,.--,.._,,..,,..,.. ...-..,,-... .-.-.,,,-
    ,;,,waw .MV/,,fY»
    C::: H.S Pipe ~ Flexible Coup1ing
    6-~~~--=---=l~a---~------------r=-----~----~-
    ..L 300 nm in.
    q

    Culvert

    a. STRAIGHT - ASOVE CULVERT

    M.S Pipe
    flexible Coupling

    Surround
    b. STRAIGHT B£LOW CULVERT

    Pipe

    (l)_,.,,;I
    ~-__±------ Anchor Biock------t2.~2.1

    c. RAtSEO
    \;
    ),
    \

    r
    FIGURE 14.7 - TYPICAL CULVERT CROSSING TYPES
    :L
    - 14/63 ·

    ~I
    "'
    i .....____
    ·.
    14.10.7 ROAD AND RAILWAY TRACK CROSSINGS

    Where the pipe has to cross under highways and roads within local authorities, approval from
    the Malaysian Highway Authority and the relevant Local Authority· shall be sought. The
    method of laying shall be by pipe jacking. For other types of roads, pipe jacking shall also be
    preferred. However, open trench excavation may also be considered for the other types of
    road crossings, provided that only half the width of the road is closed at any one time.

    The approval from Malayan Railway shall be sought when the pipeline has to cross under
    railway tracks. Pipes laid under railway tracks s~::>.!! be e~c2sed i:: prctective casings tc
    prevent direct' impact of railway load and vibrations. Alternatively, a culvert shall be
    constructed so as to minimise impact loads.

    Figure 14. 9 shows typical sections of road and railway track crossing.

    14.10.8 THRUST BLOCKS

    (a) Thrust forces

    Thrust forces in water mains are created when the pipeline changes direction (at bends and
    tees), stops (at dead ends), or changes in size (tapers). Table 14.21 gives the formulae to
    determine the magnitude of thrust forces.

    (b) Resistance to thrust

    Pipelines having welded and butt .fusion joints can be allowed to withstand part of the thrust
    forces. In such a case, the thrust block shall be designed to resist only half of the thrust forces
    .... is 'obtained from Table 14.21. In all other pipelines, the block shall be designed to fully
    withstand the calculated thrust forces.

    (c) Design of concrete block to resist horizontal thrust

    For horizontal thrust, the concrete block shall generally satisfy the following condition,

    · For cohesionless soils, P < µW +Es.·~··


    \
    ..
    For cohesive soils, P < Be+ Ee
    .. , ..1:·.

    where,
    \·[
    p ::=
    Resultant thrust force.
    µ = Friction coefficient between soil and concrete. (0.75 tan 0)
    w := Total weight at bottom of block.
    . Es = Passive earth pressure force due to cohesionless soil. ,
    Ee := Passive earth pressure force due to cohesive soil.
    Be Cohesion at base of block.

    - 14/64 •

    ----·- --------
    8 ridge H.S.Suap
    H.S. St r ap
    \later P1pe

    11,ter Pipe
    Contact
    Saddle

    R.C.Pile --

    USING (X,(HO(O PJl(~


    rf
    t H.S. Strap---./?-~~

    H.S. ·Pipe
    r rvssed Frame
    Contact
    S• ddl e
    ; i-~-D~~~~~~L.,
    {·
    i .
    t
    ',
    I
    }'l .. ,
    1
    'f •
    iI
    L.. Contact Saddle
    (
    I
    I lAIO ON TH( 510( or RRIOr.( USING TRUSS
    ii..:

    t
    iI IIHer Level
    I
    '1

    I
    I
    il.
    l

    \ l
    USINt. PJfDS 1_1,,U)(OVAl~~
    {
    <.)O St.•!H·I~~!.~~ ron<<
    ~(11L IIIG :if THOO J
    '"'r

    L _
    I

    !
    I
    I .
    FIGURE 14.8 - TYPICAL STREAM AND RIVER CROSSINGS
    J
    ; :

    i - 14/65 -

    :l_ _
    ROAD PAVEMENT

    Sand

    ·\later Pipe

    ROAD PAVEMENT I RAILWAY .TRACK

    Sleeve

    Water Pipe

    Concrete s·upport

    FIGURE 14.9 - TYPICAL ROAD AND RAILWAY TRACK CROSSING

    - 14/66 -
    Buoyancy effects shall be taken into consideration when designing any concrete blocks under
    !' water.
    -t
    ..,,.~

    •
    TABLE 14.21 - DETERMINATION OF THRUST FORCES
    J.
    ': r
    fitting Direction Of Force Thrust Fo rmu I ae

    Bend
    I P = 2.p.A.Sin f}/2 I.
    P = Thrust force.
    A= Sectional area
    of pipe.
    p = Designed internal
    pressure.
    Degree of bend.

    P ==,. P. a
    Tee 1
    a = .sec t i ona l area ..
    of branched
    pipe.

    y
    t';

    P = p. (A-<\)
    i l Taper/
    I • Reducer

    r
    !
    A-a~ Changed sectional
    area.
    l .
    i

    =
    I'
    Dead End E---·jr- p p.A I.

    A= Sectional area

    I
    ,.
    !
    of pipe.

    t'
    I

    - 14/67 -
    For a horizontal bend as shown in the diagram below, and where hl/H < 0.5 (for all soil
    types) and 1/H < 2.5, (for cohesive soils) or IJB: < 1.5 (for cohesionless soils). the simplified
    equations are as follows:-

    Es 1/2. T .H1 .l.tan2 (45° + 0/2)


    Ee (1/2. t: .H2 + 2.c.H) l
    Be . 3/4 c . B. L
    where,·
    t: = Unitweightof soil. ·
    H ,c: Depth of block from ground surface
    t Projection length of block
    0 Internal friction angle of soil.
    c "'"' Cohesion of soil.
    B = Width of block.

    A detailed analysis for thrust block design shall be carried out where the conditions for. hl/H
    and l/H cannot be met.

    For a simplified design of thrust blocks, the angle of friction for cohesionless soils can be taken
    as 30°. JKR probes are required to estimate the allowable bearing capacities and to estimate
    cohesion. Table 14.22 relates cohesion values to the number of blows in a JKR probe. The
    unit weight of soil is as given in Table 14.23.

    - 14/68 -
    I·

    I.

    t '.
    TABLE 14.22 - SOIL COHESION ESTIMATES

    JKR Probe Cohesion, C


    (No. Of Blows) ( kg.f/rn2)

    10
    500
    11 - 20
    1500
    21 - 30 2500
    f
    31 and above
    l 3600

    I
    l·
    !-· ·.
    TABLE 14.23 - UNIT \\'EIGHT OF SOIL

    '
    Materials l' Unit Weight Of Soil
    ( kg.f/m")
    ~------ ----
    Cohesionk~Soil
    Gravel ]950
    ... •'. Coarse and medium sands 1850
    i~ _;
    Fine and silty sands 1800
    Cohesive Soil
    Stiff clay 2000
    Finn clay 1900
    i Soft clay 1700
    i
    ii
    II

    (d) Design of a concrete block to resist vertical thrust

    i) Upward force.

    For an upward force, resistance shall be checked for the horizontal and vertical components of
    the resultant force.

    - 14/69 •

    - --·· --·-- ~-.-·---


    .Pzt:; I
    t

    '
    ~-~·"::~:·._:·' ?~)i }:)
    i-:,...;........;.~
    .:·/:;-~
    ··.:. __

    E
    I
    B • I

    For cohesionless soils,


    P1 - P.sin 0/2 < p (W - P2) + Esv
    P2 = P.cos 0/2 < W + Fs

    For cohesive soils,


    P1 - P.sin 0/2 < Ecv + 3/4.c.B.L
    P2 = P.cos 0/2· < W + Fe
    where,
    force at sides of block caused by . cohesionless

    Fs = µ. T •
    .

    I·P . (B+I) . Ko
    soils, .
    ri
    J"'

    force at sides of block caused by cohesive soils,

    Fe = 2(B+ 1) .H.3/4.c

    Ko = coefficient of lateral pressure at rest. (can be taken as 0.6)


    Esv === 1/2 . t: 1-P . B .tarr' ( 45° + 0/2)
    Ecv= (l/2.r:H2 + 2.c.H.)B

    (ii) Downward force,

    For the downward force, resistance shall also be checked for the horizontal and vertical
    components of the resultant force.

    - 14/70 -

    --- ·----------
    1.. .
    "i
    i:,

    t~

    For cohesionless soils,


    P1 = P.sin 0/2 < µ (W + P2) + Esv
    For cohesive soils,
    P1 = P.sin 0/2 < 3/4.c.B.L + Ecv

    The ground shall also be checked for required bearing capacity,


    BFR= W + P2 < BFA
    B . l
    where, P2 = P.cos 0/2
    BFR= Required bearing force of ground
    BFA= Allowable bearing force of ground

    hH· . . (e) Factor of safety


    i .
    -! · To· accornodatefornon-homogenity of soils, and to ensure limitation to movement as well to
    provide a sufficient margin of safety, a design factor of safety shall be applied. The
    recommended factor of safety of all computed resistance forces over the resultant thrust force
    shall be not less than 1.5.

    14.11 OTHER RELATED PIPELINE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

    14.11.1 WATER HAMMER

    Checks shall be wade af;a.i,,5t pressure increase and decrease, during surge, in a pipeline. 1 ne
    minimum pressure at any point along the pipeline shall be the saturated vapour pressure of
    water while the maximum pressure at any point of the pipeline shall be its maximum
    permissible working pressure.

    To· overcome the above ~entioned problem, surge vessels are most preferred. A surge
    anticipator valve can be used only when surge calculations indicate problems in the maximum
    pressure and not of the minimum pressure.

    r---s-:-
    ; ~-

    ~-'
    .....------~~~~~
    ~:
    i) Simplified method of water hammer calculation, caused by rapid opening or closing of
    a valve (T < 2L/a).

    In this method, the following formula is used,

    H - Ho = - a/g (V - Vo)

    where, ·
    T = Time for forward pressure wave and return (sec)
    Length of pipe(;,,)
    Ho Water head in constant flowing situation (m)
    Vo = flow velocity in constant flowing situation (m/sec.)
    H Water head at a given time after the valve is operated (m)
    v Flow velocity at a given time after the valve is operated (m/sec.)
    a Pressure wave velocity (m/sec.)
    g Acceleration due to gravity (m/sec.sq.)

    When. the valve is fully closed, V 0, ··.:,·r


    H - Ho = a/g (Vo)

    (H - Ho) is then the maximum additional head caused by water hammer.

    The pressure wave velocity, a is given by the following equation;.


    a ""

    -) rig [l/K + D/(E.t.)J


    where,

    T Unit weight of water ( ltonf/rn cube)


    K ;c: Bulk modulus ofwater compressibility (2.07 x 10s tonf/rn.sq.)
    D Diameter of pipe T
    ··-:·
    I

    E - Youngs' modulus of elasticity for pipe material. (tonf/rn/sq.)


    t "" Pipe wall thickness (m)

    ii) The method of water hammer calculations for pumped pipelines is as described in
    Section 12 Mechanical Equipment and Installation. . .~ . ~

    ·. - I
    - 14/72 - :~~·li-'"'il
    ;~i
    14.11.2 SERVICE CONNECTIONS

    For connections to service pipes up to 25mm diameter, tapping of the reticulation pipe is
    allowed. Dry tapping can only be allowed during the installation of a new reticulation pipe.
    Wet tapping shall be carried out for connections to existing reticulation pipes as pressure in
    the pipelines tends to expel foreign matter which results from the tapping job as well as cause
    no interruption to supply. Saddles shall be used when tapping on AC., uPVC, PE or GRP
    reticulation pipes. A typical ferrule connection is as indicated on Figure 14. l O.

    For connection to service pipes greater than 25mm diameter, a tee fitting is used. The
    standard tee can be used during the installation of a new reticulation pipe. Where the
    interruption of water service is extensive, connections shall be made with a tapping sleeve
    which will allow an under pressure connection to be made. Figure 14.10 gives a typical
    . diagram of a tapping sleeve.

    14.12 BOOSTER STATIONS

    14.12.1 BOOSTER SYSTEMS

    In general, there are two types of booster systems, namely the booster with suction well type
    and the in-line booster type.

    Booster stations shall preferably be of the booster with suction well type. In this system,
    water is first collected into a suction well before being pumped to the service reservoir or
    distribution pipelines.

    · In-the in-line booster type, water is pumped directly from the pipeline to a service reservoir or
    distribution pipelines.' ·This· method· is less preferred in JKR because skilled operators are
    required to operate and maintain the system. Figure 14.11 gives a typical arrangement of the
    in-line booster and the booster with suction well system.

    14.12.2 LOCATION OF BOOSTER STATIONS ·

    The selection of site location shall be based on the following:-

    (a) The ground level of the booster stations satisfies the hydraulic design of the distribution
    system.

    (b) The booster station shall be located at above a flood level of a 1 in 50 years return
    frequency or where there is lack of data, above the highest level of flood experienced.

    (c) It is accessible and as close as possible to a community or settlement.

    ( d) It is preferable to site the booster station on Government land as time required to


    acquire the land is shorter. Land acquisition of private property shall be completed first
    . before the design is finalised.

    - 14/73 -

    -----------·-~
    I
    i:J
    r[
    TAPP ING SLHVE

    FERRULE "CONNECT I ON

    r
    t·

    FIGURE 14·.10 - TYPICAL FERRULE CONNECTION AND TAPI)ING SLEEVE

    • 14/74 -

    . ....:.......------···-··- --- .
    l
    L
    i
    !
    ]-·
    i
    i
    It Del 1very
    I I Pipe
    t,
    J
    '
    :,;;·

    I 1, 0..
    .
    l
    j I

    [l~::;;i>(f-=:::b£;=:f;::~N{=:1~~~~i);:;:t~a;:]~;:;:;;:;;:::;,;;;;;;;:;:;;:ft::t.l:J~
    '
    l Vl

    0..

    ti
    '
    t I
    j I
    V'l

    0..
    . I I
    I I
    '
    L------ Jt
    L l
    L-----------J

    BOO~TER ~!TH SUCTION ~[LL


    J Contra l Features
    f Suction
    1. Level sensing t, .cont ro l
    Del.ivery
    1 2. For a positive suction -
    l. Flow detection t, control

    Motorised valve & control


    1
    !
    \
    I;
    rr
    I L_ .:__;_ - - _ ___r-...__ - --- _ _r·1-- -- - - - ...r·..._ __JI
    li
    r - - - - - --....._____,- - - - - -
    t · · ---..r- -- - - - - - ......,___,_ - - -
    Delivery
    - - --
    li I
    l 1
    I I Pipe I I
    I ...
    r
    r· I I
    I I

    r· l"'".
    Suction
    Pipe
    I I
    I I
    I
    I I
    I

    li I I
    !
    I L
    - - - - - - - - ~·· ~- - - - - - - - -·-._ - - - - - - - ~--·-- JI
    r
    I
    L["-- ----- .. J7-------,..,------ - --- -----,
    -...., .l..L.
    I

    i .. IN l lNE BOOSTER

    r Control Features
    Suction Delivery
    i. ·riow detection & control !. f1cw rle~e~tio~ l control
    2. Pressure indicator & control
    f 2. Pressure switch control
    3. Hotorised valve with its 3. Temperature sensing b control
    ' control. 4. Hotorised valve t, control

    IL
    FIGURE 14.11 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BOOSTER WITH SUCTlON
    WELL AND IN-LINE BOOSTER SYSTEMS

    I
    - 14ns -

    L
    14.12.3 BOOSTER STATION COMPONENTS

    (a) Suction Well

    In general, the criteria and standards for ground reservoirs and tanks, as discussed under
    Section 15 Storage Tanks and Reservoirs, are applicable to suction wells.

    All suction tanks shall be designed according to mass balance calculations. However, the
    !!'..!!"-.!!:!~!!! size of a suction well shell be of 2 hours storage. AJl suction tanks shall be provided
    with a low-level cut-off and an alarm system.

    ·(b) Booster Pumphouse

    The booster pumphouse shall be located as close as possible to the suction well so that the
    length of the suction pipe is kept to the minimum. A minimum of two suction pipes is
    recommended. Wherever possible, the pumphouse shall. be so sited such that the pump will
    have a positive suction head so as to minimise priming problems.

    Centrifugal pumps shall be the preferred type in booster stations. The design of the pumping
    system and other pump criteria and standard shall be as discussed under Section 12
    Mechanical EquiP.ment and Installation. Generally the number of hours of pumping operation
    shall not exceed 16 hours. In remote areas, the pumping hours shall best be kept to not more
    than 8 hours operation, especially for supplies smaller than 230 cubic metres per day.

    Switchboard and instrument panels shall be raised at least -1 OOmm above the floor and shall
    also be at least 0.6 metres from the pumphouse wall. Water level indicators. for .indicating
    water levels at the suction well and reservoir shall be provided. A water level recorder shall
    also be provided. A flow measuring device shall be provided to record the quantity of
    discharge.

    All pipes in the pumphouse shall be laid in trenches. All trenches shall be provided complete
    with steel chequered plate covers and drainage or dewatering systems. The minimum width of
    the trench shall be the diameter of the pipe plus 150mm space on each side of the pipe. It is
    preferable to have a trench deep enough such that the valve is below the top of the trench.

    A preliminary surge analysis shall be carried out to determine whether a surge vessel or other
    anti-surge measures is required. When providing surge vessels, a minimum of two numbers of
    compressor units will be needed.

    Secondary chlorination shall be provided at the booster station where residual chlorine at the
    proposed booster site falls below 0.1 Oppm. Space considerations shall include at least 2
    numbers of chlorinators, a month storage of chlorine cylinders, and the required pipework.
    One of the two chlorinators shall act as a standby facility.Chlorination facilities shall be housed
    separately with separate access.

    - 14/76 - 11
    u~,
    . )J_.
    ···----- .--. ~-
    ---
    lt...

    Lifting equipments shall be provided for pump or other heavy items in the pumphouse. A one
    t:
    ! .
    way travelling crane or a gantry crane shall be provided. The height of the building shall take
    into consideration the height for installation and operation of the pump and the lifting
    equipment.
    I,,_·_..,;
    )
    i ": i Space shall also be provided for the operators room and toilet facilities. Chlorine testing
    equipments shall also be provided when secondary chlorination is involved .
    ·,11 .:
    . .
    ,-·· ...
    j The purnphouse shall preferably be of reinforced concrete construction. Details of the building

    I
    requirements such as finishes shall be as described for the treated water pumping station in
    Section 11 - Treatment Plant Layout..

    l i
    (c) Generator House

    Where electrical power is not available, generators shall be used at the booster station. The

    L ,,
    house shall be placed at some distance away from the pumphouse so as to reduce noise
    problems.

    The generator house shall be sized to accomodate 2 main generating sets, an auxiliary
    generator set, main switchboard and a fuel supply day tank. A bulk tank, of a three weeks fuel
    storage capacity, shall be provided near to the generator house.

    Lifting equipment shall be provided to facilitate lifting of the generator set during maintenance
    works. All cables and lines shall be in trenches.

    (d) Quarters

    The decision as to whether quarters are needed at the booster station.shall be decided by the
    district water engineer. Where required, one number of class H quarter; to standard TI<R
    design, shall be provided for every one shift operation.

    (e) · Access road and Hardstanding

    (· The site for a booster station shall be accessible by road. Access roads shall be 3.5 metres
    wide minimum and metalled with a· premix wearing surface. The hard standing and service

    tr (
    i.
    .
    roads shall also be of premix wearing surface and have a minimum width of 3 .5 metres. In the
    design of the access road, internal service road and hardstanding, consideration shall be given
    i<-. to the turning radius cf the various vehicles anticipated at the booster station.
    L.
    (f) Fencing and Compund Lighting

    The booster station shall be fenced using the 2.9 metres high security fencing, with a 4.9
    metres wide main gate and a 1.0 metre wide service gate. Where quarters are provided
    adjacent to the booster station, a separate fencing arrangement. shall be provided at the
    quarters. Adequate compound iighting shall be provided for the booster station .

    .t ·i :-~
    .: ....
    '.,·: ":.r+ - 14/77 -

    ~; ------------· ..
    LIST OF REFERENCES

    1. Twort, Law F.M., and Crowley F.M. Water Supply.


    3rd ed. Hong Kong: Allion Printing Co. Ltd., 1985.

    2. Frederick S. Meritt ed. Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers.


    3rd. ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Co., 1983.

    3. Steel E.W. & T.J. Mc Ghee. Water Supply and SeweraM.


    5th ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Co., 1979.

    4. Japan Waterworks Association. Water Sllpply Engin_eeririg.


    Tokyo: JICA, 1984.

    5. American Water Works Association. Introduction to Water Distribution


    - ?rinciples and Practices of Water SuQply Operations.
    Denver: A WW A, 1986.
    . . .. . . . .. -r:·: , I...
    :.,
    l
    .J

    6. Bernard J. Dangerfield ed. Water Supp!v and Sanitation In Developing Countries.


    London: The Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, 1983.

    7. Unit Makrnal, Institute Latihan dan Penyelidikan JKR Malaysia.


    · Report on Thrust Block. ILP, 1989.

    8. Guide to Pipe Materials Selection forWater Supply Systems


    The Malaysian Water Association

    - 14/78 -

    -----·~
    •

    I
    ~- ..
    f
    APPEND TX
    -~i

    EXAMPLE 1 PIPE SIZE FOR A GRAVITY PIPELINE.

    EXAMPLE2 OPTIMUM PIPE SIZE FOR A PUMP DELIVERY


    PIPELINE.

    EXAMPLE3 RETICULATION ANALYSIS USLl'{GMANUAL


    <' -~
    il ; CALCULATIONS.
    ·1 .
    i :

    ' . .
    EXAMPLE4 SIZING HORIZONTAL THRUST BLOCKS.

    ........... . . ... - . .. . .
    t·
    i

    r·
    r :

    {
    i' ..

    ' ... ~ 14/79 -


    ·I
    EXAMPLE I - PIPE SIZE FOR AGRA VITY PIPELINE

    Determine the diameter of the steel pipe required to deliver 4000 cubic metres of water per
    day from a balancing reservoir to a service reservoir. The distance between the two reservoirs
    is 10 km. The depth of the balancing reservoir and service reservoir is 6. 0 metres and 8. 0
    n.1etres respectively while the top water levels are 300m OD and 270111 OD respectively.
    'I i

    !
    T.h'.L JOOm 00
    'i.
    j
    I
    Total Len th Of Pipe 10.0 km

    Solution:
    T.W.L. of balancing reservoir = 300m
    Bottom water level = 294m
    Available. static head between the 2 reservoirs 294m - 270m
    = 24m
    Consider residual head at outlet . ::=:
    I.Sm
    A vai lable head 24m - 1.5rn
    22.5m

    To incorporate effects of minor losses,


    the pipe length is increased by 2%, length 10,200m

    Available head/lOOOm length = 2.206m


    ~, '?"-\/ s, I lJ I
    -,! - { :~-~,"..~ ~----~-~
    Consider a peak factor of 1.2, ~· Fr..::,'"'
    From Hazen-Williams nomogram V" , t- ,.
    0·',\,
    (
    "-.
    r

    For a peak flow of 4,800 cubic metres/day,(55.5 1/s) \


    C = 110, hf/IOO_Qm = 2.21 (0.22 percent) --- ) (,--,,-· ...
    The pipe diameter required is 3 50mm. J
    The next step is to draw the hydraulic gradient to ensure that all the pipe elevations are lower
    than the hydraulic profile.

    - 14/80 -
    11
    ......
    I
    i

    .L ..
    1 ' EXAMPLE 2 - OPTIMUM PIPE SIZE FOR A PUMP DELIVERY PIPELINE

    Ll
    \ Determine the diameter of the steel delivery main required to carry 2,000 cubic metres of
    water per day. The top and bottom water levels at the suction tank are 90.0m and 85.0m

    L respectively. The top water level of the reservoir is 140.0m. The distance between the pump
    and the reservoir is 9.8 km.

    Reservoir
    T • I.'. L • 14 Orn
    r
    i Suction Tank
    T"-H.L 90m
    B ."I/. L 8Sm·

    Q • 1ooo·~u. m./day
    L " . 9. 8 km
    . I

    .
    I'
    Solution;

    Select v I .Orn/sec., assuming 20 hours pumping.


    Q = AxV

    2 x 103 11D2 x 1.0


    3600 x 20 4

    D 0. J 88m
    188mm '
    .rt\it'

    Select an initial diameter of200mm. From Hazen-Williams nomogram, where Q = 2MLD and
    diameter = 200mm
    '
    Head loss = 3.9m/1000m

    · Incorporating effects of minor losses, the planar length is increased by 2%, total length =
    1/'\ \--
    .a.v I\..IU:.,

    Total major friction loss = 39m

    I Next calculate the loss due to in-plant fittings. For purpose of this example say the total minor
    losses = 1 m. ~ ,,," · · ! .:: · · · ..
    ," '. ~ .~
    l
    Total pumping lift == ( 140 - 87.5) + 39 + 1 ..-,, n,:,......,r 1.,;i~.:,J·.
    ; ! = 92.Sm J
    '
    v:
    J.
    ;
    ' - 14/81 -

    J
    Select a typical pump and motor from available cataloques,

    Say, pump 1J = 0.7 motor 7J = 0.9

    Input power required = (Watts) (


    . r·;- '";-/9 ,)
    f;t :;/" !. / ... ,. , , rJP x TJm ~
    • I

    -- . . .. . ly-r ,/
    = '
    1000 x 9.81 x 0.028 x 92.5 (Watts)
    /

    xlu·-~ 0.7 x 0.9 ~/


    $_;., f )-/ L.. .
    40.3 kW

    Consider;

    a) Cost of 200mm pipelaying = $60.00/m length of pipe.

    b) Cost .of electricity $0.20/kW hr.

    c) Annual charge on capital = 8%

    Cost of pipclaying = $600,000.00

    . Cost of electricity (over 1 year) $0.20 x (40.3 x 20) x 365


    $58,838.00

    Present worth of power cost


    (for a 3 0 years period) = 11.2578 x $53,838.00
    $662,386.00

    Total present worth for


    laying a 200mm dia. pipe $600,000.00 + $662,386.00
    = $1,262,386.00

    The same procedure is then applied to a 250mm, 300mm and 350mm dia. pipe to determine
    their total cost of pipelaying.

    Considering the cost of pipelaying to be as follows,

    250mm dia. = $63 .Olm length

    300mm dia. $66.0/rn length

    350mm dia. $81. 0/rn length

    and that the in-plant minor losses are insignificant.

    - 14/82 -

    ----------------------· -··-~ .
    .
    i:
    t_,
    The total present worth for laying a 250mm, 300mm and 350mm diameter are $1,134,597,
    $1,085,475 and $ l,209,404 respectively.
    LJ

    I;
    '
    The most economic pipe size is the 300rnm diameter pipe as indicated
    follows:-
    by the graph as

    t
    L
    l
    j

    fi .
    l
    f""
    l
    {

    f ·,
    i" 1 ·3
    ::z:
    rl i : ~
    ..,
    ...,
    "
    ....5:
    (
    I'\.

    '" I
    r ····· . ...... . ::i: 1·2 "
    ~ \
    J 0 I\. v
    ' 3: 1' I/
    : I 11
    ,_
    ::z: I\. v
    w r-c v
    (/)
    w ,..._ I
    0::
    e,
    1·1 '
    .., r-.. ._v
    ...
    <
    ·-
    0

    r· ·.
    ; .
    ~ ;
    1·0
    I

    ' 200 2SO 300 aso


    PIPE DIAMETER -t rnrn )

    I
    1-

    'I
    I. ,i .
    t

    f J

    ·~ I

    It
    I

    - 14/83 ·
    EXAMPLE 3 - RETICULAT[ON NETWOIU< ANALYSIS USING iVfANUAL
    CALCULATIONS

    A simplified reticulation network is as shown below. At point G, a fire plus average flow
    requires 14.0 m3/min. At all other points, the average flow are indicated. Determine the flow
    through the pipe network for the given diameters of pipe. Consider the Hazen-Williams
    coefficient, C to be 100.

    2.2m3/min 30Snm A l nflow


    lOOOm - 2Sm3 /min

    ~ E !;
    0
    lf)0 E
    0 0 lf) C)
    MO C) VI
    '<T
    .....
    N

    8 o.sm3/min
    2oorm1 J.--::::::-200nm
    SOOm
    @OOm
    I; 2oorrm ·
    E
    "'
    0
    (')
    0
    lf)
    N
    soom 0
    ~80
    U')
    l.O
    M '°
    G 305rrni F .;

    lOOOm
    14m3/min 2.3m3/min

    f'
    When using the Hazen-William formula, the correction factor is determined as follows. f.t
    £1 = -

    i.ss I: h!Q
    A tabulation of the steps to compute the correction factors are as shown below. Three
    corrections are made as follows.

    - 14/84 -

    ______ ., _ :···-· ---


    First Correctf.oo
    loop I
    Flow, Dia, Len9tb b, h/0
    ~ /1111n tn 0 111/•• h>in
    Line
    '" IO

    ."8 1) o.•o 1250 0.0110 13. 75 l.058


    lllt 2 o.2s 1100 0.0033 l.63 l.$15
    HI -9.8 0.30 1000 -0.0260 -26.00 2.653
    . IA -12 o.:,o 1000 ~0.0380 -37.80 3.150
    ·· ..i ·~
    ~... ..i -H.U a .676
    - •6A2
    A J
    -- ------------
    1.85(8.676)
    - 2.9

    loop II
    Flow, oia, Length b, h/0
    Line H'/Ain
    '" IO s • •/r,,• /111in
    !)!'; 7.5 0.35 400 0.0075 3.00 0.400
    E:F 7.0 0.35 600 0.0066 3.96 0.566
    fG 4.7 0.30 1000 0.0061 6.68 1.423
    CH -9.3 0.30 1·250 -0.0236 -29.5' J.177
    HD -2.0 0.25 1100 -0.0033 -3.63 1.815

    -19.53 7.361

    A .- - 19.53
    ------------ . 1. 4
    [~
    11
    1.85(7.381)
    loop !II
    rlo", Di A, Length b, h/Q
    (. Line H' /min ... 111 8 ,. l<\/lo* /Ain

    llC 1.5 0.20 500 o.oose 2.91 l..937


    co 1.0 0.20 4 00 :; . 0.0028 1-10 1.110
    : .DE ... [ -o.s 0.20 500 -. -0.0008 -0.36 o. 762
    ED ?-
    ,.-;
    -7.S 0.35 4001 -0.0075 -3.00 0.400

    -0.63 4.209

    Second Correction
    A 1l I
    - -
    0.63
    -------------
    l. 85(4 .209)
    0.1

    Loop I
    z·,.
    rlo\l, Dia, Length h, h/0
    Line ti? /11>in & n 11>/l<l'/i.in
    '" "'
    >.8 ··. 15. 9. 0.40 0.0157 19. 65 1.236
    ·;· __;<..:;.1111-·,'4;
    ·!II. '.f.;
    3.5
    -6.9
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    0.)0
    ii~i1
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    0.0094
    -0.0136
    10.34
    -13.60
    2.954
    1.971
    rx -9.l 0.30 1000 -0.0227 -22. 7 0 2.495

    r~ Loop.II
    A I
    - 0.4
    -6.31 n.656

    Line
    f'lo>'.
    H' /ll!in
    Dia,

    "' ..
    Len9th
    IS
    h,
    "'
    h/Q
    111/.,'/111in
    ~ 6£ 9.0 0.35 400 0.0105 4.20 0.,467
    Ef 6.-l 0.35 600 0.009.1 5.SB 0.664
    re 6.1 0.30 1000 -o.'01os 10.60 l.'1?0
    ,,., Gii -7.9 0.30 1250 -0.017!, -21.88 2.769
    I H6 -).5 0.25 1100 -0.00!H -10.)( 2.95(
    i
    A 11 . 0.7
    11. 6 ~ 6 .624

    "r ~ ~
    ,,
    lix:P III flo\l, Dia, h,
    Len9t~ h/Q
    #. Line H'/,.in 111
    "'
    6
    " 1a/111' /111in
    DC i .4 0.20 500 0.0051 2.55 1. 821
    co l.9 0.20 •oo 0,002) 0.92 1.022
    :,i 0£ -0.6 0.20 500 -0.0011 -0.55 o , 91?
    , En -9.0 o , as 400 -0.0105 -4.20 0,4G1
    '
    -l. 28 •.2:n
    A I I J h 0.2

    ·-,
    ·{,.
    - 1,4/85 - ·:,1 -
    Thi rd Correction

    loop I
    flo", Dia, Le n o t h h/0
    Lin" N' /,-in
    "' II ,.h. ,-;,..•/nin
    "'
    I.
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    r.>. -a., O.JO 1000 -0.0209 -20.90 2.(02

    -J.67 a.lH

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    A I
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    !IE 9,5 O.J5 ~00 0.0116 4. 6.( O.Ha


    Ef 9,1 0.)5 600 0.0107 6. 42 o.70S
    fG 6. a o.Jo 1000 o. 01J2 ll.20 l.9H
    .GH -7.2 0 • .)O 1250 -o. 0147 -18.Ja 2.552
    }IB -).l 0.25 1100 -o.ooao -a.so 2. 750

    -l.92 a. 06
    .A I l - 0.2
    Loop III
    fl Di.>.,
    Lin• K'
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    /,.in ,. ..Leng ch "
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    ...
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    IK 1.6 0.20 500 0.0066 J.JO 2.015)
    co 1.1 0.20 400 O.OOJJ 1.)2 1.200
    DE -o .•. 0.20 500 -0,0005 -0.25 0.625
    I:O -9 .s . O.J5 400 -o. 0116 O.HB
    -· .154

    .A I I l . O.OJ
    -o.:n LJ76

    A sunrary of corrected f}Ol,IS is as s~n belc,;.;

    2.2 -+-- A
    U.• (I)
    - 25
    ,., t•l
    t.7 l)J
    ..... ttt
    ----
    ~ ......
    ----
    ,.._ .......

    H ,., Ill
    2.5 '-' tzl
    1.,1,1
    1-'(•J
    _.... c 0.5
    --. -- .....
    -..:.:.:..;
    ---- ----
    ___ _. -
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    [
    i -- -- -
    -- ... - ----
    ••• tlJ
    •·• lrl
    0
    1.5
    -- ......... . --
    t.t OJ
    •·• C•J

    14
    G
    -,., 111
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    F

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    ,_, IJI
    1., t•I

    - 14/86 -

    ·--·---·· ....
    ,!
    ,>
    i ·.

    L EXAMPLE 4 - SIZING OF HORIZONTAL THRUST BLOCKS

    L Design a concrete block for a 45 degree plain-ended horizontal bend, given the following
    design data:-
    L: Nominal pipe diameter = 600mm
    Maximum designed pressure = l O kg.f/cm2• ( about l 00 metre head)
    Depth of earth cover = l.02m
    Unit weight of concrete = 2.3 ton £1m3
    Friction coefficient between concrete and soil= 0.5
    Internal friction angle of soil = 30°

    Il
    I

    1.· · ·.
    ¥ ....
    x:
    "' lll ·-•;.-: . I"~3 ....
    N ··p. ••
    • . .-.
    ·:r: • .:~-.:· :·'.:
    .N
    .c '.··.. ,. 2 o:. ..
    ..P./,_;_~':, r.o.:::
    ••• 4

    Unit ~ metre

    Solution:

    Thrust force at bend:

    p = '> v T" v A "(';_ 0


    - .... t' ""'.... h ....
    , .... v

    2
    = 2 x IO x ~ x 60.02 x sin ( 45°)
    4 2
    = 21,640.2 kg f

    = 21.640 ton f

    - 14/87 -
    Weight of filled soil on the block= W1
    W1='Cxh1xLxB
    = 1.6 x 1.02 x 2.20 x 1.30
    = 4.668 ton f

    Weight of pipe and water. in the pipe == W2


    Say weight of pipe is 0.488 ton f,

    W2 = 0.488 + 0.678
    = l~....1 ;::.t:.
    vv
    +~~
    ,vaa"
    c

    Weight of.concrete block = W3


    W3 ·= B.h2.L. - (1t/4.D2 .L) . re
    = ((I .30 x 1.5 x 2.20) - (rc/4 x 0.602 x 2.20)] 2.3
    = 8.436 ton f

    Total weight at the block bottom = W

    W = WI + W2 . + _ WJ _ . . .
    - 4.668 + 1.166 + 8.436
    = 14.27 ton f
    Frictional resistance of the concrete block = F
    F = µ xW
    = 0.75 x tan 30° x 14.27
    = 6.17 ton f

    Resistance by passive earth pressure at back of the block = E


    r·
    {''

    E = 112 T H2 • 1 \!~n 14i


    2 0.~ + _<}2(.2))
    = 1/2 X 1.6 X 2.53 X 2.522 X'.Jl
    = 38.56 ton f

    Resistability of the block

    F + E= 6.17 + 38.56
    .'{i·.
    = 44.73 ton f

    (F + E) is larger than the force 21.640 ton f, by a safety margin of2.06

    Required bearing capacity "" _:2i._ = 14 .27


    13.1, 1.3 x 2.2
    -- 4.99 ton f/m sq.

    If the bearing capacity of the ground is· smaller than the required bearing capacity, then the
    dimensions of the block bottom shall be enlarged.

    - 14/88 -
    L. SECTION 15 - STORAGE TANKS AND RESERVOffiS

    15.1 GENERAL

    The main functions of a reservoir can be listed as follows:-


    r·
    1; (a) to provide a reserve of treated water in order to minimise interruptions of supply due
    ·i
    to breakdowns,

    (b) to provide a reserve to meet a fluctuating demand,

    ( .. (c) to act as a break pressure tank where the range of elevation of an area served makes it
    j
    1
    necessary to sub-divide the distribution system into zones, and

    f ' (d) to provide a reserve of water for fire fighting. The amount of contingency storage to
    '
    I : be provided determines the size of the reservoir.

    In a water distribution system, reservoirs are functionally divided into 2 categories, i.e.

    (a) balancu.ig reservoirs_ and


    (b) service reservoirs

    ri Both types of reservoirs must be structurally safe and watertight.


    [- .

    By-pass pipework at reservoir fed by pumping main shall not be installed unless the
    characteristics of the pumping system to the reservoir is compatible to that with the reservoir
    by-passcd.. ·

    15.2 BALANCING AND SERVICE RESERVOill

    Generally, the main function of balancing reservoirs is to receive pumped treated water and to
    distribute it substantially to a or several service reservoir/s.

    Balancing reservoirs are normally built near treatment plants. When there is a draw-off from
    any of the service reservoirs.' water will flow from the balancing reservoir to the service
    reservoir to balance up the draw-off. With the provision of the balancing reservoir in the
    distribution system, the required flow rate into the service reservoir can be maintained .

    Sizing of the balancing reservoir should be based on the storage required to balance the
    inflows and outflows.

    Service reservoirs supply substantially to reticulation systems.

    ~ 15/1 -

    --------·-
    ~},.,
    15.3 CAPACITY .I [~
    - , .
    ...:..
    The total minimum capacity of the suction tanks, balancing and service reservoirs in a
    . distribution system should preferrably be equivalent to one day's storage. The one day storage
    would normally meet the fire :fighting requirement.
    ,:.-1
    ~i.·.•.-~;.~?..:
    15.4 TYPES OF RESERVOffiS AND STORAGE TANKS

    The types of reservoirs and storage tanks include.-

    (a) Reinforced concrete (R.C),


    ~)
    (c)
    prestressed concrete,
    galvanised pressed steel, I
    (d) fibreglass reinforced polyester,
    (e) glass fused to steel panels
    (f) marine grade aluminium alloy panels with internal butyl rubber liner

    In selecting the types of reservoirs for a distribution system, consideration should be given to
    the various factors such as capital cost, cost of maintenance, topography and life expectancy.
    The various types of reservoirs are as described below.

    15.4.1 REINFORCED CONCRETE RESERVOIRS

    Reinforced concrete reservoirs are preferred in f!10St cases because of their easy maintenance.
    Toe useful economic life of this type· of reservoir is much longer when compared to other
    _. . types of storage tanks such as thepressed steel tanks.

    The R.C. reservoirs can be built on the ground or on RC. supporting towers depending on the
    pressure requirement and site conditions. The ground reservoir can be circular or rectangular
    in shape.

    Up to about 13500 m3, circular ground reservoir is very economical due to its structural
    design and also geometry, having the least amount of walling for a given volume and depth.
    Therefore, it is preferred to the rectangular ground reservoir for its relatively lower cost of
    construction. A typical example of the circular ground reservoir is shown in Figure 15.1.

    The rectangular ground reservoir is normally selected when the construction of a circular
    reservoir is uneconomical or when there is constraint on space. Figure 15.2 shows the cross-
    section of a rectangular ground tank.

    Elevated tanks shall be selected only when there is no high ground available to meet the supply
    requirements. This is because the elevated tank is relatively much more expensive than the
    ground reservoir. In designing the elevated tank, it is important to ensure that the aesthetic
    aspects have been taken into consideration. A typical example of this type of tank is the
    elevated mushroom tank as shown in Figure 15.3. Another circular elevated tank is also
    presented in Figure 15.4.

    - 15(2 -
    l,
    tf -
    _,._ ( fl;,[) /;J_;~ ~

    l
    Design of RC reservoirs shall be based on BS 8007:1987 i.e Code of Practice for the
    1 structural use of concrete for retaining aqueous liquids. The reinforcements shall be hot rolled
    mild steel complying with the requirements of M.S. 79 or B.S. 4449.

    l 15.4.2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE RESERVOIRS

    As have been stated in Paragraph 15.4.1 above, circular R.C. reservoirs of sizes greater than
    13500 · m3 are not economical; either rectangular R.C. or prestressed concrete are more
    economical and are preferred.

    Similar to R.C. reservoirs, prestressed concrete reservoirs are easy to maintain and have a
    much longer service life than storage tanks like pressed steel. There are two types of
    prestrcssing; wire winding systems and individual or grouped tendon systems, the latter being
    preferred. Experience in America and in this country has shown that wire winding systems are
    subjected to corrosion of the wound wires resulting in reduced strength and eventual failure.

    So far only ground prestressed concrete reservoirs have been built in this country.

    15.4.3 ELEV A TED PRESSED STEEL TANKS

    This type of tank is normally used if the storage tank is ·urgently required. The pressed steel
    panels are readily available in the market and erection of the tank and the supporting steel
    structure can be completed within a relatively short period. In terms of cost, this tank is
    cheaper than the R.C. elevated tank but its economical useful life is much shorter and
    substantial routine maintenance is necessary.

    In order to minimise corrosion that may occur over the years after its erection, the pressed
    steel tank should be hot-dip galvanised and the stay members including bolts and nuts within
    the tank shall be made of stainless steel or galvanised mild steel ..

    ·• This type of tank should be avoided as far as possible-especially if if is to be located near the
    coastal area where the tank will be more vulnerable to the corrosive environment

    Standard :The pressed steel ~ shall be manufactured in accordance with British Standard
    ' 1564 : 1975. TI1e tank panels are pressed from steel to the requirements of BS 4360 : 1972
    l
    l '
    grade 43A and shall be hot dip galvanised to the requirements of BS 729 : 1971.

    ( Standard Cwacities :
    manufacturer's catalogues.
    The standard capacities of the tank are given in approved

    r:1· ·
    I
    Jointing Materials : A non-toxic and non-contaminating bituminous compound resistant to
    acids and alkalis shall be supplied for sealing the joints between the flanges.
    \
    j
    r Bolts, Studs, Nuts and Washers: Bolts, studs and nuts shall comply with BS 4190 : 1967 and
    washers shall conform to BS 4320 : 1968 form F. All these items shall be hot dip galvanised
    to BS 729: 1971. Alternatively they shall be made of stainless steel.

    l - 15/3 -
    _,
    .j

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    «

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    ,-
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    ~ ~ ~ 0 ..
    > u .,,

    FIGURE 15.1 SECTION OF A CffiCULAR R.C. GROUND RESERVOIR

    -15/4-

    -----··-----·~----------· ··-------·
    J

    Roor Ventthtor
    Access Hanhole

    Ventilator Hole
    In \hll
    )
    Column

    Relnforctd
    Concrete Up~
    floor Sl1b I

    Agblnst Undllturbed Ground

    r·
    '

    :
    ~ ..

    FIGURE 15.2: RECfANGULAR RESERVOIR - SECTION

    -15/5-

    ;L
    i .
    --- ··---·---- ____,__ _ _:_ _
    Outlet C. ! .
    Strainer

    Scour Pipe lril ct Pipe.

    .Ou tlet. P.ipc. Overf1 ow Pipe

    FIGURE 15.3: SECTION OF A R.C MUSHROOMTANK

    -15/6-
    I ..

    I.:
    1.·

    f"

    -i:--::-::--::--~~~~~~------
    :, 0 0 0 P O O O n ·O O O !

    f I,
    t~ . ;
    1

    ·1
    f .;,• .•• •·····• ··••· ......
    !
    l, j

    -
    r··
    'I D
    D

    i ;

    r
    J
    ;
    \ .

    FIGURE15.4: AN ELEVATED R.C. CIRCULAR TANK

    -15!7-
    Stays and Cleats : A system of interchangeable stays and cleats shall be specially designed to
    ensure complete stability of the tank for varying depths from 1220 mm to 4880 mm. The stays
    shall be made of rolled steel angle sections connected to mild steel cleats by bolts. All the
    stays and cleats as well as the bolts and nuts must be hot dip galvanised to BS 729 : 1971.
    Alternatively, the material for these components shall be of stainless steel

    £:ipe connection: Socket or flanged pipe connections shall be provided in accordance with BS
    1564: 1975 and they shall be galvanised to BS 729 : 1971.

    RQQf.s. :A pitched or cambered weatherproof galvanised mild steel roof having a manhole aii.d
    ventilator with mosquito-proofing material shall be provided. All components of the roof shall
    be hot dip galvanised to BS 729 : 1971.

    Balcony and rest platform : For. supporting tower of height 5 metres and above, a horizontal
    balcony surrounding the tank should be provided at the top of the tower. The horizontal
    balcony shall be complete with handrails. If the height of the tower is 12 metres or more, rest
    platforms shall be provided for safety reasons. The number of rest platforms depends on the
    design of the tower ladder, but the minimum number shall be one for every 5 metre height of
    the tower.

    Steel or R.C. supportin~ tower : A suitable supporting steel or R.C tower shall be designed
    taking into consideration wind load in addition to the normal dead and live load. Special
    attention should be given to tank stability against overturning with the tank empty under
    maximum wind load. ·

    Ladders : A ladder shall be provided on the outside of the tank connecting with the balcony
    above the supporting tower. The· outside tank ladder shall have side rails not less than 50 Il1m
    x 10 mm with a spacing between the side rails of not less than 400 mm, and rungs not less than
    20 mm round or square, spaced 300 mm centre to centre. A similar ladder shall be provided
    within the tank. spanning from the edge of the roof manhole to the base of the tank. The
    internal ladder shall be of aluminium or GRP.

    Access to roof hatches and vents shall be provided from the external tank ladder according to
    the following:

    (a) for pitch of roof of 1 in 2.5 or greater, a ladder or stairway shall be provided;
    (b) for pitch of roof between 1 in 2.5 and 1 in 6, it shall be provided with a single handrail
    and nonskid walkway,
    (c) for pitch of roof of 1 in 6 or less, no handrail or nonskid surface need be provided.

    A tower ladder similar to the above shall be included to provide access from the ground to the
    horizontal balcony at the top of the tower or to the external tank ladder in the absence of the
    balcony. The ladder may be inclined. Safety hoops shall be provided at intervals not 'greater
    than 900 mm

    A typical elevated pressed steel tank is shown in figure 15.5.

    - 15/8 -

    -----------------
    i
    l
    'l
    Jl
    i
    i

    !
    I
    i
    I
    I
    I
    J
    ...
    level Indicator

    Bu~t \leld

    M.S.
    \ Pipe
    I

    I .
    I I Duckfoot : l I
    r-J L--,
    .... - - - __ .J
    ,-J
    , __J (one re tr r-:J
    •---
    L-1 (99-Shaped
    .J Ora In

    FIGURE 15.5: AN ELEVATED PRESSED - STEEL TANK

    - 15/C) -
    15.5.5 FIBREGLASS REINFORCED POLYESTER (FRP) TANKS

    FRP tanks are constructed by simply bolting together press moulded FRP - panels. Tanlc
    capacities usually vary from 1 m3 to 2300 m3•

    Materials : The panels shall be made from fibreglass reinforced polyester which is a
    combination of unsaturated polyester resin and fibreglass. The unsaturated polyester resin
    shall comply with the requirements of Japan Industrial Standard (TIS. K. 6919) - "Unsaturated
    Liquid Polyester Resin for Reinforced Plastics": or B.S 4994.

    Physical properties :The physical properties of the panels shall comply with the requirements
    of Singapore Standard SS 245: 1981:

    Tensil strength: 1,200 kgf/cm2


    Bending strength: 2,100 kgf/cm2
    Compression strength: 1,700 kgf/cm2 ~··t.·1
    Shearing strength: 1,100 kgf/cm2
    Young's Modulus: 0.98 x 105 1,200 kgf/cm2
    Impact strength: 78.9 kgf-cm/cm (Izod)
    Barcol (hardness): 50
    . Specific Gravity: 1.7
    Coefficient of
    Thermal Expansion: 2.0·x 10-s J 9C
    Thermal conductivity: 0.23 kcal/m hour 2C
    Coefficient of water absorption: 0.1 %

    Supports for panels : The internal supports for the panels orinternal reinforcement members
    for the tank shall be made of stainless steel, uPVC or GRP. The external reinforcement shall
    be fabricated from mild steel either galvanised or suitably coated with non-corrodable material.

    Tank capacitie~ : The tank can be made rectangular or square in shape by using a combination
    of different - panel sizes i.e. I.Om x l.Om, 0.5m x 1.0m and 0.5m x 0.5m. Panels have
    different wall thicknesses depending on the location of the panels.

    Tank assembly:

    (a) Electrically Galvanised Bolts & Nuts and Washers The panels are to be bolted
    together with electrically galvanised bolts, nuts and washers, all of which are to be
    coated with epoxy.

    (b) Sealin~ Materials : Flat gasket, T-gasket and three way gasket made of foam PVC,
    ribbon sealer of butyle synthetic rubber and corner block of ethylene propylene should
    be used as sealing material. ·

    (c) Eeinfurced Members : Stay bolts or ties of stainless steel used in connection with stay
    plates made from galvanised mild steel are used to retain tank walls in position. To
    strengthen the joint between panels, all reinforcing angles including cleats of galvanised

    - 15/10 -
    L:
    mild steel coated with epoxy are deployed (cleats, bolts and all other internal
    ,_; components shall be galvanised mild steel coated with epoxy).

    (d) Pipe Fittings : The tanks should be supplied with nozzles to serve as
    inlet, outlet,
    Lt.i scour and overflow. These pipe fittings should be made of uPVC and the sizes range
    from 40 mm to 200 mm diameter. Each fitting shall be fitted with a flange .

    L: (e) External and Internal Ladders : External and internal ladders should be provided for
    tanks. of 2.0 metres and above in height. The external ladder shall be made from hot
    i clip galvanised steel and the internal ladder from uPVC/GRP.
    ,·,
    1 (f) Steel Skid Base : . The mild steel skid base should be designed to provide continuous
    I.I . '
    support to all flanges of the floor panels of the tank and to the supporting structure.
    i
    I. All steel members used for fabricating the steel skid shall comply with Grade 43A of
    r
    ! BS 4360 or equivalent.

    11 (g) S.upporting Tower : W11en these tanks have to be erected above the ground, properly
    i designed R. C supporting towers should be provided as in the case of elevated pressed

    ll steel tanks.

    '
    1
    ;
    Advantages of FRP tank are as follows:-

    (a) there is minimum maintenance because the tank panels are non-corrodable ,

    :(b) the tank can be easily and quickly erected. It can be assembled precisely according .to
    · requirements owing to the available range of the panels with varying strength and sizes,

    (c) due to the light weight of the tank, it is possible to provide. an economical supporting
    -r '.
    !
    i :
    structure.
    !

    1··.
    I The disadvantage of FRP tanks is that it is more expensive than many oilier types of tanks
    i
    l.
    such as pressed steel and R.C. tanks. Figure 15.6 shows a typical FRP tank.

    15.4.5 STEEL FUSED WITH GLASS·- TANKS·

    The tank plate material is basically steel fused with glass resulting in a smooth, low friction,
    hard impervious surface which requires little maintenance. The standard full panel is 2.7 m
    fI long x 1.4 m deep ?..!!d it shall comply with the standard set out in BS 38_30 for quality control.

    r The tanks can be readily installed. with skilled erectors. The tanks can be used at ground level
    \
    or elevated on steel or R.C. structures.

    - 15/11 -

    -~-· -· . · ··· - - . -----------------·----. ·- - - -· ... ··-· ..


    ·•
    Roof Ria,

    Side

    Anchor Bo It ~
    Steel Pit Panel

    Roof
    Pole P!~~po~rt
    Stay
    Support
    .

    II.
    Ex t e r oa I l:.id°dc r
    Manhole Panel
    Air. Vent
    Roof Panel
    Rim · _/ .. Bolt, Nut & \lasher
    Roof
    \ Side.
    Rim Panel
    Corner

    Corner
    8lock
    Stay
    Plate

    Reinforcing
    Angle

    Pi l Panel

    Concrete Dwarf llall


    Three llay G4sket

    FIGURE 15.6: A FIBREGLASS REINFORCED POLYESTER TANK

    .:r-
    -15/12-
    ~
    .,:
    -··.

    i 15.5 STANDARD COMPONENTS OF A R.C. RESERVOIR


    'I

    In order for a reservoir to function effectively, the following cast iron or ductile iron specials
    shall be provided and properly installed during the construction stage.

    15.5.1 INLET PIPE


    1.. ..
    I Size of the inlet pipe shall be carefully selected such that sufficient flow into the reservoir can
    '"1
    be maintained at all times. For reservoirs supplied. by gravity flow, ball valves up to 400 rrm
    shall be included at the inlet end so that the inflow of water can be stopped automatically when
    the reservoir is full. For inlet diameters above 400 mm, altitude valves or in-situ level sensing
    (if power supply is available) with butterfly valves should be installed.
    l;
    In the case of reservoirs into which the water is supplied by pumping, bell mouths shall be
    provided at the ends of the inlet pipes. If power supply is available, in-situ sensing should be
    included to stop the pump automatically when the reservoir is full. Fm: details of pump
    t· control, refer to Section 12 : Mechanical Equipment and Installations.

    r A sluice 'valve with brick. or concrete chamber shall be provided along the inlet pipeline ..at.a .
    short distance just before the pipe enters the reservoir. This will facilitate the control of flow
    into the. reservoir especially when the reservoir is being washed or repaired. Two flexible

    t ~
    joints shall be incorporated in the inlet pipeline between the sluice valve and. the reservoir to
    permit differential settlement between the reservoir and the chamber without fracturing the
    pipeline. Figures 15.?a and 15.7b show the inlet pipe details of a .circular RC. ground
    (:. reservoir. A by-pass with an isolating valve .should be provided between the inlet and outlet
    pipes.

    I':.;. 15.5.2 OUTLET PIPE . .. ............. , ...

    The outlet pipe shall be connected to the wall of the reservoir at low level, usually.at a short
    distance from the floor of the reservoir and approximately opposite to- the inlet pipe. A cast
    iron, aluminium· or stainless steel strainer is normally attached to the end of the outlet pipe
    within the reservoir. ·

    .. As in the case of the inlet pipe, a sluice valve is to be provided and two flexible mechanical

    I
    i .
    joints are similarly included in the outlet pipeline.

    An extra ontlPt ninP.... ch<ill


    .... --.. 1 .. x+r: --- alwavs
    - ·-) hA
    ~ ~r,_.,;,.iA,:i
    .t'... ..., , .... ~ ............ ,~-
    ..LV.1...
    ~1...,·-A nnection.... l0 other supply
    ........
    ...-.""\.LIV \.,VlU.lVV -rr areas
    should tbe need arises. Figure 15.8 shows the arrangement of a typical outlet pipe attached to
    a R.C. reserovoir.

    15.5.3 OVERFLOW

    An overflow shall always be provided to drain off the extra water in case the inlet controls fail.
    The capacity of the overflow shall not be smaller than that of the inlet pipe so that all the extra
    water can be drained off effectively. This overflow is connected to a common chamber with
    the scour valve just outside the reservoir as shown in Figure 15.9.

    -15/13-

    -
    15.5.4 SCOUR PIPE

    A scour pipe shall be included at the lowest point of the bottom of the reservoir and connected
    to a sluice valve housed in a valve chamber at a short distance from the. external surface of the
    reservoir wall. The provision of this scour pipe is necessary for cleaning the reservoir and
    flushing out any silt that might have collected at the bottom of the reservoir. The size of the
    pipe shall be chosen such that all the water in the reservoir when it is full shall be drained off in
    a duration of not more than 6 hours. Details of the scour pipe are shown in Figure 15.9.

    15.5.5 VENTILATOR

    Air vents must be installed to allow air to enter and leave the tank as the water level changes
    within the reservoir. In order to keep out birds, insects and animals that might contaminate
    the water, screens with appropriate aluminium wire mesh shall be attached to the air vents.

    15.5.6 MANHOLE/INSPECTION GALLERY

    Manholes shall be provided on the roof of the reservoir near the inlet pipe for inspection and
    access to the interior of the reservoir. An aluminium cover with facility for locking shall be
    provided for eachmanhole so as to keep out any . possible contaminants and unauthorized
    persons from entering the reservoir. It is also necessary to include a. sturdy handhold on the
    ledge of the manhole for ease of entry. ·

    For reservoirs of 7000 m3 and below, only manholes should be provided, but for reservoirs
    with capacities above 7000 m3 inspection galleries should also 'be included.

    15.S.7 LADDERS

    Access ladder from the manhole on roof of reservoir to the interior shall be made of rust-free
    material e.g. aluminium. External ladder from the ground to the roof may be made of
    galvanised mild steel or GRP.

    15.5.8 LEVEL INSTRUMENTATION

    Level gauge or indicator and recorder shall be located at a convenient position for easy
    observation.

    15.6 . DRAINAGE

    An apron· drain around the reservoir should be provided to collect the surlace water and
    discharge it into the scour chamber. Perimeter drains around the reservoir site shall be
    provided to collect all the surface water and discharge it into suitable outfall .. Interceptor
    drains shall be provided on cuts if necessary.

    ,.
    .>

    - 15/14 -
    L
    I

    I
    I

    J;
    I
    I
    I

    I
    ;
    t

    F1GURE ·15. 7 a F1GURE 15. 7 b


    INI.Ef .PIPE INI..Er PIPE
    ( ~VITATICl-lAL SYSTEM ) ( PU1PJN; SYSTFM )

    I''
    I

    ~
    \
    )

    'hl'tt

    F1GURE 15.8 FIGURE 15.9


    OOTlET PIPE OVERF1JJ.l AND SOYJR PIPE

    -15/14a-
    , .,
    .
    -
    I
    15.7 TURFING

    Close turfing shall be allowed for sloping surfaces of cuts and embankments. For level ground
    within the reservoir site, road shoulder and berms, spot turfing shall be provided.

    15.8 FENCING

    For security purposes, a 2.9 metre high chain link fence with a 4.9 metre wide gate shall be
    provided to prevent unauthorised persons from tresspassing into the reservoir site. The fence
    s.!~~11 preferably be square or rectangular LTl plan enclosing the reservoir site with a minimum
    clearance of 7 .5 metre between the wall of the reservoir and the fence. For typical example of
    the chain link fencing refer to standard JKR drawings. ·

    15.9 ACCESS ROAD

    An all weather access road shall be provided from the nearest existing road to the reservoir
    site with a cul-de sac within the fence of the reservoir. The geometric design of the access
    road shall comply with the following criteria>

    (a) Width of pavement = 3.5m

    (b) Shoulder width = I.Sm

    (c) Minimum reserve width = 12.0m

    (d) Minimum radius of horizontal


    (circular) curve = 15m

    (e) Minimum length of vertical


    (parabolic) curve = lOK m
    where K is algebraic difference
    between the intersecting tangent
    · grades in degrees

    (f) Minimum grade :::: 0.5%

    (g) Maximum grade = 8% for lateritic surface


    = 12.5% for metalled surface (can be increased to 20% for
    short distances not exceeding 60m).

    (h) Type of drainage for gradient road


    < 8 % = earth drain
    > 8 % = concrete drain.

    Typical cross-sections of access road are as shown in Figures 15.10 and 15.11.

    - 15/15 -
    lnterceptor--..,..c..,
    Drain
    -----
    !""
    .
    .!.

    I
    ,_, l
    'i
    ~I
    E
    ID .
    l~
    l
    _L
    1.8

    1,~
    Roa ds ide
    Earth
    Ora in
    3, 5
    1.5
    1.8

    -r-0·6 1:1 .is


    I
    lSOrrrn Selected 150rrrn Compacted
    Fill Material Laterite

    TYPICAL CUT CROSS SECTION

    ·,····:

    .~
    t j

    ii ;

    i .s f Ls

    ll'j'II 1:30

    E
    Closed Turfing
    0

    'f '. l501TTI1 1501flll


    Selected Compacted
    Fill Laterite
    Ha teri a 1

    Earth Ora in In
    Embankment

    TYPICAL FILL CROSS S(CTJOK

    FIGURE 15.10: TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF LATERITE ROAD

    -15/16-
    t ..
    Interceptor

    --- --------- ---


    Drain

    .8

    ·-J~ .
    E l ~
    Roadside
    Earth
    60nm Bituminous.
    Surface L] l
    i;a

    1 'l ..L
    0.6 T

    Crusher Run
    Base
    Course * Note: Dimensions In
    Hetres
    TYPICAL CUT CROSS SECTION

    }!±-
    .. 'r.
    ·t~-
    .li~
    * Note: Dimensions
    ln Metres
    1.5 1.5 60rrm Bituminous
    Base Course

    E
    0
    .......
    ....,
    :::c

    >< Run
    "'
    :c Course Course

    Earth Drain In
    Embankment

    TYPICAL FILL CROSS SECTION

    FIGURE 15.11 : TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF METALLED ROAD

    t .•

    -15/17-
    tr;;,.:.•
    W,,;f
    Ir.L..:

    SECTION 16 - WATER SUPPLY PLUMBING SYSTEM ·

    I.. 16.1 INTRODUCTION

    The water supply plumbing system of a building is a system of pipework in a building.. This
    system of pipework conveys the potable water from a public main to the various fittings within
    the building. The cold plumbing refers to the pipework system for conveying cold water while
    the hot water plumbing refers to the pipework system for conveying hot water. Outside the
    scope of this chapter is the soil plumbing which is a system of pipework conveying the waste
    from the various fittings in a building to places of discharge like septic tanks, drains or sewers.

    16: 2 CRITERIA

    The design of the pipework system for the internal plumbing is normally based on the criteria
    .. '
    and methods recommended in BS 6700: 1987. However, the layout of the internal plumbing,
    t
    choice of materials and fittings and other practices shall comply with the relevant State Water
    l;
    '.
    Supply 'rules. When designing water plumbing systems, there should be close collaboration
    between the client and the designer with regards to compliance with legal requirements, Water
    Supply Rules and the relevant design codes.
    r. .
    '
    i
    In general the following factors shall be taken into account in designing a water supply
    \
    plumbing system:
    r
    t ··.
    i) Estimated daily water consumption and maximum flow rate required
    ii) Source and quality of supply ·
    iii) Highest supply level and available pressure
    iv) Storage capacity required
    v) Possibility of contamination or ground subsidence
    vi) Local water authority's requirement.

    16.3 STANDARDS OF MATERIALS, .FITTINGS AND API>LIANCES

    ''· All materials, fittings and appliances used in the plumbing system shall be approved by the
    relevant authorities. Generally water fittings manufactured to British Standards or approved
    by SIRIM are of sufficient quality for use locally. Some water authorities may require that
    certain fittings be sent to them for approval and stamping before being put to use. Examples
    of such fittings are:
    1·
    \
    '
    I,

    • taps
    i .. • stop-valves
    t
    \ . • ball valves
    ~I • constant flow valves
    I
    L.- 0 flushing. cisterns
    • bidets and
    \
    ! • drinking fountains

    I
    i
    I
    -16/1-

    J~I
    Generally the pipe materials recommended for cold water are uPVC, G.I., copper, stainless
    steel, HDPE. For hot water the materials most frequently used are copper and stainless steel.
    Other pipe materials are also available but their use may be subjected to the approval of the
    relevant water authorities. For a more comprehensive guide on the proper selection of the
    most suitable pipe material for a particular application, reference should be made to the MW A.
    GUIDE TO PIPE MA TEIUAL SELECTION, a publication available from the Malaysian
    Water Association.

    16.4 STORAGE CISTERNS

    Storage cisterns are necessary for the following reasonsr-

    i) To provide supply during water interruption


    ii) To reduce the maximum flow rate on· the supply mains
    iii) As a break pressure tank to limit the maximum pressure on the household pipeworks
    and fittings.

    In designing the capacity of the storage cisterns, account must be taken of the pattern of water
    usage in the premise concerned and the reliability of the water supply in the area.

    Table 16. 1 gives recommendations for the minimum capacity of storage cisterns in plumbing
    systems for various types of buildings but these are regarded as a guide only. The water
    authority concerned should be consulted regarding any particular requirement it may have in
    this matter.

    TABLE 16.1 MINIMUM STORAGE CAPACITIES

    Type of Building Minimum nominal Storage Capacity?

    Dwelling houses (rural 450 litres

    Swelling houses and flats (urban) 900 litres

    Multi-storey flats with high level 140 litres


    bulk storage cistern

    Low cost housing 450 litres

    Others One day's supply or as directed by the relevant


    authorities.

    * nominal capacity is defined as the volume calculated from the overall internal dimensions of a
    cistern.

    -16/2-

    -
    k.
    .;»

    I·-,.
    .> If the capacity of storage cistern required cannot be obtained from the Table 16. I above it
    L should be calculated based on the number of persons using/working/residing in the building;
    the minimum storage capacity being equal to the quantity required for one day's use. '
    ;

    TABLE 16.2 - STORAGE REQUIREMENT PER PERSON


    L-
    Type of building Storage requirement

    Hotels 270 litres/person/day


    Hostels 180 litres/person/day
    Day schools 30 litres/person/session
    t• '
    Boarding schools 180 litres/person/day

    Il
    !
    Office· without canteen
    Office with canteen
    Restaurants
    70 litres/person/day
    90 litres/person/day
    14 litres/person/meal

    I.. Mosque I 4 litres/person/day


    Barracks (Army and police) litres/person/day

    \ 1270

    When the number of persons using the building is not known, the capacity of its storage

    !
    I ,
    l (
    I
    cistern can be estimated from the number and types of fittings installed in the building ... The
    storage requirement for each fitting is given in the table below:

    '
    ·,
    ; : TABLE 16.3 - STORAGE REQUIREMENT PER FITTLNG

    Fittings Storage req ui red/fitting/day

    I
    Shower 450 - 900 litres

    I ~-

    i
    Slipper bath
    Water closet
    900 litres
    180 litres
    1'.
    Ij Lavatory basin 90 litres
    i,.
    f Sink 90 litres
    iI
    1l,, Urinal 180 litres
    Bed pan washer 180 litres
    'I
    i
    Wash-up basin 225 litres
    I
    \I

    '

    tI
    !
    -16/]-

    I --'~
    The storage requirements calculated based on the number of users or fittings and appliances in
    a building shall be satisfied by the provision of storage cisterns, the capacities of which are·
    measured up to the water line.

    The storage cisterns and lids shall be constructed of corrosion resistent material of approved
    quality or shall be coated internally with corrosion resisting material. Storage cisterns for
    domestic purposes shall not impart taste, colour, odour or toxitity to the water.

    Where pumping is required, the combine capacity of the suction and storage cistern should not
    I..-
    UC
    1--- ,t. __
    tC::>.:> l.llall
    ,l.-•
    u.1ac.
    dav's ··so 'T'~,,
    ;_e,J
    1 cyuu U
    C'--
    A.VI
    AH"'
    sucticn
    ~-o tank 5\..,..,.1,1 \..,-..1,1
    Vtl\,,, VtlJ
    u ...... U ""· uv•-
    ?h
    -v·,..n
    lLAVU
    t 1/1. ,...f tho
    , .., -· ~ .........
    .. -...... • .. VU.AY.

    total storage capacity for one day's use but at the same time it should also contain sufficient
    water for at least one hour of pumping without inflow into it. For supplies more than 45,000
    litres per day the inflow into the suction cistern is usually controlled by a constant flow valve.
    The constant flow valve will be sized and set to control the inflow into the suction cistern at a
    rate which will deliver the quantity of water for 1 day's use in 16 hours.

    The above requirement does not include provision for fire fighting and air-conditioning.
    Perf erably the water required for fire fighting and air conditioning should be stored in separate
    storage cisterns.

    16.5 RATE OF FLOW OF FITTINGS AND APPLIANCES

    The rate of flow available at fittings and appliances is dependent on the pressure available and
    the design of the water supply system. The sizing and selection of the fittings shall be such as
    "to provide an adequate rate of delivery of water without wasteful consumption. Table 16.4
    gives the recommended rates of flow at fittings and appliances. The plumbing system shall be
    designed such that these flow rates shall be available when only that outlet is open and at all
    outlets for most of the time, but simultaneous opening of outlets may reduce flow, sometimes
    to below the design figures. Such condition shall not reduce flow rates so much that user
    satisfaction is compromised.

    -16/4-
    TABLE 16.4 - DESIGN FLOW RA TES FOR FITTINGS

    Fittings Rate of Flow


    (Litre per second)
    WC flushing cistern 0.1
    WC flush valve* 1.5
    Wash basin tap 0.15
    Bidet 0.15
    Bath tap, 25 nun 0.6
    Shower head 0.2
    Sink tap, 12 rrun# 0.2
    Sink tap, 20 mm 0.3
    Sink tap, 25 mm 0.6
    Urinal flushing cistern 0.004 per bowl

    * Discharge per flush shall not exceed 9 litres per WC and 4. 5 litres per stall for
    bowl urinal

    # Clothes and dishwashing machines in individual dwelling can normally be


    satisfied by a 12 mm sink tap but manufacturer's instruction should be checked.

    l ·.
    In addition pipes and fittings should be sized so that the maximum velocity in any pipe shall
    ~ not exceed 2.5 mis. ·
    i
    \. ,;
    i

    I
    I
    l . 16.6 ASSESSMENT OF PROBABLE DEMAND
    i
    l
    $,
    In most buildings, the appliances installed are rarely in use together at the same time. For
    ,.I reasons of economy, it is usual to design for the probable simultaneous usage which is less
    than the maximum demand. This -simultaneous demand can be estimated from the "loading
    units" or from experience and data observed from similar buildings.

    usage. By multiplying the number of each type of appliance by its loading unit given in Table
    16.5 below and adding the results together, a figure for the total loading unit is obtained,
    which if applied to Figure 1, enables the recommended design flow rate to be read off.

    I
    t -16/5-

    ,l- l
    TABLE 16.5 - LOADING UNITS

    Appliances · Loading Units


    itJ
    If.
    ~
    :1
    Dwellings r.J
    ~

    WC flushing cistern 2
    1 "
    ::1[
    Bath 10
    Sink 3 -5
    Offices
    WC flushing cistern 2
    Wash basin 1.5
    Wash basin (use in rapid succession) 3
    School and Industrial Buildings
    WC flushing cistern 2
    Wash basin (use in rapid succession) 3
    Shower 3

    Note 1. y/C flushing cisterns with single or dual flush control have the same
    loading unit.

    Note 2. Clothes and dishwashing machines in individual dwellings can be


    assumed as sinks fitted with taps of nominal diameter 12 mm.

    Note 3. Outlet fittings for industrial buildings with high peak demands should be
    taken into account by adding I 00% of their flow rate to the design flow rate for
    other appliances obtained by using loading units.

    Example: Determine the design flow rate for a cold water distribution pipe feeding 5 WC's, 10
    wash basins and 5 baths in a domestic dwelling:

    5 WC's x 2 10
    .,
    l O wash basin x l.5 == 15
    5 baths· x 10 == 50
    75
    --

    The flow rate for 75 loading units from Figure l is 1.0 litre per second.
    ..

    '
    '
    !;
    ti

    -16/6-
    16.7 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF PIPE RUN

    16.7.1 LOSS OF HEAD THROUGH PIPES, FITTINGS AND VALVES

    The rate of flow of water through a pipe is dependent on the head available, the length and
    bore diameter, and the type of pipe used. Figures 2 and 3 give the relationship between pipe
    size, flow rate and head loss for copper, stainless steel and plastic pipes.

    The loss of head through pipe fittings such as elbow, tees, etc can be expressed as the Joss of
    head through an equivalent length of pipe as set out in Table 16.6. These losses should be
    added to the loss of head in the actual pipe length. The effective length of pipe run is meant
    the actual length plus the equivalent length representing the fittings.

    TABLE 16.6 - EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTHS


    (copper, plastics and stainless steel)

    Nominal
    Diameter Elbow Tee Stopvalve Check valve
    mm m m m rn

    12 0.5 0.6 4 2.5


    20 0.8 1 7 4.3
    25 1 I.5 10 · 5.6
    32 1.4 2 13 6
    f .1 40 1. 7 2.5 16 7.9
    I !
    i,,. 50 2.3 3.5 22 11. 5
    65 3 4.5 - -
    l. t
    73 3.4 5.8 34 -
    100 4.5 8 - -

    16.7.2 HEAD LOSS THROUGH VALVES

    The loss of head through stopvalves and check valve is relatively large. These losses are
    expressen...l e;~"L.. er as 1icss 01l"L neac~ tnroug
    \... h an cquiva1ciit
    • 1 1cngt h of
    ,
    01 oi • r aore 10.0 aoove
    pipe as in
    ~1, • .,.,,. ,

    and added to the actual length, or the actual head loss determined from Figure 3 and
    subtracted from the ~ad available. The losses through full flow gate valves can be ignored.
    '(
    l 16.7.3 HEAD LOSS THROUGH METERS

    The head loss through meters can be obtained from the meter manufacturer. This head loss
    should be deducted from the available head. Figure 4 gives the relationship of head loss and
    flow rate for different sizes of meters currently in use in this country.

    -16/7-
    16.7.4 HEAD LOSS THROUGH TAPS

    The residual head available at each tap should not be Jess than the loss of head through the tap
    at design flow. Alternatively the Joss of head may be expressed as an equivalent length of pipe
    as given in Table 16.7.

    TABLE 16.7 - TYPICAL LOSS OF HEAD THROUGH TAPS


    AND EQUIVALENT PIPE LENGTHS

    Tap Equivalent
    Nominal bore Flow Rate Loss of Head"' Pipe Length
    mm Lis m m

    15 0.2 0.8 3.7


    20 0.3 0.8 11.8
    25 0.6 1.5 22

    * Head loss are typical only and may vary with taps of different manufacturer

    16.7.5 HEAD LOSS THROUGH FLOAT VALVE

    Figure 5 gives the relationship between flow rate, size of valve, orifice and head loss for
    standard floated operated valves. For non-standard float valves, the data should be obtained
    . from the manufacturer. -

    16.8 AVAILABLE HEAD

    16.8.l SUl)PLY FROM STORAGE CISTERN

    The available head at a fitting should normally be measured from the outlet or bottom of the
    storage cistern, unless the supply is sufficient to allow half the cistern or 0.5 m (whichever is
    less) to· be assumed. Each pipe length should be sized on a trial-and-error basis, starting with
    the first pipe length from the storage cistern. The residual head at the end of each pipe length
    should be calculated taken into account of head loss in pipework, fittings and valves. If the
    · residual head arrived is negative or insufficient, the diameter of the preceding pipe should be
    adjusted and the procedure repeated.
    ,f·

    16.8.2 DIRECT SUPPLY FROM MAINS

    The minimum available pressure in the main should be obtained from the water authority and if
    there is any doubt about this pressure being maintainable in the future due to development, a
    suitable factor should be applied. This is especially important for supply to walk-up flats of 4 -
    5 storeys and in areas where the supply pressure is critical. Failure to consider this can cause
    great difficulty and hardship to the consumers in the future. Once the minimum available

    -16/8-
    l
    f...

    pressure has been established, the method of pipe sizing is identical with that indicated· in
    16.8.1.

    16.9 PUMPING INSTALLATIONS IN PLUMBING SYSTEMS

    When the pressure in the public main is inadequate to supply the fittings in a building, then
    pumping is necessary. There are many ways of using pumps to increase the water pressure
    available in a building. These can be divided into direct boosting and indirect boosting
    systems. Indirect boosting systems are more common. Direct boastings are often prohibited
    by water authorities because they reduce the mains pressure available to other consumers and
    can increase the risk of back-syphonage. Under no circumstances should a pwnp be
    connected directly to the public main. To do so would be a clear breach of water byelaws.

    i
    ~·
    The more common types of design for pumping installations are:-

    L i: .
    l
    a)
    b)
    c)
    indirect boosting to storage cistern;
    indirect boosting with pressure vessel;
    direct boosting
    I ;, ...
    ~ .
    16.9.1 INDIRECT BOOSTING TO STORAGE CISTERN
    'i

    In indirect boosting systems, water shall flow directly into a suction or break cistern fitted with·
    a ballvalve or altitude valve. To limit the quantity of drawoff, a constant flow valve may be
    fitted between the main and the suction cistern. Pumps, installed near the suction cistern shall
    deliver the water to a high level cistern in the building. Water is then supplied from the high
    level cistern to the various fittings including those for drinking purposes. The effective
    capacity of the suction cistern should depend on the total water usage but should not be less
    than 1 hour pump output.

    Installation of break pressure cisterns are recommended for very high building to prevent
    excessive pressure in the fittings.

    Generally pumps are sized to deliver the quantity of water required for one day's us~ within 6
    t
    to 8 hours for office buildings. For apartments and residential buuilclings, the number of
    pumping hours can be increased to 12 hours. Standby pumps are normally provided and the
    j i:···
    changeover should be manual.

    controlled ..... means _.cCI.LlV!.t or electrode

    I
    'rhP
    - ... ·- ,..,.,....,,.,,,.;,..,,
    "'r·-A--"' ... A~ - ... ~J.,o
    _ ........ ~ .. ~~s ;<' -~~. -11 .. ---~---...: __ 1, •.
    P-""".l.... .a.o uv.a.u,.u.uy au1-vu.J.C1u\.;a.tl)' 1.i u lJJ .111 (11..l.., u.1
    \..,Vl.lU """'
    operated level switches in the main storage cistern. Additionally a level switch should be

    r
    !.
    installed in the suction cistern to cut out the pump when the water level in the suction cistern
    drops to about 225 mm above the pump suction connection. This will prevent the pump from
    running dry.

    16.9.2 INDIRECT BOOSTING WITH PNEUMATIC PRESSURE VESSEL

    Where the boosted water supply serves a number of storage cisterns at various levels, e.g. in
    flats, it would not be practicable to control the pumps by means of several level switches. In

    - 16/9 -

    - -·-·· ------------------
    this case, indirect boosting with pneumatic pressure vessel can be used . The mode of
    operation is such that as water is drawn off, the compressed air in the vessel expands with a '
    resulting fall of pressure. When the pressure reduces to a predetermined value, a pressure
    switch causes the pump to operate and supply water to the vessel until the pressure in the
    vessel builds up to a predetermined maximum, when a pressure switch stops the pump. The
    action of the compressed air on the water in the vessel continues to supply the building until
    the pressure falls again and the whole cycle is repeated. An air compressor is required as some
    of the air may be lost or dissolved in water. Generally the pressure vessel, pumps, air
    compressor and the control equipment are supplied as a packaged unit.

    16.9.3 Dm.ECT BOOSTING

    In exceptional case where the water authority has given written perrrussion, pumps are
    connected directly to the incoming supply to enable the pressure head to be increased . In this
    case it is important to take adequate precautions against overpumping. Level switches must
    be fitted at the high level storage cistern to start and stop the pumps when the water reaches
    predetermined levels. The pwnps are normally switched on when the level of water drops to
    half the depth of the cistern and switched off when the level rises to approximately 50 mm
    below the shut-off level of the float-operated valve. The frequency of starting and stopping of
    · "the 'pump should be limited to reduce wear on the pump but this will depend on the water
    usage and rating-of the pump.

    16.9.4 PUMJ>S AND EQUIPMENT

    Pumps and. other associated equipment are usually located within the building to be supplied,
    preferably· as near as possible to the point of entry of the incoming pipe. Whilst it is
    acknowledged that space is precious in a building, this should not be allowed to diet.ate the
    size of the pump room. The pump room must be of adequate size to accomodate all the
    equipment and also provide sufficient space for maintenance and replacement of parts. It
    should be dry, ventilated and protected from flooding. In Malaysia, it is normal to provide
    duplicate standby pumps .. Pumps may be of either horizontal or vertical centrifugal type,
    directly coupled to their electric motors. They should be installed in duplicate and used
    alternately. The pumps should be sized so that each pump is capable of delivering the
    specified quantity of water whilst overcoming the static head plus the friction losses in the
    pipework and fittings. Electrically driven 'centrifugal pumpsets are normally used and the
    pumps together with their motors should be duplicated.

    For· long efficient life and reasonably quiet operation, low speed pumps are prefered. Care
    should be taken in pump and pipe sizing to minimize the risk of water-hammer due to surge
    when pumps are stopped or started. Automatic control of pump operation with level or
    pressure switches and level electrodes is essential.

    16.10 PROVISION OF STOP VALVES

    Stopvalves shall comply with the standards adopted by the relevent water authorities. The
    British Standards for stopvalves are listed in the table below»

    - 16/10 -

    __ .... _
    I
    I

    TABLE 16.8 BRITISH ST AND ARDS FOR STOPV AL VE


    [ ,

    Nominal size of pipe Above ground Below ground

    50 nun or smaller BS 1010: Part 2 BS 2580


    BS 2580 BS 5433
    BS 5433

    50mm or larger BS 5163 BS 5163

    f'\
    l . Stopvalves shall be installed to control or isolate supply to different premises or parts of the
    l ;
    r . premises. They shall, as far as possible, be installed within the building or premises concerned
    ~··
    in an accessible position above floor level and close to the entry point of the supply pipes. In
    1 addition, it is often advantageous where a building is divided into separately occupied parts,
    · for the supply to be shut off by a second stop valve installed outside that part of the building
    . without shutting off the supply to other parts. The principle of this is to provide a ready
    means of isolating any private or common supply causing damage or for the purpose of
    _repairs, replacements or alterations.

    16.11 HOT WATER SYSTEMS

    The design of the hot water system shall, as


    far as possible, provide hot water at the locations
    in the quantities and at the temperature required by the user at the least overall cost, taking
    into account cost of installation, maintenance and energy cost

    iL J' Selection of the type of hot water system shall be made from the following:-

    i) one or more instantaneous heaters,


    l .,' ii) a hot water storage system, and
    iii) a water-jacket tube type heater.

    In selecting the type of hot-water system, the main factors to be taken into account are as
    follows:-

    The rate or flow from an instantaneous water heater is limited. Where these restricted rates of
    flow is acceptable, instantaneous heaters can deliver hot water continuously without requiring
    time to reheat. The water authorities allow direct connection of electric or gas instantaneous
    water heaters to the service pipes for cold water supply provided that such heaters are of the
    approved type.

    For storage type water heater less than 70 litres, the water heater can be connected directly to
    the service or distribution pipe provided the following conditions are complied:-
    i
    i '

    - 16/11 -

    .
    \ ... ;../
    i) an anti-syphonage device is provided to prevent back:flow
    ii) a pressure relief valve is provided to control the pressure in the water heater
    iii) the storage water heater must incorporate a thermostat and thermal cut-out.

    Where the storage water heater exceeds 70 litres no direct connections from the service lines
    are allowed.

    16.12 METERS
    A 11
    ____rnPtPr<:
    ,...., inr-h,rii.-
    , -·---- .... hnlk
    ..... ·(:) "M,...O,.A. meters
    ........ v~ ... 1-.
    vu" .. ~ '"-'
    ov~1
    ""'"' .. ..1:_ - uuv
    J..u\....Llu.5 ---L_-.,.~---
    111\.A,..c1=>t r- --
    tuc supplied
    ~u .u. and main rained
    l0..1.11 oy the
    water authorities. Sub-meters may be installed especially in multi-storey flats with pumped
    supplies, shopping complexes, police and army quarters., market stalls and condominiums.

    The position of the meter to be installed at any premises shall be determined by the water
    authorities. As a guideline, the meter shall be installed in such a position that it can be easily
    accessible for meter reading and maintenance work and at the same time its position should
    not be obtrusive. An isolating stopvalve should be installed adjacent to the meter and shall
    comply with BS 1010 or BS 5433 or BS..5163 for valve-greater than 50 mm.

    Table' 16.9 below gives the recommended meter size for various flow rates:

    TABLE 16.9 - RECOMMENDED METER SIZES

    Recommended
    Meter size Maximum flow NoIIDal Flow for Head Flow for Head Max. Monthly
    Instantaneous Steady Flow · Loss of 3 m Loss oflO m consumption
    mm
    . . . . .. . .. . ~n3Jh .... m3/h m3/h m3/h m3

    15 (Piston) 3 1.5 1.5 3 130

    25 (Piston/ 7 .. 3.5 3.5 7 700


    Inferential)

    40 (Piston/ 20 10 10 20 3,000

    · ~;r..
    Inferential

    50 (Jnferential) 30 15 15 30 5,000 ;-:_;

    65 (Inferential) 60 40 40 60 10,000

    100 (Inferential) 150 60 60 150 20,000

    100 (Compound) 150 60 60 150 20,000

    150 (Inferential) 300 150 150 300 45,000

    150 (Compound) 300 1?0 150 300 45,000

    ;.-· , ....
    ',
    - 16/12 -
    ~~i
    1..

    L
    30
    } /
    v
    l.'
    i
    !
    20
    ·- /v
    /

    10
    v
    0 v

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    ~ 8 I,,
    t0'
    ;:J [/

    t ::D 6 I/
    l 0
    ~
    ,,,
    I /
    1. .
    ; •..•
    't?
    (l) ....
    4
    /
    1 5' /

    l
    /v
    c:
    ii,
    (I) 2 v
    '1)
    CD
    - ·-- -
    .... - -·

    '
    I' (f) 1.5
    i, .. o
    0
    0 - ,
    '.:)
    0. 1;0 I 1,,
    ,,
    /
    .8
    /
    "
    ,6 /
    /"'
    .5
    ,·; /
    l .<!
    '
    vi
    20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000

    Loading Units

    J<:IGURE I - LOADING UNffS AND DESIGN FLOW RATES

    l{ -16/1)-
    . t
    :1:..... 9-. __
    r, \
    i

    ·'i j
    t~f. I
    tr.., Ii
    ··,

    1--11----<i--4------+---l~-t-~~--~~-t-~~~~--,~
    ~->-;..c-+---l---lf----+--+-~-t-~~~i---~~~~-,~
    )----j~~-+-1......_"-t--lf----+-~+---t-~~~i---~-)~~---,~
    l--1f--i--+r--...--,~~.+-~+-~-..~~~t---~~~-.~
    'r----........
    r-if--·l--+--t--i~-,,.-c-~+-~~-t-~~~~~1~
    ~r-..--.,.+--t---if----+-~+-~~-t-r---...._-,,:,_...~t---~~~~-i~
    ~r---.....
    r-r.. "'ll,~
    as,~

    "r-........
    r+.
    r--........~
    ~--ii--+--+---+~-r-o<--............._-t-~~~i--~~~~---10
    ~--if--+--+---+~-r~~-;c--~~--t---~~-~-.~ 'o
    co
    c
    0
    (J
    Q)
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    '-
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    :.:J
    ...___.
    ?;
    0
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    ~
    ~
    <, "-:
    <, ~
    ~
    ~

    ~
    ~

    ~
    0....__,Q...__.CO.__~_._~W'--~~~--'-~~~~M~~~N"--~~~~-=-
    ,-

    Head Loss (Metres)

    FIGURE 4 ~ HEAD LOSS THROUGH WATER METERS

    -16/16-

    --·--·--·---
    J
    1

    l
    ')
    ~
    )

    10
    SS 1212 S\.andnrd balvah-<>&
    8 Orifice slio mm ./

    J. !
    6
    s.s
    6.0
    $.0
    3.0
    /
    /
    ,,;., -
    13.0 / /

    l. 4
    s.s
    16.0 -:
    I_/
    v
    1
    13.0
    F0< lnrger size-s. see manvf.1ctureri; inl()(matioo
    vvv v
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    2 ~'2.~
    v/
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    ./
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    so/ '2.sV vv.,.
    p Vv
    LY
    !/
    ~·.

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    50 1.0
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    v/ o0

    7 @-
    vv v /
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    (f) y ;/ <-:
    .... /.
    .,,.,..,.,, / '\._
    ~./'I
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    v v _v
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    / I/

    \ ...
    0....
    (/)
    •Q) ..
    .6
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    v-1 /v ~ ....o/ /
    ./

    [71
    •

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    .
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    ./
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    7
    / /:.,-

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    ::i .4 ./
    c
    Q)

    ro
    v v
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    v v
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    --
    v
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    i>
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    v v v L7
    a:
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    t-
    I v / /
    ./
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    -:
    /

    v
    O .2
    U: . ....),....,.v
    v 7
    v t-r v
    t->

    1
    ·V
    v
    v
    l
    vv
    !./

    v /
    v t.-
    vv y v v
    ..,,..
    / v /
    .08

    .,.•....-
    / .. v
    ,../
    ./v
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    v -
    .06 i>
    / -: ~.,,....,....
    v / v i> v

    .04
    V.

    v
    v v
    /
    L,,.,.Y"
    v
    »:
    v
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    _....-- / v
    i
    r :
    .02
    v
    .05
    /
    v
    ., .,.,. . ,.v t.-
    vv
    v.,.,

    r .10 .2 .3 .4

    Loss Of Head In Metres


    .5 ,6 .8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6

    I·
    I. i~ . ,:

    FIGURE 5 - HEAD LOSS THROUGH BALL VALVE ORIFICES

    -16/17-

    ------ .....
    1
    I
    I.
    'l
    !

    APPENDIX
    f .

    EXPLANATORY HANDBOOK

    ON

    r . WAtitR SUPPLY

    · RULES

    ;,
    ;
    .
    t.
    UNIFORM WATER RULES DRAFrING COMMITTEE ., ~'
    L.
    (Secretariat : Water Supplies Section, Public Works
    Department Headquarters, K.Lumpur)

    Ir. LAI CHENG CHEONG (Chairman)

    (Secretary)

    Ir. CHIN trrr SANG Water Supply Department, Selangor

    En: LOW HONG CIDANG Water Supply Department, Selangor

    Ir. LIEW WAI KJAT Water Supplies Section, P.W.D


    Headquarters, K.L.

    Ir. MOHD. HARIS ABAS . Water Supplies Section, P.W.D


    . "I·kadquaiters, K.L

    Jr. HlU HON SENG Education Works Section, P.W.D.


    Headquarters, x.i,

    Ir. MOK AH KOW Melaka Water Board

    Ir. LEE YOW CHl..~G Penang Water Authority ·

    Ir. TAY SOON CHUAN P.\V.D. Ncgeri Sernbilan

    Ir. HO CHEONG SWEE P.W.D. Johar

    Pn. CHIAHBEE PENG Ministry of Works and Utilities

    Ir. CHAN BOON TEIK (Adviser)


    EXPLANATORY HANDBOOK ON THE WATER SUPPLY RULES

    1.
    Introduction

    This Explanatory Handbook on the Water Supply Rules is intended to serve as a reference and
    guide for use by JKR//JBA district engineers, technical assistants, technicians, waterworks
    L
    I inspectors, consulting engineers and other people involved in the water industry. Its purpose
    i
    is to provider-

    a) a guideline on the interpretation of the Rules,


    b) an explanation of the implications and salient points of the Rules,
    c) reasons why a particular rule is required.

    Purpose of the Rules

    The main purpose of the Water Supply Rules is to prevent waste, undue consumption, misuse,
    contamination and to provide for the proper use of waterworks equipment and fittings to
    ensure safety of the public.

    Waste

    There are many factors which cause waste such as high pressure in the mains, inappropriate
    quality of materials, bad workmanship, inferior protection, old age and unfavorable ground
    conditions. It is believed that the waste caused by defects hidden underground in mains and
    service pipes far exceeds in quantity the losses above ground in consumers' fittings. The major
    portion of unaccounted for water is lost by fractured pipes. ·

    An efficient waste detection· 'programme should be an essential part of the operation of any
    water supply authority. In order to minimise waste, detection efforts should be intensified
    with increasing age of the mains and service pipes. Although waste detection is important, it
    is only complementary to its prevention by the provision of appropriate materials, adequate
    protection and good workmanship.

    Leaking taps and ball valves, garden taps and faulty flushing cisterns are common sources of
    waste in a consumer's premises.

    Undue Consumption

    r·= Undue consumption may be defined as extravagant use of water for legitimate purposes. For
    example, if a consumer doubles his consumption without any reason, then the consumption is
    }' undue. Allowing a tap to run continuously for no legitimate purpose constitutes waste and not
    I.
    I undue consumption, where similar action in the watering of gardens results in the flooding of
    the garden, such a usage is undue consumption. During a severe drought accompanied by
    '' '
    serious water shortage, washing of cars and watering of gardens may be deemed as undue
    consumption, if such usage is prohibited by the Water Authorities as an emergency measure to
    conserve water.

    L. - -···---·--·-··- .........~----
    Misuse J

    The supply of water is granted for one of the following purposes; domestic, industrial, trade
    etc. Water is misused if it is employed for purposes other than that for which it is intended in
    the supply agreement. For example, it is misuse if domestic supplies are used for
    manufacturing purposes.

    Contamination

    The Rules deal only with contamination in plumbing systems of consumers which may
    seriously affect the quality of water in the mains.

    'The principle causes of contamination are.-

    (a) cross connection between a supply of potable water obtained from the public mains
    with that of nonpotable water of a private supply particularly when the latter is foul
    water,

    (b) the introduction of foul water into a broken main or service pipe, v

    (c) the immersion of the outlet of a water fitting or hose attached to the fitting into
    contaminated water resulting in the syphoning of contaminated water in the plumbing
    system and finally into the public mains. ·
    r
    Proper Use of Waterworks Fittings
    r
    These Rules also contain instructions on the proper installation, usage and 'maintenance · of ·~'
    ~-;
    waterworks fittings so as to ensure the safety of the people using them as well as to achieve a
    high degree of efficiency in the system.

    Difference between Rules and Statutory Laws

    When applying these Rules, it is important to remember that


    there is a fundamental difference between Rules and Statutory
    Law. The latter case is capable of rigorous enforcement
    however much those administering the law considers it
    unreasonable. Rules, on the other hand, may be questioned in
    court as unreasonable, as repugnant to the Common Law ; so
    great care and wisdom is required in their application.
    However technically sound the rule is, its practical application
    must be reasonable in the eyes of the court of law.

    -------------·-· --
    l.
    The acid test of any interpretation of the rules is: Is this
    interpretation essential or beneficial to the needs of the
    Community?
    I

    l
    ' I

    Other interpretations may be useful even beneficial to the


    ,I Water Authority but the community test is the only sound one.

    L The Rules do not apply to supplies which are not provided by


    JKR or the Penang or Melaka Water Authorities.

    t The Ruler-in-Council is the ruler of the State and he endorses


    approvals after consultation with the State Executive Council.
    !
    ii ; i
    I I
    !-·.

    L
    ,, :

    : .
    f ·.
    l:
    i ;
    :

    .
    ;

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    !
    i

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    !.

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    I

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    ;

    ti
    l lll!=n...-_--. ~- ---- .. ··- --··
    SECTION ONE -GENERAL
    101(ii) On the coming into force of these Rules, the Water Supply ( ) Rules Repeal of Previous
    .............. , shall be and are hereby repealed. Rules·

    Portions of the old Rules are outdated at present and require to be updated
    to suit changes in the building industry and technology.

    The old Rules were also compiled in a manner making it difficult to find a
    particular Rule when it is required.

    New Rules are also required to be included to cater for water supply to
    housing estates, multi storey buildings. factories, etc.

    Because of the reasons given above, a committee was established to draft a


    uniform set of rules th.at could be adopted by the States in Peninsular
    Malaysia

    102. "Approved Standard" means a standard or specification or a Code of Interpretation


    Practice issued by the Standards and Industrial Research· Institute of
    Ma.Iaysia(SIRIM) or if such is non-existent.by the British Standards
    lnstitution(BSI) as amended or revised from ti.me to time.or such other · v
    standards as approved by the State -Director by· virtue of· powers
    conferred on him by these Rules.

    "Capacity" in relating to a cistern means the capacity of. the cistern


    measured up to the water-line unless otherwise stated: . .

    This is not the nominal capacity which is the volume calculated from the
    overall internal dimensions of the cistern.
    . .... . ........ r
    It is the actual volume of water contained in the cistern when the water is w,·
    at its top operating level.

    "communication pipe" means that part of the service pipe between the
    public main and the meter, or if there be no meter, that part of the
    service pipe between the public main and the point where, in the
    opinion of the State Director, the meter will be placed:

    If there is no meter the usual position of the meter if it is to be fixed, will


    usually be a few feet from the front fencing within the compound of the
    premises. Generally, the Water Authority will require the up-stand or the
    meter chamber for the meter to be constructed at U1e time of laying the
    communication pipe unless there are some reasons for not doing so .

    . -- --- '-~·-·""t
    "consumer" means any person, persons or corporate body supplied
    with .water from the public mains or any person or persons otherwise
    liable for the payment of water charge or meter rent. A consumer
    may be an owner or an occupier:

    The current practice is that there is no formal agreement between the


    consumer and the Water Authority.

    I The consumer is the person, persons or corporate body who applies and
    r. pays the deposit for the supply of water and is legally liable for all charges
    and penalties for the use or misuse of the water supply.

    In other words the consumer is still liable even if he is not occupying the
    premises concerned. It should not be taken for granted that the person
    who consumes the water is the consumer.

    "corrosion-resisting material" means any material which is highly


    resistant to any corrosive action to which it is likely to be subjected in
    the circumstances in which it is used:

    this term "corrosion-resisting material" appears in Rules 209 and 212.


    }.
    r In JKR water supply systems it is the normal practice to retain a chlorine
    residual in the reticulation from which water supply to premises is
    obtained.

    TI1c materials used in the construction of the water works fittings specified
    in Rules 209 and 212 must be resistant against chlorinated water.

    Examples of some of the corrosion-resisting materials used for making


    valves are:-
    ... . ... ..
    (a) Copper Alloys
    (b) Plastics
    (c) Stainless' Steel.
    ,..
    ;
    I "distribution pipe" means any consumers' pipe conveying water from
    a storage or feed cistern or hot water apparatus supplied from a feed
    \: cistern and under pressure only from such cistern:
    .1
    lt
    j)
    (
    'I
    r,
    \
    .
    i

    ~--------------······-·--.
    iff~
    I }~;
    !'!!~
    ~l
    ~
    -;ft

    f l! _.-l

    "feed cistern '1 means any storage cistern used for supplying cold
    water to a bot water apparatus or to the Ilushing cistern or to any part
    of an air-conditioning system or to any other plant or machinery:
    [; I

    %' I
    A feed cistern is a particular form of storage cistern which supplies cold 1¢--
    j
    water to:- l. I l

    (a) a hot water apparatus !f


    (b) a flushing cistern,
    (c) any part of an air-conditioning system,
    I
    ::tii,·. ;
    '
    <!!) :!.!!;' other plant or machinery,
    If; '
    (e) or a combination of any number of the above. s
    ,(,,
    A cistern which supplies water to any of the above including taps to baths
    and lavatory basins is not a feed cistern but a storage cistern. rr 'i
    ''

    Generally, in large hotels, there are separate feed cisterns for the air-
    i. l

    conditioning system and for the hot water system. Fig.2 shows a typical' . J
    j),!,I
    layout [:

    v
    !~'(
    [,
    rJ
    ~
    ~.;?

    ,r
    1
    w "
    ~.J;

    ~i
    r
    ti -
    i.0
    ~(
    ~
    ili
    ,;LJ·

    ~--
    .,
    r
    ;f . ,
    1$.)
    -,

    I .
    I
    tt.·
    J.
    11;:

    ,,r,.
    l'r:
    I -~

    L
    l :.~

    j
    FIGURE l

    Vent
    Pipe
    Service Pipe Storage
    Cistern

    Dis tribvti on
    ! Pipe
    ),
    l
    l Hot \later
    ---1
    Heater

    ~-_,_,_Kitchen
    Tap
    Con-munication Pipe
    I
    I
    W.C Lav, Basin

    lI Heter Posit Ion

    Public Main
    r! .
    !
    l
    Ii
    t
    l
    ,!

    FIGURE 2 - SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF WATER


    SUPPLY PLUMBING SYSTEM OF
    A LARGE HOTEL.
    >
    I
    i,.

    r
    ;·
    !i. Feed Cistern Storage Cistern Feed t::istern

    I
    ;i
    y~
    To hot water Service
    l-D-t,,,
    H3;" ~·~t.
    heaters Pipe pipe to lav.
    basins. ILC.,
    urinals, baths

    Taps in bar

    Heter
    Kitchen Taps
    r rom J. I:'. R
    Hain

    --~------
    'ises the storage cistern can also supply cold water to the
    ind the hot water heater as shown in Fig. I.

    -e feed cisterns need not comply with Clause 224.

    , the Water Supply Enactment (F.M.S.Cap.203),


    ..tme to time;

    ... statutory law that empowers the Water Authority to make water
    supply bye-laws. I
    "licensed plumber" means any person licensed by the State Director
    in accordance with these Rules;

    As described in Rule 901 (ii) a licence shall be granted only to individual


    I
    persons and not to firms because this is not a licence for doing business 'i i
    but a licence given to a person with proven skill to practise a trade.

    "overflowing level" in relation to warning or other overflow pipe of a


    cistern, means the lowest level at which water can flow into that pipe
    from that cistern;

    This is the invert level of the overflow pipe.

    "service pipe" means so much of any pipe for supplying water from a
    public main to any premises which is subject to water pressure from
    the main, or would be so subject but for the closure of some tap;

    Refer to Fig. 1. r

    "special" means any connecting length of pipe other than a straight


    pipe of uniform bore;

    Examples of specials are:-


    . I.
    (a) bends and elbows,
    (b) tapers or reducers,
    (c) tees,
    (d) Yvpieces, r
    (e) Crosses.

    Speci.als do not include stop-valves.

    "State Director" means the director of the department responsible for


    water supply in the State .......•........ and shall, for the purposes of
    these Rules, include any otbe officer acting in that capacity or duly
    authorised by him to administer the Rules;

    f
    In the case of JKR the "State Director" shall mean the Director of the
    !
    State JKR or Director of Water Supplies JKR of the State (if there is one). I

    Where the Melaka Warer Board or the Penang Water Authority is


    concerned, the State Director shall mean the Chief Executive Engineer of
    the organisation.

    j·
    The. State Director may in writing delegate his authority to the following
    officers:-

    (a) Superintending Engineer, Water Supplies of the State JKR.,


    (b) Senior Executive Engineers, Water Supplies of the State JKR.
    (c) Area Engineers in charge of Water Supplies,
    (d) District Engineers.

    All authorised officers can sign on their own behalf in all matters
    concerning water supplies in their respective states, areas or districts. All
    other subordinate officers shall sign on behalf of the State Director or
    those officers duly authorised by him.

    "Warning pipe" means an overflow pipe so fixed that its outlet end is
    in an exposed and conspicuous position where the discharge of any
    water may be readily seen;
    f
    ! The discharge point of the warning pipe shall be located outside the
    building and in a conspicuous position, so that any waste due to defective
    ball-valves or other defective fittings can be easily observed._
    f
    I "water fitting" includes pipes(other than
    II mains),specials,taps,cocks,valves,ferniles,meters,cistcrns,baths
    ,·i including swimming baths.water c1osets,hot water apparatus· and· ·
    i other apparatus or appliance used in connection with the supply and
    11 use of water;
    !
    "water line" in relation to a cistern means the top water level at
    which a cistern is designed to work;

    ,. This is the maximum designed water level controlled by the setting of the
    1, ball valve or electrode if no ball valve is used.
    t

    103(i) No person shall, for the purpose of conveying, delivering, receiving, or Application ofRuJes ·
    using water supplied from the public mains; Generally

    (a) use any water fitting which, is of such a nature or is so arranged


    or connected as to cause or permit or be likely to cause or permit
    waste, undue consumption, misuse or contamination of water,

    (b) use any· water fitting which is not in accordance with the
    Approved Standards or the particular requirements of these
    Rules as may be applicable to it,

    (c) arrange, connect, disconnect, alter or renew any water fitting in


    contravention of any requirement of these Rules.

    (ii) These Rules shall not apply so as to require any person to alter or
    renew any water fitting lawfully fixed at the date when these Rules
    come into force or to provide any addition thereto unless such fitting
    in the opinion of the State Director is so defective or in such condition
    or position as to cause or likely to cause waste, undue consumption,
    misuse or contamination of the water supplied from the public main.:
    (i) Sub Rules (a) and (b) refer to the use of fittings whicli are defective or are
    not in accordance with the rules.

    Sub Rule (c) refers to the fixing of water fittings.

    Sub Rule (a) is general and is intended to preven the use of fittings which
    1
    are not specifically prohibited by a particular rule.

    Notwithstanding Sub-Rule (b), there may be fittings which do not conform


    to any Approved Standards but allowed to be used subject to approval
    being given under Rule 201 c.g. fibre-glass tanks approved for use in JKR
    controlled water supply systems do not conform to any approved standards
    at present,

    (ii) The sub rule is to safeguard the rights of the owners of old premises where
    there is no storage cistern in the plumbing system. Except for the
    incorporation of a storage cistern dealt with under Rule 310, the Water
    Authority cannot compel the consumer to alter or renew any fitting
    lawfully fixed at the date when the Rules come into force, unless the
    fittings are defective.

    104. The requirements regarding the nature, materials and disposition of Power to Relax Re·
    water fittings set out herein may be relaxed either generally or in a qnirement
    particular case, if Ute State Director deems it desirable to do so. ..,/

    105. In any case in respect of which no provision has been made in these Discretion of State
    Rules with regard to water fittings, whether a particular fitting shall Director
    be approved and whether water shall be supplied t.o a system using.
    such a fitting shall be entirely within the discretion of the State
    Director.

    In applying these two rules the acid test on whether the relaxation or
    approval should be given is

    "Is this decision essential or beneficial to the needs of the community at


    large?"

    For example, since the requirement is for an indoor fountain to be fed


    from the storage cistern, it i.s not expected that the State Director will
    exercise powers under Rule 104 to permit a consumer to fix a direct
    connection for an indoor fountain because relaxation of the requirement is
    not in the interest of the community.

    These Rules should not be applied if there is a risk of causing waste,


    undue consumption or contamination as a result of relaxation of the
    requirements. Furthermore, normally there should also be no compromise
    on the technical requirements. However, these Rules should only be
    applied to overcome certain emergencies. For instance, if there is an acute
    shortage of Heavy Gauge (Class 'C') G.I. pipes required for connection of
    urgent supply to important installations, and the State Director is satisfied
    that relaxation of requirements will help to overcome an emergency and
    benefit the community, he may consider exercising his powers under Rule
    104 to allow the use of Medium Gauge (Class 'B') o.r. pipes for the
    service pipes provided that the relaxation is specific. In this case there is
    not much compromise on technical requirements because Class 'B' G.I.
    pipes.' also can withstand the pressure normally encountered in the
    reticulation system.
    106. The State Director shall have the power to shut-off the supply wateror Disconnection of
    to any premises whatever at any time for contravention of any of these Supply for Breach of
    1. Rules provided that 011 the day of so shuting off the water he shall Rules
    inform the consumer in writing the reason for doing so.

    This drastic rule should be applied only in cases where the contravention
    is serious and may lead to:-

    '(a) a serious risk of contamination of the public water supply with the
    ensuing spread of water borne diseases,

    (b) a wastage of water due to damaged service pipes resulting in an·


    uncontrolled loss of water.

    In all other cases, unless there are specific provisions in a particular rule
    to the contrary, notice should be served on the consumer requiring him to
    comply with the rules within a reasonable period.

    For example, under Rule 111 a consumer must obtain permission from the
    State Director before he can install a pumping system in his supply. If it
    is discovered that he has done so without the appropriate approval a notice
    should be served on him requiring him to disconnect the said pumping
    system in, say, 2 weeks.

    If he does not do so within 2 weeks or if the pumping system has been


    !, ..
    installed in such a manner that there is a risk of contaminating the public··
    supply the State Director can apply Rule 106 and disconnect the
    consumer's supply without notice.

    107. Any requirement in these Rules that a water fitting shall comply with
    an Approved Standard shall extend only to so much or that standard
    as relates to the size.uature.materials.strength and workmanship of
    'such fitting and shall be deemed to be satisficd,notwithstanding any
    departure from such standard if such departure ,in the opinion of the
    State Director,does not adversely affect the efficiency or suitability of
    the fitting.

    108. Where any requirement of any such standard relating to any of these Rules to Prevail
    matters conflicts with a specific requirement of these Rules the latter
    shall prevail

    As an illustration of what is meant by this rule, B.S. 1387 requires that


    light gauge (Class 'A') medium gauge (Class 'B'), heavy gauge (Class 'C')
    all be tested to 700 psi in the factory. ·

    Theoretically all of them are suitable for use in a house water supply
    pumping system.· But Rule 205 requires that only heavy gauge can be
    used underground whilst medium gauge may be used where the. piping
    will not be in contact-with the ground.

    109. Where any provision of these Rules specifics both an Imperial Metric Measurement
    Measure and metric measurement, for the purpose of the said Equivalent to
    provision, the metric measurement shall be deemed to be equivalent to Imperial Measure·
    the Imperial Measure.

    Examples: For linear measurement 1" is equivalent to 25mm.

    For volumetric measurement 1 gal. is equivalent to 4.5 litres.


    110. No earth-wire for an electrical installation shall be connected to any Earthing of Electrical
    water pipe. Installation to Water
    Pipes
    This rule is to prevent leakage of electricity to the water pipes for safety
    reasons.

    lll(i) No pump or other apparatus capable of increasing, diminishing or Use of Pumps


    affecting the pressure of water shall be installed or worked in any
    installation supplied from the public mains without the written
    consent or the State Director.

    (ii) The State Director may grant such consent subject to such conditions
    as he !!!!!.;- ~k Et, f!~!! .!!!!!Y k!ry t!!e fee prescribed ~ !.!:.e Secocd
    Schedule hereto in respect of any necessary pressure tests carried out
    on the public mains at the request of a consumer requiring such
    consent.

    This rule is to ensure that pumping systems used for pumping water from
    the public mains are properly designed and installed.

    TI1e following conditions are generally imposed with the approval for the
    installation of a pumping systemi-

    (a) the pumping system shall not be a direct-on-line booster which


    would adversely affect the pressure in the public main,

    (b) it shall be installed and used such that it will not be a source of
    contamination of the water in the public main and of the water
    pumped,

    (c) it shall be maintained by a person or firm approved by the State


    Director.

    Refer also to Rule 402.

    (iii) These are points to note in connection with the pressure test.-

    (a) although the consumer pays for the pressure test the record of this is
    not given to the consumer but it is only for departmental use. The
    consumer pays for the service and advice only and the imposition of
    a fee is to discourage too many requests for pressure tests to be
    carried out, ~'
    t
    !.=t·,-

    (b) when interpreting the results of the pressure test consideration


    should be given to the likely fall in pressure in the main in the future
    due to loss of capacity of the system and to development in the
    surrounding areas which would reduce the water pressure available,

    (c) this Rule requiring the State Director's consent before a pump can be
    installed applies mostly to existing supplies where more and more
    difficulty is experienced in filling the storage cisterns by gravity.
    Hence there is the need for checking on the public mains pressure. If
    this problem is similarly faced by a great number of consumers along
    the same street or area, it will be more appropriate for the Water
    Authorities to improve the supply mains to the area rather than to
    require the consumers to install pumps in every premises,
    SECTION TWO;· REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER FITTINGS
    SUB-SECTION 2A - APPROVAL AND TESTING FEES
    201. No pipe or fitting shall be used for conveying and receiving water Approval or Water .
    L supplied from the public main unless such pipe or fitting has first been
    passed and/or stamped or otherwise approved by the State Director
    Fittings.

    · after consultation with the Director-General or the Public Works


    I. Department, Peninsular Malaysia.

    To ensure consistency of quality of water fittings it is desirable that


    fittings should be tested and approved for adoption by one Central
    Agency, i.e. the Federal HQ of the JKR which has both the manpower and
    facilities required. Under this Rule, it is mandatory for the State Director
    to consult the Federal JKR on approval of fittings.

    202. The State Director may, with the approval of the Ruler-in-Council Testing Fees
    impose fees for the testing, passing and stamping of water fittings.

    Should there be a peculiar or specialised fitting not already approved by


    the Central Agency. but is required to be used in a particular project the
    State Director is given the option to approve and stamp such fittings.

    Approval and stamping of water fittings are now being practised in the
    Penang Water Authority.

    SUB~SECTION 2B ~ PIPES
    204. Every service pipe, distribution pipe or
    pump delivery pipe shall be of Material of Pipes
    galvanised mild steel, cast iron, unplasticised polyvinyl chloride,
    asbestos cement, concrete lined mild steel or copper as approved by
    the State Director.

    This rule lists the pipe materials in conunon use at present.


    Pipes of materials other than those listed can still be used subject to Rule
    208.

    205. Every service pipe, distribution pipe or pump delivery pipe of mild · Galvanised Mild Steel
    steel tube shall be galvanised to the satisfaction of the State Director Tubes
    and shall be of heavy grade provided that tubes of medium grade may
    be used where the piping will not be in contact with the ground.

    The galvanised mild steel tubes (GJ. pipes) approved for use at present
    under this Rule are those that conform to B.S. 1387. The tubes are
    marked with a coloured band as follows.-

    Mdium gauge (Class 'B1 - blue band.


    Heavy gauge (Class 'C') - red band.

    Galvanised mild steel tubes are the pipes most corrunonly used for water
    supply plumbing systems. ·

    206. Every service pipe, distribution pipe or pump delivery pipe of asbestos A.C., C.I..,
    cement, cast iron or ductile cast iron shall be of Class 'B' or 'C' and Ductile Iron& uPVC
    pipes of unplasticised polyvinyl chloride shall be or
    Class 'C' or 'D' as Pipes
    approved by the State Director.

    Asbestos Cement (A.C.), Cast Iron (C.I.) and Ductile Cast Iron (ductile)
    pipes are not commonly used for water supply plumbing systems. They
    are mainly for trunk mains and reticulation systems of the public system
    but are sometimes also used in private supplies to factories and by the big
    consumers.

    I, 'The relevant B.S. to which these pipes conform to and their working and
    test pressures are as indicated in Table 1.

    I
    IABLE 1

    Working Pressure JKR Field test


    Material of B.S. Pressure
    Pipe No. Class B Class C Class B Class C
    ft ft . ft ft

    A.C. 486 200 300 300 450


    CJ. (Vertically cast) 78 200 300 300 450
    C.I. 2035 200 300 300 450
    <::n.,-,
    =r r-:
    ? +... ___
    T~r\,,,_ ....l _ .......
    ') 1 1
    ---
    ')(V\ 1M
    _.. .... ·....,
    1M
    --- ·- -
    ,1<;11

    Ductile Iron 4772 200 300 300 450

    Class C Class D Class C Class D


    ft ft ft ft
    uPVC 3505 300 400 450 600
    I
    (90 'M) (120 M) (135 M) (180M)
    [I
    The advantages of A.C. pipes over C.I. pipes are:-

    (a) they are more corrosion resistant,


    (b) they are cheaper,
    (c) they are lighter and so easier and cheaper to lay.

    The disadvantage is:-

    (a) they are not suited to certain applications like. the pipework in
    pumphouses, pipes cast through walls and those laid under the road I
    pavement because of lower flexural strength. 'l
    It is important that C.I. pipes are protected against corrosion by lining
    them both internally and externally by bituminous paint.

    In GOO.Stal areas even A.C. pipes must be subjected to the same treatment,

    207. Every service pipe, distribution pipe or pump delivery pipes of mild Steel Pipes
    steel of diameter exceeding lOOmm (four inches) shall have internal
    and external protection against corrosion to the approval of the State
    Director. >L
    r
    ~-.
    Steel pipes are at present manufactured to conform generally to B.S. 534
    with internal concrete lining but the thicknesses of steel plates are not
    exactly the same as those given in B.S. 534.

    They are coated with an external coating of plasticised coal tar pitch base
    enamel suitable for use in tropical climates and complying with A WW A
    Specification C : 203-66 if buried underground,

    l,,.
    l
    i

    J
    f
    For exposed pipework, steel pipes are externally protected with approved
    ) paints.

    ) j Steel pipes are not normally used for water supply plumbing systems.

    L/
    l .
    208(i) Every service pipe, distribution pipe or pump delivery pipe of any
    material or dimension other than those mentioned in the preceeding
    Pipes of Other
    Materials or

    l
    t
    (ii)
    paragraphs shall be approved by the State Director before use.

    Such pipes shall comply with the requirements of any relevant


    Approved Standard governing pipes of such materials or dimensions
    Dimensions

    I.
    i (iii)
    as may be in force at that time.

    The test pressure of such pipes shall not be less than double the
    l maximum pressure to which the pipe will be liable to be subjected
    l
    I
    under working conditions.

    l
    l
    l
    (i)

    (iii)
    High density polyethylene pipes to B.S. 3796 : 1970 have recently been
    approved for use in the JKR controlled water supplies.

    The test pressure referred to in this sub Rule is the factory test pressure.

    Il TI1e field test pressure should be 1 S times the maximum working pressure
    o~ t112.1 class of pipes.

    If the pipes are used in water supply plumbing systems the pipework shall

    ! be tested as stated in Rule 904.

    I f ·;
    l '.
    )
    fI .
    I

    j
    ! '..
    ''
    i ;
    I
    I I
    i

    l
    SUB-SECTION 2C - TAPS AND VALVES
    209(i) Every bib tap, pillar tap, globe tap and stop valve of the ordinary Taps and Stop Valves
    screw-down pattern, and of nominal size not exceeding 50mm (two

    (ii)
    inches) shall comply with the relevant Approved Standards.

    Such taps· and stop valves not being of the ordinary screw-down
    t! t

    pattern, shall be capable of resisting a pressure of at least 20.7 bar


    (three hundred pounds per square inch).

    ~;::) £ye~ valve, ~p!..!!dle and other internal part thereof and, where the
    nominal sue of the tap docs not exceed 50 nun (two inches), the body
    thereof, shall be made of a corrosion-resisting alloy.

    · · (i) Bip taps also known as bib-cocks, pillar taps, globe taps and stop valves
    also known as stop-cocks, are usually made of copper alloy.

    There are 2 types of bib taps and stop valves in common use, the fixed
    jumper and the loose jumper types.

    The loose jumper type of bib taps and stop valves is used where the ta.p
    will be under pressure from the JKR main. This type requires a high
    pressure to lift the jumper and is used to prevent back siphonage. The
    moment negative pressure occurs in the JKR main, the jumper will foil
    thereby closing the tap or valve even if the spindle is still up.
    ' - - ,,
    . ····~· •. :: - .

    Taps and stop valves supplied from the storage cistern are of the fixed
    jumper type. There is normally not enough pressure in the distribution
    pipes in dwelling houses to lift the loose jumper.

    A point to note in the use of stop valves is that those with rubber washers
    should not be fixed on the inlet pipes delivering cold water to heaters
    where the heat transmitted from the heaters will cause the washers to stick
    to their seats. In such cases, stop-valves should have asbestos washers.

    (ii) This sub Rule covers those taps and stop valves where there is no
    approved standards to conform to.

    211. Every ball valve, of a nominal size not exceeding SO mm (two inches) Ball Valves
    shall comply with the relevant Approved Standards. Plastic floats
    shall be used in cold water installations only.

    These ball valves are to B.S. 1212. Although this Rule specifically
    prohibits the use of plastic floats in hot water systems, new types of
    thermo plastics are coming on the market which may enable floats made
    from them to pass the test required for use in hot water supplies.

    212(i) Every float operated valve, other than ball valves of a nominal size not Float Operated
    exceeding 50 mm (two inches) shall be of a type and design approved Valves
    lt by the State Director.

    (ii) Such valves shall be capable of watertight closure against twice the
    maximum hydraulic pressure to which it will be subjectgd under
    normal working couditionsl and shall have its moving parts and valve
    facings of a suitable corrosion-resisting alloy.

    (ill) The float shall be of copper or other corrosion-resisting material and


    the valve assembly shall be so proportioned that, then the float i,;
    immersed to an extent not exceeding half its volume, the valve shall be
    watertight against the highest pressure against which it is to be used.
    iI
    II (iv) Every ball valve or float operated valve shall be securely and rigidly
    fixed above the water-line of the cistern in connection with which it is
    provided and shall be supported independently. of the inlet pipe
    (unless such inlet pipe itself be rigidly fixed to the cistern) and in such
    ! ·.
    position that the body of the valve cannot become submerged when the
    i
    i .
    cistern is charged to its overflowing level.
    '
    I There is at present no approved standard to cover the float operated valves
    specified in this Rule.

    ).
    l
    SUB-SECTION 2D - LAYOUT OF PIPEWORKS
    213(i) Every pipe shall be adequately supported and shall be aligned as far Layout of Piping
    as possible so as to avoid air lodes or reverberation.

    (H) Every pipe or fitting within a building shall so far as is practicable be


    so placed as to be readily accessible for examination, repair and
    replacement. Provided that this rule shall not prohibit the concealing
    ol pipes or fittings which has been examined and approved by the
    State Director before concealing.

    (iii) The design of the layout, the selection of the type of fittings used and
    their installations shall be in accordance with the approved Codes of
    Practice in as far as they are applicable.

    Reverberation and breakage or damage in the pipework may develop due


    to lack of adequate and proper supports and these may lead to waste. The
    need of proper supports of pipes is often not appreciated by plumbers.

    Fixings on internal pipes should be spaced at regular intervals as shown in


    Table 2 which is-extracted from C.P. 310.

    TI1e risk of air locks occurring in a plumbing system can be minimised by


    ensuring that pipes are fixed with a fall either towards the emptying or
    refilling point, and avoid U-shaped pipes in the system.

    If it is impossible to avoid having a "high point" provision for airing at


    that point should be provided, an example of which is shown in Fig. I.

    (ii) The maximum size of G.I. pipes that should be concealed in a 112.5 mm
    (4Y.i") brickwall is 25 nun (1 tt) diameter. Larger sizes should be laid in
    . . . - .. - . . . "ducts ...

    (iii) Water supply plumbing systems should be designed to Appendix A of C.P.


    310 (Water Supply) which gives a comprehensive description on the
    sizing of pipes. ·

    The rule-of-thumb method of sizing pipes basing on the number of fittings


    given in some JKR specifications should only be used to give a quick
    check on whether a pipe is of about the right size or not. It should not be
    used as a basis for designing the system itself.

    ---~---- ---
    l
    i!
    l
    ;
    ;'
    TABLE 2 - 8-ECOMMENDED SPACING OF FIXINGS FOR

    ,
    i

    I
    '
    Kind of Piping
    INTERNALPIPING
    S ize of Pipe
    in inches
    Interval for
    horizontal
    Interval for
    f vertical runs
    runs in ft. in ft.
    l. :
    !
    ;
    l Lead all sizes 2 3

    I!l .
    0.50
    0.75
    . 4
    6
    6
    8
    i 100 6 8

    r: Copper (light gauge) 1.25 8 10


    'l 1.50 8
    ! : 10
    2.00 9 10
    I . 2.50 10 12
    r
    3.00 10 12
    ( '
    4.00
    6.00
    10
    12
    12
    14
    l.
    l 0.50
    0.75
    6
    8
    8

    I 1.00 8 •..
    10
    10
    r
    I,'. . 1.25 9 10
    i Copper (heavy guage) 1.50 10 12
    j .
    rt =· and mild steel 2.00 10 12
    iI. 2.50 12 15
    't '.
    f .
    3.00 12 15
    4.00 13 15
    6.00 15 18
    ,..
    L 6 6
    Cast or Spun Iron 3 9 9
    4 9 9
    1' ·' 6 12 12

    Polythene up to 1 12 x d"' 24 x d"


    <Tvoe425) over 1 8 x e- 24 xd"'

    0.38 2.0 4
    Polythene .05. 0.75. 1.0 2.5 5
    (Type 710) 1.25, 1.50 3.0 6
    2.00 4.0 8

    0.75-1.00 3 6
    PVC-u 2.00-3.00 4 7
    3.50-5.00 5 8
    6.00 6 10

    where d* = outside diameter


    ; .
    1
    /.
    I
    i

    '1
    l ---- -
    214(i) Every service pipe, distribution pipe or pumpdelivery pipe, when not Protection of Pipes
    within a building shall be laid at a depth of not less than 300 mm
    .(
    (twelve inches) from the surface of the ground or pavement
    immediately above such pipe.

    (ii) Every such pipes when underneath a roadway shall not be Jess than
    450 mm (one foot six inches) from the surface of the roadway above
    such pipe. In every case, underground pipes shall be so laid as to be
    free from risk of injury.

    (iii) Every service pipe laid in an exposed situation shall be property


    protected irom risk of i.,ji.i,j;

    Normal road pavements are about 300 nun (1') thick. Laying pipes 450
    mm (I' - 6") underneath roadways prevent them being damaged when the
    road pavement are widened.

    In rocky areas, to prevent the pipes from being damaged due to uneven
    support they should be laid on beds of sand or selected fill.

    215(i) No service pipe, distribution pipe, pump delivery pipe or other No Cross Connection
    receptacle used for the reception or conveyance of water supplied
    from the public main shall be used for the reception or conveyance of ,,;
    any water other than that supplied from the public main.

    (ii) No pipe other than a flushing pipe leading from a proper flushing
    apparatus shall deliver water to the pan of any water closet or to any
    urinal.
    r
    (iii) No service pipe shall be connected to a distribution pipe, or to a pump
    delivery pipe, unless, in the latter case, such connection will not be
    , liable to, , cause waste; undue consumption, misuse, erroneous
    m easuremen tor contamination of water or reverberation in pipes.

    No relaxation of this sub Rule shall be permitted by the State Director


    unless he is absolutely sure that there is no possibility of the mixed water
    being used for potable purposes so subjecting JKR open to the possibility
    of being blamed for allowing contaminated water to be used for human
    consumption.

    The only case where such relaxation is likely is when a factory desires to
    supplement or augment its supply of water from the public main with
    water from another source, like from a well.

    Such relaxation may be permitted subject to the following conditions:-

    (a) the mixed water is only used as process water, that is for cooling, for
    dyeing purposes and the like, but not for cleaning receptacles which
    would later be used to contain food and drinks,

    (b) the water from the public supply and from the private source is
    mixed in a cistern and the water from the public supply is discharged
    into the air not less than 150 mm (6") above the top edge of the
    cistern.
    Such mixed water is deernd not to be waler supplied from the public main
    for the purposes of this sub Rule.

    No service pipe shall be connected to a distribution pipe.

    A service pipe may be connected to a pump delivery pipe with a pipe by-
    passing the pump and the suction tank as shown in Fig. 3. This
    arrangement is economical in areas where the pressure in the main varies
    widely whereby the storage cistern can be filled at night but not in the
    daytime. Such arrangement shall have a ball valve and an automatic
    pump cut-off system in the storage cistern with the automatic cut-off set to
    operate at a level below which the ball valve will close.
    l.
    !..

    Storage Cistern
    'No fl o te ---c=F-==t=r....__,
    Control

    Pump
    Del i very
    Pipe

    Distribution Pipe
    Heter
    \
    Service Suction Pumps
    Pipe C"istern
    I

    ····· .

    J.K.R. Main Check Valve Bypass

    ir
    I·.

    ~··
    1··.
    i
    11...

    11I .
    :
    !
    i
    217(i) AU specials necessary in connection with .any pipe shall be capable of Provision of Specials
    withstanding a test pressure equal to that for the pipes to which it is
    connected.

    (ii) No bend or curve in any pipe shall be made so as to diminish the water
    way or airer the intern.al diameter of any part of the pipeline.

    (iii) Sufficient long screws, onions or fittings of a similar nature, shall be


    provided in all service and distribution pipes to allow for the replacing
    of faulty piping without excessive damage to the building.

    (i) Since the specials are part of the plumbing system, it is necessary for the
    specials to be tested to the same pressure specified for the pipes in Rule
    904(ii).

    (ii) At all changes in direction in pipelines, proper bends and elbows should
    be used. However, bending of pipes is allowed only to accommodate
    slight cringes in direction e.g. the slight changes in direction required for
    a W.C. flushing pipe.

    (iii) Sufficient union couplings should be provided in a plumbing system to


    facilitate · replacement of faulty piping and fittings and plumbing
    alterations so that least damage is caused to the building works and
    existing plumbing system. Recommended points for installation of the
    union couplings are at branches to groups of water fittings especially in
    multi-storeyed hotels and office buidlings. There should be similar
    provisions of union couplings in the branches of the system serving
    various bathrooms in private homes. r
    218(i) . Every service pipe supplying water shall be provided with a suitable Provision of Stop
    stop valve in addition· to the· ferrule at· the public main. Such stop Valves
    valve shall be placed immediately up-stream from the meter. If the
    stop valve is placed underground, it shall be enclosed in a proper
    chamber with a suitable cover or be otherwise adequately protected.

    (ii) A suitable stop valve shall be provided on every inlet and outlet of a
    storage or feed cistern, other than a warning pipe, and on the inlet
    pip€ to every flushing cistern.

    (i) The reason why the stop valve is pl.aced immediately upstream of the
    meter is to allow the supply of water from the public main to be shut off
    enabling the meter to be removed for repairs or replacement. This stop
    valve is sometimes used for regulating supply especially in areas where
    the mains pressure is excessive.

    111e bigger sizes of stop valves arc normally placed underground and
    enclosed in proper valve chambers. These chambers facilitate location of
    the valves and make their maintenance easier.
    J
    j
    \
    !

    l (ii) The provision of stop valves on every inlet and outlet of a storage or feed
    I cistern and on the inlet pipe to every flushing cistern is to enable

    L
    '!
    maintenance, repairs and cleaning to be done. The number of stop valves
    specified in this Sub-Rule is the minimum required. It is good practise for
    i stop valves to be provided at the following locations:-

    I
    ']
    \
    (a) on the branch serving the kitchen tap,
    ! (b) on a branch pipeline serving a number of fittings. If the branch
    tt pipeline serves more than 5 fittings, additional stop valves may be so
    positioned as to limit the number of fittings affected to 5 preferably,
    i
    ! (c) any other location which the State Director considers necessary to
    ensure even distribution in a big and complicated plumbing system.

    Stop valves are provided for the following reasons»

    (a) to facilitate repairs to fittings,


    (b) to isolate sections of the plumbing system,
    (c) to ensure even distribution of water by regulating the flow to each
    section.

    220(i) An efficient draw-off tap or taps of a screwdown type shall be Draw-off Taps on
    provided on the service pipe in every premise for drawing off water- Service Pipes
    for drinking or cooking purposes.

    (ii) All draw-off taps on service pipes shall be so fixed that their outlets
    I
    are at least 150mm (six inches) above the top edge of any tub, jar or 'ii.
    sink into which the water may discharge. j

    i ·,. (i) The screw-off type of taps are preferred for the following reasonsr-
    i

    (a) because of its gradual shutting of flow reverberations in the pipes


    will not occur,

    (b) it permits easier regulation of the flow of water out of the tap.

    The loose jumper type of tap shall be provided on the service pipe; refer to
    explanatory notes on Rule 209.

    Generally, in domestic premises only one tap, that is the kitchen tap shall
    ; be connected directly to the service pipe to draw water directly from the
    \
    ', public mains. In large mansions or bungalows, additional taps connected
    I
    t directly to the service pipe may be permitted if they ire to be used for
    providing water for drinking or cooking purpose, for example, in pantries
    or bars.

    In large hotels and restaurants all taps providing water for cooking and
    drinking purposes shall be connected to the service pipe or to the special
    drinking distribution pipe from the roof storage cistern (reference Rule
    405).

    I!
    ;
    -
    (ii) The rationale behind this requirement is to prevent contamination due to
    back siphonage.

    However, present day building construction practice is such that it may


    not be practical to provide the 150 mm (6") air gap stipulated in this Sub-
    Rule. Hence this particular Sub-Rule should be applied with flexibility.
    An air gap of less than 150 mm (6") may be allowed so long as there is no
    risk of contamination.

    221. No attachment or fitting except of a type approved by the State Attachment to Draw-
    Director, shall be fixed to the outlet of any tap on a service pipe to act off Taps on Service
    as a means of silencing the discharge or preventing the splashing of Pipes
    water from the tap.

    This rule would be difficult to enforce as consumers fixed such


    attachments only after the plumbing systems have been approved by the
    water authorities. If meter readers should see such attachments in the
    consumer's premises they should explain to the consumers the likelihood
    of contamination due to back siphonage. TI1ey should discourage the
    consumers from using such attachments.

    SUB-SECTION 2E - STORAGE CISTERNS


    -;,/

    222(i) Every storage cistern shall be water tight, properly supported and
    suitably protected against. corrosion. The storage cisterns shaU be
    constructed of galvanised mild steel, pressed steel sectional plates,
    fibre glass, asbestos-cement and reinforced concrete as approved by
    the State Director and shall comply with the relevant Approved
    Standards as shown in the Third Schedule attached hereto.

    (ii) If the cistern is constructed of iron or steel, the iron or steel shall be
    galvanised and the thickness of the metal used shall not be less than r
    that specified for Grade A tanks in the relevant Approved Standard.

    (iii) Every storage cistern of any mater ial or dimension other than those
    mentioned in the preceding paragraphs of this Rule shall he approved
    by the State Director before use and shall comply with the
    requirements of any relevant Approved Standard governing cisterns
    of such materials or dimensions.

    (i) Proper supports for storage cisterns are very important as cases of fibre
    glass storage cisterns being damaged due to improper supports have
    happened. The supports shall be constructed to manufacturers
    recommendation and/or to the satisfaction of the State Director.

    Storage cisterns are commonly made from:-

    (a) Galvanised mild steel (G.I.) or fibre glass for cisterns up to 1800
    litres (400 gallons) capacities.

    (b) Pressed steel sectional plates or reinforced concrete for cisterns


    greater than 1800 litres (400 gallons) capacities.

    ------~~----~··------·--· - -·- -------:~


    (c) . Reinforced concrete for cisterns greater than 45000 litres {10000
    gallons) capacities.

    (ii) Pressed steel sectional plates are highly susceptible to corrosion.

    The best protection against corrosion of these plates is to galvanise them


    and after they have been assembled to coat them with bituminous paint
    (e.g. Melanoid No. 1) or epoxy.

    The bituminous paint or epoxy shall be approved for waterworks use and
    shall be non-toxic, non-staining and odourless.

    A new material called Permaglas has been approved for use as a coating
    for pressed steel sectional plates. This material which is a glass coating is
    highly corrosion resistant.

    (iii) A new material that has been approved for use in the manufacture of
    water storage cisterns is High Density Polyethylene (H.D. Polyethylene).

    223. Every storage cistern shall be provided with a dust and. mosquito- Covers for Storage
    proof cover. The cover shall be so constructed that it shall not be Cisterns
    airtight, and shall be placed in such a position that the interior of the
    cistern may be readily inspected and cleaned, and for this purpose a
    clear space of not less than 375 rum (fifteen inches) shall be provided
    between the top of the cistern and any obstruction. The storage
    cistern shall not be placed in such a position as to render the water
    . \r therein liable to contamination .
    1
    f Covers for storage cisterns shall be properly designed and structurally
    sound. They shall not be airtight as to prevent an easy and smoother flow
    of water out of the cisterns.

    At the time of designing a building, adequate space should be provided for


    ..the size ot.water.istorage cisterns required. Very often this point is
    forgotten resulting in the storage cisterns being squeezed into any space
    that is available. This is not desirable because of maintenance difficulties.

    l'
    !
    Also placing the cisterns in some positions, as under or close to sanitary
    fittings and sewer pipes will render them liable to contamination. Or they
    may be placed so close to the roof that there may not be the required 375
    nun (15") clearance above the cistern for maintenance work.

    It is advisable for a building to be designed such that the storage cisterns


    can be removed for repairs or replacements.

    224. Every storage cistern or range of storage cisterns for domestic Capacity of Storage
    purposes shall have a capacity not less than that shown in the Cisterns
    following table:-
    T~ of Building Minimum Nominal
    Storage Canacirv

    Dwelling houses (rural) 450 litres (one hundred gallons)

    Dwelling houses and flats (urban) 680 litres (one hundred and fifty gallons)

    Multi-storey flats with high level bulk 140 litres (thirty gallons)
    storage cistern

    Low cost housing (approved by 450 litres (one hundred gallons) [,


    Government)

    Hostels 180 litres (forty gallons) per resident

    Day Schools 30 litres (six and a half gallons) per head per
    session

    Boarding Schools 180 litres (forty gallons) per resident

    Others One day's supply or as decided by the State


    Director

    Provided that the State Director shall have the power to stipulate that
    cisterns of higher capacity be installed in any case where he considers
    such higher capacity warranted.

    An important point to note is that the storage capacity referred to in this


    Rule is the "nominal capacity" defined in the notes.
    on "capacity" (Rule
    102 - Interpretation). This is a change from the old Rule which is based
    on the "capacity" of a storage cistern. · This fundamental change is
    necessitated due to the difficulty of determining the waterline· and .. the.. ·
    "capacity" of a cistern at the time of inspection of the water supply
    plumbing system of a building before commissioning. This "capacity" can
    1.I
    easily be changed by adjusting or bending up or down the lever arm of the
    ball valve.

    In this particular Rule, "urban" is intended to mean within city, municipal


    or town council limits. The reason why the nominal capacity of a storage
    cistern required for a rural house is less than that for an urban one is that
    it has been established that the rural population use less water than the
    urban folks.

    In multi-storey flats with bulk roof storage cistern or cisterns, the storage
    cistern in the individual units need not have the customary one day
    storage as the roof storage cistern or cisterns would have been sized to
    cater for that requirement The cistern in an individual flat only act as an
    air gap to prevent possible contamination of the whole supply. lt also
    serves as a break pressure tank. Only low cost housing in urban areas
    which are approved by the Government can be provided with 450 litres
    (100 gallons) storage cisterns. All other houses shall be provided with
    680 litres (150 gallons) cisterns. To qualify 'for the lower storage capacity
    requirement, the classification of "low cost" should be approved by the
    Government

    r
    I·
    ·----
    Ji\
    -~-·--·--···----··- . . .
    l
    I
    i

    L
    The storage cisterns. of hostels (e.g, school hostels, nurses' hostels) shall be
    designed to have one day's storage basing on 180 litres (40 gallons) per
    resident per day except for army and police barracks where it is
    recommended that 280 lites (60 gallons) per head per day should be used
    in the design of the storage cistern.
    l.~ .
    For "Others" like hotels, hospitals, etc. it is not practical to specify
    standard criteria for the design of the storage cistern. Each case should be
    considered on its own taking into account water consuming facilities
    provided in the premises. The State Director may insist on more that one
    ' day's storage if:-
    !
    I
    ( (a) the supply from the main is not reliable and is subject to. frequent
    breakdown,

    (b) the supply is very essential like supply to a hospital or other


    important institutions.

    The capacity of the storage cistern stated in this Rule does not include
    fire-fighting requirements, for which additional provision should be made.
    Where the water supply 10 a building is pumped, the capacity of the
    suction tank in relation to that of the roof-storage cistern shall be as given
    in the notes to Rule 403.

    · 225.. Every storage cistern or feed cistern of a capacity not exceeding 4,500 Storage Cistern of
    litres (one thousand gallons) shall comply with the following Capacity not
    requircmentsr- Exceeding 4,500
    Litres
    ·(a) it shall be provided with one overflow pipe which shall also be
    the warning pipe,

    .... (b) the internal diameter of the overflow pipe shall be greater than
    the internal diameter of the inlet pipe and in no case less than
    19 min (three quarters inch}' and shall be of a grade to the
    approval of the State Director,

    (c) · the overflowing level of the warning pipe shall be set SO mm


    (two inches) above the water line in the cistern and not Jess
    than 50 mm (two inches) below the top edge of
    the cistern,

    (d} the inlet pipe of the .cistern, or range of cisterns, drawing water
    from a service pipe shall be fitted with a high pressure ball rap,
    the outlet of which shall be at least 75 mm (three inches) above
    the water line,

    (e) the inlet pipe of the cistern, or range of cisterns, drawing water
    from a distribution pipe shall be fitted with ball tap capable of
    ~ .
    watertight closing against double the pressure to which it will
    be subjected under normal working conditions,

    (f). unless exempted by the State Director, a scour pipe shall be


    fitted to the lowest point of the cistern. The stop valve of this
    scour pipe shall be located in a convenient position and the
    scour pipe shall discharge into a drain,

    L~-~
    r..___~~~~~~~~~--~
    (g) the cistern shall not be buried or sunk in the ground unlessi-

    (i) the cistern is constructed of reinforced concrete and i


    designed as a water retaining structure,

    (ii) the cistern is so located and the outside surface of the


    cistern so drained that ground or flood water cannot rise
    to such level as to cause contamination to the water
    stored in the cistern, and

    (iii) the cistern shall pass a water-tightness test.

    (a) The purpose of the overflow pipe is:-

    (i) to ensure that water does not build-up in the storage cistern
    and overflow from its sides,

    (ii) to discharge the overflowing water in a conspicuous position


    thus indicating that either the ball valve or the level control
    system is defective.

    (b) Generally the overflow pipe is one size larger than the in.let pipe to
    ensure that it is of sufficient size to discharge the overflowing _,.,.
    water.

    If the overflow pipe is of G.I. it shall be of medium grade.

    (c) 1)1e overflowing level is set higher than the water-line to ensure
    that during normal operation water will not flow into the overflow
    pipe despite the waves and ripples in the water surface caused by
    the discharge from the inlet. For a small tank an allowance for an
    overflowing level to be 50 mm (2'') higher that the water-line is
    considered sufficient

    (d) The outlet of the ball valve fixed to the inlet.pipe of a cistern is set
    at a minimum of 3 inches above the waterline so tJ1a1 it will be at
    J
    least 25 nun (l ") above the overflowing level as shown in Fig. 4.
    This prevents back siphonage even when water is · at the
    overflowing level. In the case of the inlet being a pump delivery,
    the invert level of the inlet shall be at least 75 mm (3") above the
    water-line.
    1·....
    ( .

    L
    L
    l. . Stop
    i Overflow
    V1. l ve
    Pi pc ( 0
    •o • ts one
    l lnlet
    Pipe
    size hnicr
    than 'd'
    ( (j )

    I1;· Stop Vilvc


    l Scour Ptpc

    l
    L'
    l
    i The ball tap referred lo in this Sub Rule is corrunonly known as
    "ball valve".

    The use of silencing pipes to quieten the inflow of water into a


    storage cistern is to be discouraged. If silencing pipes are to be
    used, they .shall be perforated at a level above the overflowing level
    of the cistern if the body of the ball valve itself does not have the
    required perforations. This is to prevent "t,ack Slphcmage.
    (c) TI1c provision of a scour pipe for a storage cistern is considered
    good practice and no relaxation ofthis Sub Rule shall be allowed
    unless in exceptional circumstances.

    (f) Only R.C. cisterns shall be allowed to be buried in the ground as


    they have proven reliable. ·

    Steel cisterns should not be buried as they will be subjected to


    corrosion.

    (h) The level to which a cistern can be sunk into the ground will
    depend on whether the cistern can be properly scoured and also
    whether there is adequate drainage.

    l,

    I
    - .. -----·---
    226. Every storage cistern or feed cistern of a capacity exceeding 4,500 Storage Cistern of
    litres (one thousand gallons) shall comply with the following Capacity Exceeding
    requirements.- 4,500 Litres

    (a) it shall be fitted with an efficient overflow pipe and if such


    overflow pipe is not a warning pipe, shall also be fitted with an
    efficient warning pipe or some other effective device so
    arranged as to indicate when the water in the cistern reaches a
    level not less than 50 mm (two inches) below the overflowing
    level of the overflow pipe,

    {!;; w!ie~ 2 w:i.:-~;... g ~!!)~, b!.!t no other overflow pipe is fitted, the
    warning pipe shall comply with the requirements of paragraphs
    (b) and (c) of Ruic 225,

    (c) where both a warning pipe and an overflow pipe other than a
    warning pipe are fitted, the intrenal diameter of the warning
    pipe shall be not Jess than 25 mm (one inch),

    (d) the inlet pipe of the cistern or range of cisterns, drawing water
    from the service or distribution pipe shall be fitted with a ball
    tap, float operated valve or some other effective means of
    controlling the inflow of water, so designed as to prevent .;/
    overflow and capable of water tight closing against twice the
    pressure to which it will be subjected under normal working
    conditions:

    Provided that; with the prior approval of the State Director in


    writing, this requirement may be dispensed with where the
    cistern draws water from the service pipe through a . booster
    pump and

    (i) the inlet pipe to the cistern is above the height to which
    water will flow by gravity from the service pipe; and

    (ii) aU practicable steps are taken to prevent waste or


    contamination of water and flow of water back into the
    service pipe from the cistern.

    (e) a scour pipe shall be fitted to the lowest point of the cistern.
    The stop valve of this scour pipe shall be located in a convenient
    position and the scour pipe shall discharge into a drain.

    (f) the cistern shall not be buried or sunk in the ground unless the
    cistern complies with the conditions stated in paragraph (g) of
    Rule 225.

    ln essence Sub Rules (a), (b) and (c) state that a storage cistern shall have
    an efficient overflow and an effective warning system.
    l
    l
    All efficient overflow is one which is large enough to discharge the full
    inflow without water spilling over the top of the cistern.
    :l
    An "effective· warning system is either a warning pipe discharging in a
    conspicuous position or an electric bell system. An electric warning
    J. system with visual display is not considered "effective". ·

    For the large cisterns under consideration here, combining the warning

    J.
    { .
    pipe and the overflow pipe into one is not good practice. The large
    quantity of water discharged may cause damage to property.

    FIGURES

    \/Arning level

    ) \later Line
    \la rni os
    l Pipe
    '.i j Overflo,i
    J . ripe
    ii
    ':.f:
    .·.
    i
    }
    f !, ,·

    J.

    Fig. 5 shows the recommended relative levels of the overflow pipe, warning pipe,
    inlet pipe and the water line of the cistern.

    : I
    ! 1
    '!

    JI.
    I
    i
    j
    ~ ~~~~~~~~~ ..

    \--
    Provided that in hospitals, hotels and similar institutions, when: the
    pipe by which the tapis supplied is effectively lagged against loss of
    heat to the satisfaction of the State Director, the State Director may
    approve the fixing of taps at distances in excess of the maxima shown
    in the above table.

    The distances given in this Rule are for untagged pipes. If the pipes are
    lagged, they can be laid for greater lengths.

    In. the design of hot water pipelines, provision should be made for
    expansion of the pipelines due to rises in temperature.

    231. No taps or other means of drawing water (other than a tap with a Positon of Outlets in
    removable key for emptying the system) shall be connected to any Relation to Level of
    part of a bot water system in such a position that by its use the ievei of Water in Cyiiu,k,s
    the water in the hot water storage cistern, cylinder or tank can be and Tanks
    lowered:-

    (a) below the level of the top of any pipe connecting the cistern,
    cylinder or tank to the apparatus in which the water in the
    system is heater; or
    I
    I

    (b) more than one-half of the depth of the cistern or one-fourth of


    {
    the depth of the cylinder or tanks- i

    ..Provided thntr-

    (i) if the bot water system includes two or more hot water
    d
    cylinders or tanks at different levels, this Rule shall
    apply only in relation to the lowest cylinder or tank; and

    (ii) this Ruic shall not apply in relation to an open vessel in


    which water is directly heated.

    FCGUEE 6

    Vent Pipe

    Cold
    11.ter
    Feed

    Storage
    Ci stern --- L l

    Pri<nuy
    F10"1 -~ A
    Ila t e r
    Level . ---}

    Draw-off

    Pr!rM ry
    Return

    _Jr·
    NOTE: 1. Water level to be above 'A'

    2. D = 3/4L for cylinder or tank or l/3L for cistern


    j
    I '
    ! The requirements of this Rule is presented diagrammatically in Fig. 6.

    li (b) In approving commercial water heaters for use in premises


    supplied with public water supply, compliance with this sub-rule
    should be looked into. From experience, present day commercial
    heaters comply with the requirements of this sub-rule.

    232. U the cold water for bot water apparatus be supplied from a feed Outlet from Hot
    cistern the outlet from the feed cistern shall be 50mm (two inches) Water Feed Cistern
    above the bottom of the cistern or such greater distance as may be
    made necessary by the mode of construction of the -cistern and the
    connecting pipe sbal1 deliver water to the bot water apparatus only.

    Leaving a minimum of 50 m (2") depth of stagnant water in the storage


    cistern prevents silt or sludge accumulated in it from being drawn into the
    heaters.

    It is considered good practice to use a single cold water feed pipe to supply
    each heater. In large buildings where this may not be practical, a properly
    I
    .. 1.
    designed main cold water feed pipe may be used to supply a number of
    heaters.

    1···',
    ! 233. U the feed cistern for a bot water apparatus be a storage cistern for Hot Water Outlet to
    other purposes, any outlet for those other purposes shall be at the be Same Level as
    same level as the outlet for the hot water apparatus. Outlets for Other
    Purposes
    Code of Practice 310 recommends that the outlet for other services shall
    be taken off at a lower level 1J1an that for the hot water apparatus; this is to
    prevent the continued flow of hot water from the heater after cold water
    has stopped flowing. In this event, scalding may occur if a mixing valve
    is used. Therefore, the outlet of other services shall not be taken off at a
    r i higher level than the outlet feeding a hot water apparatu_s.
    I I
    '1.
    Ball valves shall not be fitted to hot water storage cisterns as operational
    tests comparing the life of ball floats of copper in hot and cold water have
    shown that the useful life in hot water is only a negligible proportion of
    that commonly experienced in cold water. In addition hot water destroys
    very rapidly the rubber washer of the ball valve.

    235. AU mixing valves, pipes or other water fittings in which hot water and Mixing Valves
    cold water are mixed shall be supplied !!-cm !! hot water 2~;:rr2~.is
    connected to a feed cistern and cold water from a storage cistern.

    The intention of this rule is to prevent the cold water supply from being
    drawn from the service pipe. This is to prevent the possibility of scalding
    due to the sudden stoppage of flow of the cold water.

    I
    I
    236. Except for instantaneous heaters and thermostatically controlled
    electric water heaters of capacity less than 13.5 litres (three gallons)
    all hot water apparatus shall be installed with an open vent
    (expansion) pipe of nominal diameter of not less than 19 mm (three
    quarter inch) connected to the highest part of the hot water draw-off
    or secondary flow pipe and having a continuous rise to a swan neck,
    the outlet of which shall be at a height above the water line of the cold
    water storage cistern or feed cistern equal to not fess than 13 mm (half
    inch) for every 300 mm (one foot) difference in level between the
    cistern and the bot water apparatus or 300 mm (twelve inches)
    whichever is greater.

    In multi-storey flats or other buildings having a number of heaters, it


    would be impractical to insist on a separate vent pipe to each heater. A
    common vent pipe or two common vent pipes should be allowed instead of
    a separate vent pipe for each heater. TI1is is not considered bad practice as
    the heaters have built-in safety features like thermostatic control and
    safety valves. Fig. 7 shows a typical layout of vent pipes.

    FIGURE 7
    l I

    f I

    '
    rr
    r----------- Coomon Vent P i pe
    ,.
    Chee>: V41Ve

    ~-Heaters

    ~---------Vent P 1 ce

    Heater~

    0-Heater~

    y
    r
    SUB-SECTION 2H - METERS
    !!
    246. All meters excluding sub-meters shall be supplied, fixed and
    maintained by the State Director and shall remain Government
    Meters to be Fixed by
    Government
    , if-,
    i - .

    property, but the consumer shall be solely responsible for the safe
    custody or the meter or meters whilst they are fixed on the service
    pipe or pipes supplying bis premises with water. No consumer shaU
    permit any meter to be removed from bis supply unless the person
    [
    who is authorised to remove such meter presents to the consumer a
    written form of Authority authorising Wm to remove such meter.
    Where so directed by the State Director, the consumer shall provide,
    at his own expense, a covered meter box or chamber for the protection
    of any meter.

    In this clause, the words 'safe custody' mean that the consumer in
    responsible for anything that happens to the meter which is fixed to his
    service pipe, be it theft or damage of any kind.

    A consumer should nol allow his meter lo be removed by any person


    r
    unless that person serves him (the consumer) with a letter from the State
    Director authorising that person to remove the meter. The letter should be
    addressed to the consumer and the original surrendered to him,
    Presentation of the person's authority or identification card is not enough
    authorisation for him to remove the meter.
    ,-/ I'·
    ;7
    L
    The main purpose of a meter box is to protect the meter. Although the·
    consumer has provided a meter box as directed, he should not assume that,
    that is the end of his responsibility for the safe custody of the meter. He is
    still liable for its loss or damage. Normally, the small meters used to ,.
    measure domestic supplies are not required to be covered by meter boxes. ..
    [. I

    The siting of the meter shall be decided upon by the State Director
    247. who shall be at liberty to fix the meter at a point most convenient to Siting of Meters J •: ~;
    I
    him. .L.1 ..
    Unless there are specific reasons for doing so, all meters should be
    installed in the front portion of the consumers' compounds as they are
    r;
    responsible for the meters' safe custody. .· L
    Where the reading of a meter or the changing of a meter is found to
    248. be difficult at its original position due to any subsequent actions or Resiting of Meters
    obstructions caused by the consumer; the State Director may have the
    meter resited at the expense of the consumer.
    [
    The consumer may have extended his house so much that the meter is now
    inside the house or he may be stacking goods, firewood or other
    obstructions around the meter thus causing difficulty in the reading or
    changing of the meter. In such cases, the State Director may have the
    meter resited at the expense of the consumer.

    249. Sealing of Meters


    A seal shall be fixed to every meter.

    The seal referred to in this rule is the one used to seal the meter to the
    L
    union of the service pipe. The body of the meter should also have another
    seal.
    L
    [
    ..... ~~---·-·~·---
    SUB-SECTION 2G - BATHS, LAVATORY BASINS, SINKS,
    YYATER CLOSETS AND SIMILAR
    SANITARY APPARATUS

    240. Every flushing cistern serving a water-closet pan shall be so designed W .C. Flushing
    and arranged that the volume of the flush or, in the case of an Cistern
    apparatus designed to give two flushes of different volumes, the
    volume of the larger flush (excluding the water entering the cistern
    during a flush) shall not exceed two gallons and shall comply with the
    relevant Approved Standard.

    A flushing cistern designed to give 2 flushes is known as a "dual flush"


    cistern. The flushing lever has 2 positions. The first will give a smaller
    flush which is meant to clear the W.C. pan of urine while the second will
    result in the discharge of the larger flush which is meant to clear faeces.

    242. Where the prior approval of the State Director in writing has been Automatic Flushing
    obtained, automatic flushing cisterns may be installed in public or Cisterns
    private institutions, public conveniences and other similar places.
    Such automatic flushing cisterns shall comply, as regards quality, with
    the relevant Approved Standard and shall be so constructed as to
    prevent waste, undue consumption, misuse or contamination of water.

    Installing automatic flushingcisterns in office buildings will result in the


    waste of a large quantity of water as the buildings will be used only during
    office hours whereas the automatic flushing cisterns will be working
    throughout the day and night.

    Automatic flushing cisterns for urinals should be designed to fill in 20


    minutes.

    243. No flushing valves shall be installed or used in any installation unless.- Flushing Valves

    (a) the valves arc supplied from a special feed cistern which
    supplies water to such valves only,

    (b) the written approval of the State Director bas been obtained
    who may grant such approval subject to such conditions as be
    may think fit

    The pipework for flushing valves shall be purpose designed as the valves
    require a minimum pressure lo operate.

    245. Where any water fitting is to be permanently disconnected so much of Disconnection of


    any pipe which supplies water to that fitting only and is not required Water Fittings
    to supply water to any other fitting shall be disconnected.

    The purpose of removing the pipework connected solely to the


    disconnected fitting is to prevent dead water from being stored there.

    - . ----------------
    Meters are sealed for the following reasons-

    (a) union seal - to prevent removal of the meter so-leaving the supply
    unmetered,

    (b) seal on meter .: to prevent unauthorised tampering with the


    mechanism of the meter.

    Ensuring that the seals of all existing meters are intact is important to
    prevent tampering and pilfering of water but this can be a tremendous task
    for the Water Authorities. All meters of new connections should be sealed
    and a programme of resealing the existing meters should be carried out
    before Rule 254 can be enforced.

    250. The State Director may at bis discretion change a meter at aoy time Changing of Meters
    l without assigning any reason.

    The State Director may change a consumer's meter for the following
    reasons>

    (a) for repairs and overhauls to be done to the meters,


    (b) for servicing the meters,
    (c) to replace the meters if the present ones are not registering
    correctly.

    Although it is not mandatory for the State Director to assign reasons for
    changing a meter, it is necessary for him to give written authorisation for
    the removal of the meter as required in Rule ;246·.

    25l(i) A consumer who doubts the accuracy of the meter which measures his Testing of Meters
    water supply may, upon payment of a deposit as laid down in the
    Second Schedule hereto have such meter tested by the State Director
    and the consumer or his representative may be present at such test,
    The result of such test shall be binding upon the consumer.

    (ii) A meter shall be said to register correctly when the inaccuracy docs
    not exceed three percent.

    (iii) In the event of the meter being found to over-register, the deposit shall
    be refunded to the consumer. Where the meter is found to be correct
    or to under-register, the deposit shall be forfeited and shall be
    credited to the revenue or the Govenment,

    (i) The standard test formeters is described in Appendix 'B '. The payment of
    the deposit required in this sub-rule is to cover overheads, testing costs
    and prevent frivolous requests for testings.

    (ii) Meters with errors exceeding 3 percent are considered to be not suit.able
    for waterworks use in this country. Meters purchased have accuracy better
    than 3 percent.

    252{i) When it is shown to the satisfaction of the State Director that a meter Basis or Water
    has, for any cause, failed to register correctly the volume of water Charge in the Event
    supplied to any premises, the charge to be made in respect of any of Failure of Meter to«
    period or part of a period during which, in the opinion of the State Register correctly
    Director, sucb failure bas occurred or continued, shall ber-

    - -------··-·----- --· ----···----·-· ·----


    (a) on the basis of the average consumption for such or similar
    premises for the last three completed periods of billing during
    which in the opinion of the State Director there was no such
    failure; or

    (b) on the basis of a addition to or subtraction from the amount


    chargeable for a particular period of billing corresponding to
    the percentage by which such meter was determined by the
    State Director to be registering too little or too much as the case
    may be; or

    (c) on the basis of the estimated consumption calculated from the


    check readings taken from a new meter installed at the
    premises; or

    (d) on the basis of such other equitable methods for the calculation
    of the estimated consumption.

    (u) The choice of these alternative methods of calculation shall be within


    the discretion of the State Director and on certifying the amount
    payable in accordance with one or oilier of these methods such amount
    shall immediately become payable by the consumer on demand and
    shall be recoverable from him as a civil debt.

    Provided that no additional .. amount may be recovered from any


    consumer under this rule in respect of any period more than sixty
    days prior to the.date on which the meter is removed for testing.

    (i) A meter may fail to register correctly the volume of water supplied to any r
    l':'·
    premises due to:-

    • the meter being jammed, 1·


    w- ': ...
    • U1e meter having been damaged,
    ~-.
    • the meter losing its accuracy because of fair wear and tear. ~.'

    tJ '
    I
    (a) There are 2 methods of estimating the average consumption of a
    consumer-

    (i) basing on the average of the last 3 periods of billing for the
    same premises if they are available,
    ,r.
    (ii) if the required three periods of billing for the same premises
    are not available, the consumption can be estimated from
    tile last 3 completed periods of billing for similar premises.

    "Similar premises" in this section refers to similarity in usage and


    number of persons using the supply and not to architectural
    similarity. This method of calculation is not applicable to factory
    supplies.

    (b) This method is applied after testing of the meter .

    . ----L·---------
    (c) This method of calculating consumption is intended to be applied
    J . to new consumers where there are no previous readings availam.ho--~,;:·-
    l arrive at an average. Check readings, to be representative, should
    be taken over a period of at least two weeks.

    (d) Where the State Director considers that it is not very appropriate to
    apply methods (a), (b) or (c) given in this rule, then any other
    method can be used depending on circumstances but the method
    used must be equitable. For example, a factory's consumption of
    water for the period in question may be estimated basing on its
    production of manufactured goods provided water is used in the
    manufacturing process.

    (ii) In this rule, sixtydays is selected as the maximum period back payment
    may be collected from a consumer because many water authorities bill
    their consumers bimonthly and it is assumed that the authorities are
    efficient enough to discover anything wrong with a consumer's meter
    within that time. Water authorities should therefore ensure that meters
    not registering correctly are detected early.

    253. The State Director may at bis discretion remove the meter from any Temporary
    supply and, during the period for which the water is not registered by Unmetered Supply
    a meter, the volume of water consumed shall be deemed to be the same
    as the average volume supplied for the last three completed periods of
    billing immediately preceding the removal of the meter, or as
    determined by such other equitable methods at the discretion of the
    State Director.

    Provided that no meter rent shall be charged during such period and
    provided further that the consumer may · require a meter to be
    installed if the period during which the supply has not been metered
    exceeds six months.

    111c situation envisaged in this rule will only happen when there is· a
    shortage of new meters and the consumer's old meter is faulty. Under
    normal circumstances, when a faulty meter is removed, a new or
    reconditioned one will replace it. This rule is seldom applied.

    ,·· 254. In the event of a meter being opened up or interfered with whilst in Interfering with
    i
    l the consumer's possession or being so used that the water can be Meter
    '
    (
    wasted, misused or unduly consumed; or in the event of the seal or
    lock of a meter being broken or any action being done which might
    ,·
    i impair or falsify the measurement of water by any meter, or in the
    t event of the meter being or is likely to be damaged by any action
    1
    otherwise than by fair wear and tear; or the meter being removed;
    then the State Director shall at once cut off the supply of water and
    t,.-,c all necessaryrepairs <lone to llic meter. The consumer snail pay
    to the Government the full cost of such repairs and of all losses and
    I •
    expenses incurred thereby, in addition to any oilier penalties to which
    ! he may be liable, before the supply will be reopened to the consumer.
    In addition, the consumer shall pay the charges for re-connection or
    the supply and for re-fixing of the meter as laid down in the Second
    Schedule hereto.
    \,.
    ' This clause gives wide powers to the State Director to cut off water supply
    involving any tampering with the meter. The State Director is expected to
    exercise powers only after careful and judicious consideration.

    ;-__,
    255. When a meter has beendamaged or destroyed and the State Director Damage or
    is of the opinion that sucb damage or destruction is not the result of Destruction of Meters
    fair wear and tear the amount certified by the State Director to be the
    cost of repair or reinstatement shall be payable by the consumer on
    demand and shall be recoverable from him as a civil debt,

    Reference is made to Rule 2A6 in which the consumer is charged with the
    safe custody of the meter. So if anything happens to the meter, U1e
    consumer is liable lo pay for the cost of repairs or replacement

    256(i) Sub-meters shall not be installed except with the special written Sub-meters
    :.yi;;-;;;,·;;.! ;;;!' !.!:.e St2~e !)~ect~~ ~!.w may grant such approval subject to
    such conditions as he may deem fit.

    (ii) The Public Works Department will not supply or install any sub-
    meters and will not be responsible for the reading of such meters
    installed.

    (iii) Where tbe supply to a building is sub-metered, the maintenance of the


    communication pipe by the State Director referred to in Rule 307
    shall be up to the main meter only.

    (iv) Rules 246 to 255 shall not apply to sub-meters.

    (i) Normally only multi-storey flats with pumped supplies, shopping


    complexes, police and army quarters will be allowed to be sub-metered.
    TI1e meters will not be supplied by the water authorities nor will they
    maintain the meters.

    The main consumer cannot resell the water to the sub-consumers but may
    recover from them the actual cost of the water supplied at the rate charged
    by the Water Authorities. In addition to this, the ma.in consumer normally
    charges separately for the cost of operation and maintenance of the
    pumping system. It is important that main consumer should not make a
    profit on the supply given to the sub-consumers. It is recommended that
    Water Authorities stipulate conditions of provision of a supply to the main
    consumer when approving sub-metering.
    I.

    Meters are sealed for the f-9..!J.9~g reasons:-

    (a) union seal - to prevent removal of the meter so-leaving the supply
    unmetered,

    (b) seal on meter .: to prevent unauthorised tampering with the


    mechanism of the meter.

    I
    i
    Ensuring that the seals of all existing meters are intact is important to
    prevent tampering and pilfering of water but this can be a tremendous task
    for the Water Authorities. All meters of new connections should be sealed
    and a programme of resealing the existing meters should be carried out
    before Rule 254 can be enforced.

    250. The State Director may at bis discretion change a meter at any time Changing of Meters
    without assigning any reason.

    f
    TI1e State Director may change a consumer's meter for the following
    \ reasons>
    <

    (a) for repairs and overhauls to be done to the meters,


    (b) for servicing the meters,
    (c) to replace the meters if the present ones are not registering
    correctly.

    Although it is not mandatory for the State Director to assign reasons for
    changing a meter, it is necessary for him to give writtenauthorisation for
    the removal of the meter as required in Rule 2A6.

    251(i) A consumer who doubts the accuracy of the meter which measures bis Testing of Meters
    water supply may, upon payment of a deposit as laid down in the
    Second Schedule hereto have such meter tested by the State Director
    and the consumer or his representative may be present at such test.
    The result of such test shall be binding upon the consumer. · · ·

    (ii) A meter shall be said to register correctly when the inaccuracy does
    not exceed three percent.

    (iii) In the event of the meter being found to over-register, the deposit shall
    be refunded to the consumer. Where the meter is found to be correct
    or to under-register, the deposit shall be forfeited and shall be
    credited to the revenue or the Govenmeol

    (i) TI1e standard test for-meters is described in Appendix 'B'. The payment of
    the deposit required in this sub-rule is to cover overheads, testing costs
    and prevent frivolous requests for testings.

    (ii) Meters with errors exceeding 3 percent are considered to be not suitable
    for waterworks use in this country. Meters purchased have accuracy better
    than 3 percent.

    252(i) When it is shown to the satisfaction of the State Director that a meter Basis of Water
    has, for any cause, failed to register correctly the volume of water Charge in the Event
    supplied to any premises, the charge to be made in respect of any or
    of Failure Meter to-
    period or part of a period during which, in the opinion of the State Register correctly
    Director, such failure bas occurred or continued, shall be:-

    -- -·-·· ·-------------------- ·----


    (a) on the basis of the average consumption for such or similar
    premises for the last three completed periods of billing during
    which in the opinion of the State Director there was no such
    failure; or

    (b) on the basis of a addition to or subtraction from the amount


    chargeable for a particular period of billing corresponding to
    the percentage by which such meter was determined by the
    State- Director to be registering too little or too much as the case
    may be; or

    (c) on the basis of the estimated consumption calculated from the


    check readings taken from a new meter insta lied at the
    premises; or

    (d) on the basis of such other equitable methods for the calculation
    of the estimated consumption.

    (ii) The choice of these alternative methods of calculation shall be within


    the discretion of the State Director and on certifying the amount
    payable in accordance with one or other of these methods such amount
    shall immediately become payable by the consumer on demand and
    shall be recoverable from him as a civil debt.

    Provided that no additional amount may be recovered from any


    consumer under this rule in respect of any period more than sixty
    days prior to the date on which the meter is removed for testing.

    (i) A meter may fail to register correctly the volume of water supplied to any
    premises due to:-

    ..• the meter being jammed,


    the meter having been damaged,
    • the meter losing its accuracy because of fair wear and tear .

    (a) There are 2 methods of estimating the average consumption of a


    consumer.-

    (i) basing on the average of the last 3 periods of billing for the
    same premises if they arc available,

    (ii) if the required three periods of billing for the same premises
    arc not available, the consumption can be estimated from
    the last 3 completed periods of billing for similar premises.

    "Similar premises" in this section refers to similarity in usage and


    number of persons using the supply and not to architectural
    similarity. This method of calculation is not applicable to factory
    supplies.

    (b) This method is applied after testing of the meter.


    SECTION THREE - PRIVATE SUPPLIES.

    30l(i) Every consumer who requires a new supply or who requires to carry Application for New
    out alterations (except for renewals or repairs) to an existing supply of or Extended Supplies
    water shall, before any water pipe or water fitting is fixed in or in or for Alteration
    connection with supply, apply for approval in such form as may be
    approved by the State Director. All plumbing plans shall be
    submitted by approved persons as set out in the fourth Schedule
    hereto. He.shall also oo the same form state the name and address of
    ' .. the Licensed Plumber whom he intends to employ in the installation of
    the water pipes or water fittings.

    (ii) In all cases where water from tbe public mains is to be supplied, the
    consumer shall, when required, sign an application on such form as
    may be approved by the State Director confirming the terms and
    conditions upon which the supply has been permitted.

    Anyone who desires a water supply may be given a supply subject to his
    compliance with the Water Supply Rules and other conditions imposed by
    the State Director. Conditions imposed vary from State to State. One of
    the conditions most water authorities impose is the requirement of an
    ..,.:. application for a supply of water being accompanied by a letter from the
    Local Authority concerned or the District Officer or Penghulu of the area
    certifying that the applicant is not a squatter.

    The Fourth Schedule of the Rules is a schedule of persons approved to


    submit plumbing plans. ·

    JKR Federal Headquarters maintains a register of approved water


    consulting engineers. All water authorities should follow this register
    unless they have reasons for not doing so.

    302. Any consumer wishing to have bis water service disconnected or Disconnection and
    reconnected shall make written application in such form as may be Reconnection of
    approved by the State Director and shall give at least three day's Supply
    notice (Weekly Holidays and Public Holidays excluded) of the date on
    which be desires the disconnection or reconnection to be effected.

    The 3 days notice is the period allowed for arranging work to be done.

    Normally, the time taken to effect disconnection or reconnection will not


    take more than 3 days.

    303. Except with the consent of the State Director, no supply shall be given All Supplies through
    to a.ny consumer otherwise than through a meter. Meter

    All supplies of water to consumers shall be metered except during periods


    of meter shortage and as allowed under Rules 253. However, the practice
    of allowing unmetered supplies is to be discouraged.
    304. No consumer shall have more than one communication pipe to the One Communication
    same premises, except with the written approval of the State Director. Pipe only

    This rule is to prevent too many connections being made to the public
    main. Too many connections will weaken the pipe and ,will become
    sources of leaks. An exception to this rule can be made if the consumer
    later builds a swimming pool. He can request for and be allowed to have
    another communication pipe. The water for the swimming pool is
    charged at a different rate.

    305(i} No ccmmunication pipe shall be tapped to give a supply of water to Tapping of


    Cennnunication Pipe
    to Serve Other
    (a) the consumer served by the communication pipe, Consumers
    (b) the owner of the pipe, and
    (c) the State Director, who may withhold his consent if, in his
    opinion, the communication pipe is inadequate to supply the
    needs of both consumers.

    Consent given by the consumer in the premises originally served by


    the communication pipe may be withdrawn at any time on giving one
    month's notice in writing to the State Director and to the other
    consumer of bis intention to do so and provided further that he pays -,;-·;,'
    the charges for disconnection of the other consumer's pipe.

    (ii) This rule shall not apply in the case of a block of flats or group of
    houses on the. same building and under the same ownership. The
    owner of such property may tap a communication pipe supplyiug one
    of the flats or houses to supply other flats or houses within the holding
    on obtaining the prior written approval of the State Director who shall
    be satisfied that the communication pipe is adequate to meet the
    . requirements of all consumers.

    (i) (a) The consent of the consumer served by the communication pipe is
    sought so as to give him a chance to object if he thinks that sharing
    the communication pipe with another consumer would further
    reduce supply to his premises, which at present might be barely
    satisfactory.

    (b) TI1c consent of the owner of the pipe is essential as sharing his pipe
    without his approval would amount to violating his property rights.

    (c) The State Director's consent is required as he is the most


    technically competent person to judge whether the communication
    pipe in question is of adequate size to cater for needs of both
    consumers.

    If at some future date, the consumer in the premises originally served by


    the communication pipe finds that the supply to his house is inadequate
    due to:-

    .. ------··--··
    --··
    • his consumption having increased or
    • the pressure in the public main being reduced or,
    • the carrying capacity of the communication pipe being reduced due
    to age or,
    • some oilier valid reasons but not due to malicious intent,

    I. then he may withdraw his consent to the sharing of the communication


    pipe. Although ideally the consumer should not withdraw his consent
    unless he has a valid reason, as the Rule now stands, the State Director
    must disconnect the other consumer's pipe whatever the reason the
    J
    l
    consumer in the premises originally served by the communication pipe
    \
    ! may have for withdrawing his consent.

    (ii) This Sub-Rule assumes that the communication pipe is in the first
    instance designed to cater for a group of flats or houses. If the property
    owner wants to tap the same communication pipe to supply other fiats or
    houses within the holding constructed subsequently, the State Director has
    ! to satisfy himself that the pipe is of adequate size to meet the needs of all

    I 306.
    the consumers, before granting approval to the sharing of the
    corrununication pipe.

    The installation of the communication pipe and the fixing of the meter Installation of
    for private supplies shall be carried out by the State Director who Communication Pipe ....
    may, at bis discretion supply part or all of the necessary materials and and Meter
    !'
    f all labour required. Defore any work commences, the consumer shall
    { : supply all oilier materials as required and pay a connection charge
    · laid down in the Second Schedule hereto together with the actual cost
    of any compensation payable under Section 28 of the Enactment.

    Provided that, should the State Director desires to lay a public main.in
    lieu of part of a communication pipe, the additional cost of laying the
    main instead of the communication pipe shall be borne by the
    Government and the property in the main will thereupon vest in the
    Government.
    . i
    r
    ''
    r .
    ' Ideally the water authority should supply all labour and materials required
    for the installation of the communication pipe to ensure a high standard of
    t' workmanship and a uniform and a high quality of materials. But this
    'l.. Rule has been so drafted as to cater for those States which have difficulty
    in securing supplies of materials.

    If the State Director finds that his departmental labour force cannot cope
    with the amount of work involved, he may engage specially approved
    contract labour to do part of the job, provided the contract labourers meet
    the health requirements. It is not considered good practice to allow the
    consumer's plumber to Jay part of the communication pipe.

    Regarding compensation payable, Section 28 of the Enactment stipulates>

    I I
    H28 (i) The Ruler-in-Council may cause lo be made such main and
    other pipes, aqueducts and conduits as he may judge necessary for
    sufficiently supplying any water supply area and the inhabitants
    thereof with water, and the State Engineer in executing such works
    may, if necessary, carry such pipes, aqueducts and conduits
    through, across or under any street of any place laid out or intended
    for a street or any building or any cellar or vault which is under any
    street and, after reasonable notice in writing in that behalf served
    on the owner or occupier, into, through or under any inclosed or
    other land whatsoever doing as little damage as may be and
    making reasonable compensation for any damage done.

    (ii) If any dispute arises touching the amount of apportionment of


    compensation the same shall be summarily ascertained and
    determined by a Magistrate of the First Class, subject to an appeal
    to the Supreme Court, provided that if the amount of compensation
    awarded does not exceed $100 the decision of the Magistrate shall
    be final."

    FJGURE 8
    ,:.-

    r
    Consumer'~ Premise f'
    Part • a •
    I J
    I Meter
    to be future
    replaced Houses~
    bJ cuol i'c
    r--, r-,
    I 1
    main.\ L J L~_j
    , a • 'b' J
    ,, ' \
    ::.r
    ---L----~1----- ----
    le •
    · IT
    ,,~l
    I l
    L _ _J
    Public Main · Ccnrnun i cat 1 on
    Pipe

    Figure 8 illustrates an example where the Slate Director may desire lo lay
    a public main in lieu of part of a communication pipe. The part in
    question is part 'a' of the communication pipe.

    !_ •• __ .. - ·---"' ...
    J.l
    )"
    l 307(i) All communication pipes shall be repaired and maintained by the
    State Director at the expense of the consumer provided there shall be
    Maintenance of
    Communication Pipes
    no charge on the consumer in respect of repairs to the communication
    J
    ! pipe damaged on or under any public road. Any further part of the
    service pipe and all distribution pipes and fittings connected thereto
    shall be repaired and maintained by a Licensed Plumber or in special
    circumstances, by the State Director at the expense of the consumer.

    (ii) Where a communication pipe is shared by two or more consumers, the


    cosf of repairs and renewals when chargeable to the consumers shall
    be cbarg~d pro rata.

    (i) In this Rule, the "public road" shall mean any road that is maintained with
    ri public funds and shall include the side tables up to and including the side
    j drains.

    1 ·. Any damage caused by traffic, subsidence or other defects of the road to


    I that part of the communication pipe that is under or on any public road
    l
    shall be repaired by the State Director without charge to the consumer.
    The rationale behind this is that the consumer should not be held liable for
    such damage. However the replacement of communication pipes on or
    under public roads due to corrosion, age and the like shall be at the
    ~onsumer's expense .

    . The phrase "any further part of the service pipe" means that part of the
    service pipe aft.er the meter. The service pipe after the meter and all
    distribution pipes and fittings including cisterns shall be repaired and
    maintained by a Licensed Plumber at the consumer's expense. However,
    under the following special circumstances, the State Director may carry
    out such repairs at the consumer's expenser-

    (a) where it involves supplies to both private and Government owned


    hospitals, nursing homes or other institutions, for which a
    breakdown in water supply is considered by the State Director to
    have serious consequences to the public,

    (b) when there is a danger of contamination of the public supply.

    (ii) Where a communication pipe is shared by two or more consumers, the


    cost of repairs and renewals shall be charged as illustrated in Figure 9.

    . -· ··-··-·--- ....-·-~-
    t
    I
    J

    II
    I
    EIG!JRE 9

    Consvmer Consumer A to be Consumer C to be


    solely liable for ~solely 1 iable for

    - Pub 1 ic Hain
    this pan L this pan

    ---i Consumer
    C 's meter

    LJ Consumer~ A. B & Consumers 8 L


    1
    c to~- Consume,· B to be
    C to be jointly be jointly liable so'.ely liable for
    l i able for this for this part, thl 5 part
    part, 1/3 share 1/2 share each
    each Consumer E "s meter

    308. The State Director may, at his discretion, alter the connection of a Alteration of
    communication pipe from a public main by disconnecting it from that Connection of
    main and connecting it to another public main or to the same main but Communication Pipe
    in a different position.

    In such a case no charge shall be made to the consumer, but any


    piping or otherwater fitting formerly used for the supply of water to
    such consumer's premises which in the opinion of the St.ate Director, is
    no longer required for the purposes of such supply, may be removed r
    by the State Director and the. property therein shall thereupon vest in i
    the Government;

    If a new main is laid to replace an existing main to improve supply


    area, then connections to the new main will be made free of charge
    i.n an
    to the J,
    consumers served by the existing main. Where the existing main
    provides the consumer with an adequate supply but he requests to be
    connected to another main which will give him a better supply, he has to
    pay for an
    charges and costs involved.

    309(i) Where a communication pipe or group of communication pipes lies Taking-over of


    within a public road reserve or within land which, under the approved Communication Pipe
    Town Plan will become a public road reserve, the State Director may,
    if he considers it to be desirable and after due notice in writing to the
    owner of the pipe, take over the communication pipe or pipes without
    compensation for use as a public main whereupon the property in such
    pipe or pipes shall vest in the Government,

    (ii) Where a communication pipe or group of pipes lies within private


    land, the State Director may similarly take over such pipe or pipes but
    only with the agreement, in writing, of the owner of the pipe or pipes
    and thereupon the property in the pipe or pipes sha II vest in the
    Government

    [!
    . - -, ---..!~·
    I !
    1·
    (i) The intention of this Sub-Rule is to give the State Director powers to

    Li takeover the water mains of a housing estate. For more details on the
    procedure for the taking-over, refer to Rule 603 on housing estates.

    l (ii) The communication pipe or group of pipes referred IO in this sub-Rule


    pertain mainly to those pipes in private plantations.
    I .I
    310(i) Every consumer who requires a new supply or who requires to alter or Installation of Storage
    extend an existing supply shall install a storage cistern between the Cisterns
    meter and all taps except draw-off taps for drawing off water for
    drinking or cooking purposes.

    (ii) The State Director may, at his discretion and when supply conditions
    warrant it, require that existing installations be equipped with storage
    cisterns as stated in Sub-Section (i) above. In this event, the State
    Director shall serve a written notice upon the consumer, requiring
    him to carry out the necessary alterations within a specified period,
    which shall not be less than six months.

    (i) For the size of the storage cisterns to be installed, refer to Rule 224.

    If a supply has only one tap that is to the kitchen, no storage cistern need
    be provided. Many houses in rural areas fall under such a category.

    Refer IO the notes on Rule 103(ii) on the protection of the existing· rights
    of ihe consumer. This system was installed before the Rules came into
    force.

    (ii) Existing installations will be required by the State Director to be equipped


    with storage cisterns under the following supply conditionst-

    (a) when the supply is subjected to frequent breakdowns, or

    .CR) .... when the pressure in the public main varies widely whereby supply
    to the premises is only available at night and not during the
    daytime.
    f
    .i 311. No distribution pipe shall be extended so that water can be drawn Extension of Supply
    therefrom for any other premises. to Another Premises

    No extension of supply from _a service pipe shall be given to any other


    premises without the approval of the State Director.

    As the water from distribution pipes being fed from the storage cistern
    may not be potable, extending a st~.p!~ fr0!~ d!st:"!~!.!!!~~ ~!pes !:; ~~~e:-
    premises is not safe.

    Extension of supply to another premises from the communication pipe is


    permitted under Rule 305. If the State Director is satisfied that the service
    pipe is of adequate size, he may permit a supply to be extended from the
    service pipe after the meter.

    ---------·~---·,·---- .... -· .. - -
    312. Where, in the opinion of the State Director, any water fitting installed Defective Private
    in connection with a private supply and maintainable at the Supplies
    consumer's expense, is so defective or obstructed as to cause or be
    likely to cause waste, undue consumption, blockage or contamination
    of water supplied from the public mains.-

    (a) where such a fitting is a communication pipe or part thereof,


    the State Director may disconnect the supply without notice for
    the purpose of carrying out repairs. The cost of such repairs
    shall be paid by the consumer.

    (b) where the water fitting does not form part of a communication
    pipe, the State Director shall serve a written notice on the
    consumer concerned, detailing the repairs required and
    specifying a period within wnicn fut repairs sh£i:.: t,.; .;;., • :ce
    out.

    (a) Repairs to the communication pipe must be carried out


    immediate! y because of.-

    • the danger of contamination of the public supply.


    • the waste of water with the consequent loss of revenue

    Because of the danger of contamination and also the wastage of


    water, this Sub-Rule does not require the State Director to give
    notice . to the consumer before carrying out repairs to the
    communication pipe.
    >"' l
    I

    (b) This Sub-Rule applies to defects in the system after the meter and
    ,t
    requires the State Director to issue notice to the consumer to carry I
    i
    out repairs. Although no period for the consumer to complete the
    repairs is stated, one month for the consumer to complete the r
    repairs as required is considered to be reasonable.

    313. Should the consumer fails to comply with a notice served in


    accordance with Rule 310(ii),tbe State Director may disconnect the
    supply and recover the cost of disconnection from the consumer.

    314(i) Where a supply has been disconnected for non-payment of monies due Re-connection of
    or in accordance with Rule 313 for non-compliance with a notice Supply
    served, the supply shall not be reconnected until at least two days
    {Weekly Holidays and Public Holidays excluded) have elapsed from
    the time of payment of the monies due or the compliance with the
    notice served as the case may be. The day of re-connection shall be
    decided upon by the State Director who may, however, permit
    immediate restoration of the supply if he considers the non-payment
    or non-compliance to have been due to causes beyond the consumer's
    control.
    l
    (ii) No supply shall be re-connected pursuant to the provisious of Rule
    314(i) until the charge prescribed in the Second Schedule has been
    paid by the consumer to the State Director.

    This Sub-Rule stipulating that supply shall not be reconnected until the
    lapse of at least two days is intended to be punitive.

    But for good public relations, a supply that has been disconnected shall re
    reconnected as soon as possible after payment of monies due, or after
    compliance with the notice serve. The two days lapse required in this
    Rule is the period allowed for arranging for the work to be done.

    ·~i
    . ----.-- - ·--- --?-
    315. Where one consumer finally terminates his agreement for the supply Termination of
    of water and another consumer makes an agreement for the supply of A~reement for Supply
    water at the same premises, the new consumer shall pay the fee for
    reconnecting the service, notwithstanding the fact that the service has
    not been disconnected or reconnected. On termination of the
    agreement, the amount of the final water bill including au
    arrears up
    to the date of disconnection of supply may be deducted from the
    consumer's deposit and the balance due to his credit shaU be refunded
    to him.

    In the event of the demise of the consumer, it shall be the


    '.
    responsibility of the occupant of the said premises to arrange with the
    '
    State Director for the execution of a new water supply agreement
    within two months of the death of the consumer.

    The consumer's deposit is equal to twice his estimated monthly bill. As


    his final payment is not likely to be more than this, there is normally a
    balance due to him.

    TI1e reasons why a new water supply agreement has to be executed on the
    death of the consumer are-

    (a) the occupants of the said premises are not legally responsible for
    any liabilities incurred under the old agreement,

    (b) it enables the register of consumers to be updated.

    316. UJ the event of a consumer desiring a supply for temporary purposes Temporary Metered
    for a period not exceeding three months, the supply may be provided Supplies
    by the State Director metered and charged for at the rates as laid
    down in the Water Supply ( ) (Charges) Rules, 1980 attached hereto.

    In this Rule, the phrase "a supply for temporary purposes" means supplies
    for circuses, exhibitions, trade and fun fairs, etc .

    317. . fa the. event. of ·a consumer desiring a supply of water for building Supply for Building
    operations, the supply may at the discretion of the State Director, be Operations
    provided and charged at the rates laid down in the Water Supply ( )
    (Charges) Rules, 1980 attached hereto provided that this supply shall ·
    be disconnected on completion of building operations. In all cases, a
    storage cistern shall be installed for such supplies aud a check valve or
    other similar device shall be installed on the service pipe immediately .
    after the meter.

    In this Rule, the term "building operations" covers all constructional


    activities and is not limited to the construction of a building only.

    t The storage cistern required to be provided under this Rule shall be a


    proper storage cistern and not an old oil drum. TI1e capacity of.the cistern
    shall be adequate for the consumer's use and to the satisfaction of the State
    Director.

    Due to the poor pressure available in the systems fed by the storage
    cisterns, consumers with supplies for building operations may bypass the
    cisterns. This illegal act.ion is hard to eliminate. Tims a check valve is
    installed on the service pipe after the meter to obviate the danger of the
    public water supply being contaminated due to back-siphonage,

    -------------
    . . .
    Very often after a building is completed. the building operations supply is
    converted into the permanent supply. In such cases the check valve is
    removed to reduce the pressure lost in the system. Before the State
    Director permits the conversion of the building operations supply into the
    permanent supply, he shall first have to check whether the, technical
    requirements of the permanent supply can be met. Another tapping of
    larger size on the public main will have to be provided if the permanent
    supply required is larger than that of the building operations supply.

    318. No consumer shall draw water supplied from the public mains by a Use of Hoses for
    hose unless such water shall have first passed through a storge cistern Building Operations
    '}!' fee!!~!!::~~. T!l!!: R.!.!!~ 51!!'!!! !!~!2!)~!y !f the ?.12!e~ !5 d:--2~ f~!!!!! ~
    hydrant to be used for fire fighting pm poses.

    This prohibition on the use of a hose to draw water directly from the
    public mains is to prevent contamination of the public water supply by
    back-siphonage through the hose.

    SECTION FOUR - SUPPLY TO MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS

    401. Where, in the opinion of the State Director, it is not possible to supply Supplyto Multi-
    any part of or tile whole of a multi-storey building with water from storey Buildings
    the public main under the pressure available, a pumping system shall
    be installed.

    Some towns and cities have master plans zoning different areas for
    different types of development For example, there will be areas zoned for
    residential use, areas for commercial development with buildings not
    exceeding a certain number of storeys, etc. The reticulation systems of
    such towns and cities would be designed with this zoning in mind: · Thus,
    the pressure in the reticulation system in a zone of maximum height of
    four storeys, for example, would be sufficient for water to reach the
    storage cistern situated at the roof of.a normal four storey building without
    necessity of pumping. If a six storey building is to be built in this zone,
    the State Director should insist that a pumping system be installed even if
    the pressure available at present would be sufficient for water to reach the
    roof tank by gravity. But he may allow the pumps to be bypassed as
    shown in Fig. 3 of these notes. TI1e bypass may be used as long as the
    pressure available is sufficient for water to reach the storage cistern at the
    roof, the pumps being operated long enough every week to maintain them
    in good condition.
    ~\.·.,

    Another instance where the State Director should insist on 1J1e installation
    of a pumping system for a building is in areas where the pressure available
    in the public mains varies widely whereby the storage cistern can be filled
    at night but not in the daytime. Refer to the notes on Rule 215 on this
    subject,
    Even in areas which are not subjected to zoning, if the State Director
    expects the pressure in the public mains to drop below the pressure
    required for water to reach the storage cistern of a building by gravity or
    which will subject the building to an intermittent supply in future, due to
    development in the area, then the State Director should also insist on the
    installation of a pumping system for the building. Refer to the notes on
    Rule 111 on the interpretation of the results of pressure tests carried out
    on the public mains to determine whether pumps need to be installed in a
    building or not.

    402. The pumping -system shall be installed and maintained by the Maintenance by
    consumer who signs the contract for the bulk supply of water to the Consumer
    building. The consumer shall engage a contractor or firm approved
    by the State Director to service the water supply system regularly.

    •, Rule 111 states that no pump shall be installed in any building to boost
    !J. water supplied from the public mains without the written consent of the
    State Director who may grant such consent subject to such conditions as
    he may think fit, The approval for the installation of a pumping system in
    a building is usually given subject to the following conditions.-

    (a) the pumping system shall be maintained by a water authority


    approved contractor or firm whose workmen shall be available for
    emergency calls at all times of the day or night,

    (b) adequate spares considered necessary by the State Director for the
    proper maintenance of the pumpsets shall be stocked by the
    consumer,

    (c) arrangements shall be made by the consumer for bacteriological


    tests to be carried out on samples of water taken from the system as
    ·. required by the State Director.

    403. Every pumping system of a multi-storey building which is supplied Pumping System
    with water from the public mains shall comply with the following
    · requirementsr-

    ) J
    (a) it shall be constructed in accordance with a specification. and.
    design approved by the State Director before work thereon is
    ,. commenced. All pumping system plans and specification shall
    ii · be· prepared and submitted by persons approved by the State
    ~
    -..: ·' Director.

    (b) it shall have a suction cistern or cisterns from which water shall
    be conveyed by electric pumpset or pumpsets to storage cistern
    or cisterns at the roof level of the building. An equal number of
    similar pumpset or pumpsets shall pc provided as standby to the
    n;y-.:2!::!:g;m:=pse! er pumpsets, The pumpset or pumpsets shall
    be automatically controlled.

    (c) the suction cistern or cisterns shall be of suitable capacity and


    installed at a suitable level to receive water from the public
    ~
    main. The State Director may, at his discretion require the
    I:i
    inflow into the suction cistern or cisterns to be regulated.

    (d) the total capacity of the roof storage and suction cisterns shall
    not be less than the quantity of water required for one day's use.
    i Any storage requirements for fire-fighting shall be considered
    'L
    separately.

    --------------------~· -~.·
    (a) Sub-Rule 403(a) stipulates that only persons approved by the State
    Director may submit plumbing plans. These approved persons are
    those listed in the Fourth Schedule to the Wat1:,r Supply Rules.

    (b) For almost all cases, the pumping system of a building is left
    unattended. So automatic control of its starting and stopping is
    imperative. Fig. 3 of these notes illustrate an example of the
    pumps being bypassed. This arrangement is designed for those
    buildings where the pressure in the public main varies widely. For
    more comments on this subject, refer to U1e notes on Rule 215.

    (c) -S ..!c1J0!l cisterns come under the. definition of storage cisterns and
    1

    thus have to comply with the requirements of either Rule 225 or 226
    depending on size.

    TI1e total capacity of the ;t~9.ige cistern at the roof and the suction
    cistern shall not be less
    than that for one day's use. The capacity of
    suction cisterns is governed by the following factors:-

    (i) for a good pumping system the suction cisterns. shall not hold
    more than 1(3 the quantity of water required for 1 day's use
    nor shall the cisterns contain less than the quantity required
    for one hour of pumping without inflow into the cisterns,

    (ii) for supplies of more than 10,000 gallons per day the inflow .
    into the suction cistern(s) will be controlled by constant flow
    valves. The constant flow valves will be sized and set to
    control the inflow into the suction cisternts) at a rate which
    will deliver the quantity of water required for 1 day's use in 16 .~·f
    to 20 hours.

    (iii) in office buildings, the pumps would be sized to deliver the


    quantity of water required for 1 day's use in Jess th.an 8 hours,

    (d) The total capacity of the storage and suction cisterns in multi-
    storey flats and hostels can be estimated using the table given in
    Rule 22A.

    In other types of buildings, the total capacity of the storage and


    suction cisterns can be calculated from the number of persons
    using/working/resident in the building. A guideline for assessing
    the total storage capacity required is as follows:-

    (i) 270 litres (60 gaUons) per resident for hotels,


    (ii) 70 litres (16 gallons) per head for offices without canteens,
    (iii) 90 litres (20 gallons) per head for offices with canteens,
    (iv) 14 Iitres (3 gallons) per head per meal for restaurants.

    Where the number of persons using/working/resident in a building


    is not known, the total capacity of the storage and suction cisterns
    can be estimated from the number of fittings in the building, at the
    rate of.-

    .~-- -·····--·--·T"·-~----·--~~·~--- ··--··--·


    (i) 450 - 900 litres (100 - 200 gallons) for every shower,
    (ii) 910 litres (200 gallons) for every slipper bath,
    (iii) 180 litres (40 gallons) for every water closet,
    (iv) 90 litres (20 gallons)for every lavatory basin,
    (v) 90 litres (20 gallons) for every sink,
    (vi) 180 litres (40 gallons) for every urinal,
    (vii) 180 litres (4.0 gallons) for every bed pan washer, and
    (viii) 225 litres (50 gallons) for every wash-up sink.

    This Rule does not specify the storage requirements for fire-fighting. For
    this requirement, reference should be made to the Fire Authorities. It
    should be noted that the existing reticulation systems in Peninsular
    Malaysia are not designed to cater for the full requirements of fire flows
    and the State Directors should point this out to the relevant Fire
    Authorities.

    404. The supply to all multi-storeyed buildings shall be bulk-metered. Metering of Supply
    Supplies to flats in multi-storey buildings may be sub-metered at the
    discretion of the St.ate Director.

    Refer to the comments on rule 256 on sub-metering.

    405. Save as. hereinafter provided Rules 301 to 317 shall also apply to Rules 301 to 317 to
    supplies to multi-storey flats. Water for drinking purposes, cooling Apply
    and bot water systems shall be conveyed from the roof storage cisterns
    by individual distribution pipes. The St.ate Director may at his
    discretion allow other systems to be used.

    The system discribed in Rule 405 above where water· for drinking
    ' . purposes, cooling and hot watersystems are delivered in individual pipes
    i .
    is essentially meant for multi-storey offices or hotel buildings where there
    are no sub-metering. · The separation of the water meant for drinking
    purposes from water for other. purposes is to prevent contam..ination of the
    drinking water.

    For multi-storey buildings containing flats, the system described in Rule


    405 is not practical as too many sub-meters woi.ild t>e"required if the
    inflows into the individual flats are to be measured. The system illustrated
    in Fig. 10 below is to be preferred for flats in multi-storey buildings.

    Storage
    Cistern\

    Hain (OITVTIOn
    Distribution
    Pipe
    1o abtut iona ry
    t. soil fitting\

    Sub - meter Kitchen


    I
    T~p

    -·-
    SECTION FJYE - SUPPLY TO FACTORIES

    50l(i) Every consumer who requires a new supply or who requires to alter or Installation of Storage
    extend an existing supply to a factory shall install a storage cistern or Cisterns
    cisterns as the State Director may direct, Such cistern or cisterns
    shall have a total capacity of not less than the quantity of water
    required for one day's use of the factory. !
    .f
    (ii) The State Director, may at his discretion and when supply conditions
    warrant it, require existing installations of a factory to be equipped
    with storage cistern or cisterns of total capacity of not less than the
    average quantity of water consumed in one day. In this event, the
    State Director shall serve· a written notice upon the consumer
    requiring him to carry out the necessary alterations or provisions
    within a specified period which shall not be less than six months.

    (i) This Sub-Rule provides the State Director with the powers to stipulate that
    a new supply to a factory shall be provided with storage cistern or cisterns
    of minimum capacity equal to the quantity of water required for 1 day's
    use. This Sub-Rule further provides that the State Director can insist that
    when existing supplies to factories are altered or extended storage cistern
    or cisterns of minimum capacity equal to the quantity of water required for r
    1 day's use be provided.

    This storage capacity will enable factories to operate even when there are
    interruptions to their water supply from the public mains.

    (ii) Sub-Rule 501(ii) confers on the State Director the power to instruct
    existing factories without a storage cistern to be equipped with the cistern
    if the water supply to the area is inadequate either in quantity or pressure
    during the day. If the pressure in the public main is inadequate, part of I -
    the storage capacity required should be in the· form of ground storage
    cistern or cisterns from which water can be pumped to high level cistern
    or cisterns. In such cases if the pressure available in the public mains is
    adequate at night, then, arrangements can be made to by-pass the pumps
    at night as illustrated in Fig. 3 of these notes.

    TI1e time taken to construct a cistern depends on its size and the type of
    materials used in its construction. Six months is considered a reasonable
    period to construct the storage cistern likely to be required by a factory.

    502. The State Director may, at his discretion require the flow into the Regulation of Inflow
    storage cistern or cisterns of the factory to be regulated. AIJ fittings
    needed for regulation of such a supply shall be installed at the expense
    of the consumer as directed by the State Director.
    J
    It is common practice to regulate the inflow of water into factories using
    more than 10,000 gallons per day. The fitting used for such regulation is
    · the constant flow valve. In purchasing this valve, the range of pressures
    upstream of its intended position, its intended output and the required
    downstream pressure should be stated, otherwise the valve may not give
    the intended outflow.
    503. All supplies to fire hydrants and other fire-fighting devices installed in Fire-fighting Supply
    a factory or within the factory's compound shall be metered and paid to be Metered
    for by the consumer.

    As the fire flow required for a factory would. be many times larger than its
    normal daily inflow, a single meter would not be able to· measure
    accurately both the fire flow and the normal inflow. A coumpund meter is
    the most suitable measuring device in such a case. The compound meter
    shall be installed and maintained by the water authority at the consumer's
    expense.

    .f.
    j
    SECTION SIX - SUPPLY TO HOUSING ESTATES r

    601. The developer shall bear the cost of the installation of the supply main Cost of Supply System
    to the housing estate from the existing public main as determined by to Housing Estates to
    the State Director, internal reticulation mains, booster pumping be Borne by
    systems and reservoirs if required within the approved housing estate. Developer

    Rule 601 given above states that the length, size and point of connection
    to the public mains of the supply main to a housing estate shall be
    determined by the State Director. The State Director's decision on the
    supply main's length, size and point of connection shall be based on
    technical criteria.

    The term "approved housing estate" in this Rule means an area within
    which all water pipes to be laid shall be regarded as reticulation mains for
    the housing estate to be paid for by the Developer. i
    .l
    602. Where the water supply system of the housing estate is not installed by Supply System to
    the St.ate Director, the system shall be constructed to a specification Approval of State
    and design to be approved by the State Director before work thereon -Director
    is commenced. The design shall be carried out by an approved .. ·},;"
    -···
    Consulting Engineer.

    Even though the design of the water supply system of a housing estate has
    to be executed by an approved Consulting Engineer, the design criteria
    used for the design must still be approved by the State Director. A guide
    on design criteria for the design of water supply systems is available from
    Cawangan Bekalan Air, Ibu Pejabat JK.R, Kuala Lumpur,

    An important point to note about the pumping equipment be used in the


    to .· !!'i',f .
    water supply system of a housing est.ate is the requirement that such t.
    pumping equipment shall have the prior approval of the State Director
    before the order for the purchase of the pumping equipment is placed with
    the supplier.
    ..
    The water supply system of a housing estate has to be constructed by an
    approved contractor. Although the construction is supervised by an
    approved Consulting Engineer, it is corrunon practice for .IRR personnel
    to be invited to check on the quality of materials used and to witness the
    testing of the mains, plumbing system, etc.'

    -·---· ... - ·----


    603. On completion and commissioning of the water supply system in the Taking-over of
    housing estate, the developer shall apply to the State Director to take Supply System
    over the completed water supply system. Provided the State Director
    is satisfied that the system has been satisfactorily completed and every
    part of the system is in proper working order. and the necessary
    spares for the pumping equipment supplied, be shall take over all the
    installations of the system without compensation for use as a public
    water supply system whereupon . the property in such installation
    including land on which the installations are built shall vest in the
    Government.

    The land on which the installations of a water supply system of a housing.


    estate are built should be transferred to the Government by the developer
    as early as possible. 111e Goverrunent will not take over the water supply
    system of a housing estate unless the land on which the installations stand
    has been transferred to the Government.

    Water authorities should take over the water supply system of a housing
    estate as soon as practicable in the interest of the consumers in the
    housing estate. It is not necessary Lo wait for full completion of the system
    before taking-over. The taking-over of a water supply system can be in
    phases and is at the discretion of the State Director.. But water authorities
    should not take over a water supply system immediately after
    commissioning but to allow the developer to operate the system for a short
    period to rectify all teething problems. ·

    605. Where a pumping system is required to supply a housing estate, Rule Pumping
    403 shall apply; provided that the State Director may at his discretion
    allow other pumping systems to be used.

    The main difference in the design of a pumping system for a housing .


    estate and for a building is the number of hours per day the pumps are
    designed to operate. The pumping system of a housing estate is generally
    designed to operate for 16 hours per day whereas the hours of operation of · .. • ······. ····· .
    the pumping system of a building are dependent on whether the building
    is an office building or a shopping complex. or a high rise . apartment
    building. For commercial buildings, the pumps are generally designed to
    · ·pwnp the quantity of water required for 1 day's use in 4 to 8 hours while
    the hours of operation of an apartment buiding's pumping system may be
    up to 16 hours daily.

    Another difference between the pumping system of a housing estate and of


    a building is that the tanks in a pumping system of a housing estate are
    invariably of reinforced concrete.

    -·- ----·--···--····.
    SECTION SEYEN - STANDPIPES.

    701. Every standpipe which is acc_essible to the public shall, unless Standpipes
    exempted by the State Director in writing, be provided with a non-
    concussive and self-closing or other suitable tap.

    Up to a few years ago, it was common practice to provide standpipes with


    non-concussive and self-closing taps but these taps were found to re
    subject to repeated acts of vandalism. After these non-concussive and self-
    closing taps were changed to the normal bib taps damage to standpipes
    due co vandalism decreased markedly. Bio i.aps are now considered to oe
    the most practical fitting to be used on standpipes. ·

    703. No hose shall be attached to the tap of any standpipe. Attachment of Hose
    to Standpipe
    No hose shall be attached to the tap of any standpipe because of the danger
    of contaminationof the public water supply due to back-siphonage but this
    Rule is difficult to enforce.

    704_ No person shall tamper with, alter, damage or remove any tap on a Tampering with
    standpipe. Standpipes
    -~.....
    This Rule is also difficult to enforce as standpipes are spread all over the
    water supply area and so cannot be kept under constant surveillance.

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    ----· .. -· -,
    SECTION EIGHT - SWIMMING BATHS, FOUNTAINS .
    AND OR~AMENTAL POOLS.
    StIB-SECTION 8A - SWIMMING BATHS.
    801. Every swimming bath which is supplied with water from the public Swimming Baths
    mains shall comply with the following requirements:-

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    (i) · it shall be constructed in accordance with a specification and
    i design approved by the State Director before work thereon is
    ;
    commenced. Any leakage from the pool, measured from the
    water line at which the bath is designed to be used, shall not
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    exceed 3.2 mm (one-eight of an inch) in twenty-four hours, due
    allowance being made for evaporation from the surface of the
    water.

    (ii) the inlet pipe of every swimming bath shall discharge into a
    separate and distinct chamber from the bath so that the inlet
    shall discharge at least nine inches above the water Iine of the
    chamber. The chamber shall be covered and locked with a
    removable key and shall only be opened by the consumer for
    the purpose of recharging the bath.
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    {iii) the control valve on the service pipe or distribution pipe which
    serves the bath shall also be in the inlet chamber and shall only
    be accessible for operation when the chamber is open.

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    !'.:·

    (iv) every swimming bath over 25,000 litres (five thousand and five
    hundred gallons) capacity shall be provided with an efficient
    treatment plant for the continuous purification, disinfection and
    pH correction of the water of such capacity that the water can
    be circulated through the treatment plant at least twice in
    twenty-four hours.

    (j) Only approved Consulting Engineers should be permitted to submit


    the specification and design of swimming baths. If the swimming
    baths are of reinforced concrete, the baths shall be designed to
    B.S.8007. Reinforced concrete swimming baths should not be
    backfilled before testing. During the watertightness test of
    swimming baths required in this Sub-Rule, the loss of water by
    evaporation should be determined by measurement of the loss of
    water from a shallow watertight tray four square feet in area
    containing not less than three inches of water and floating on the
    surface of the water in the swimming baths. If there is rain during
    any part of the twenty-four hours of the watertightness test, the
    whole test has to be repeated.

    (ii) & (iii)

    The inlet pipe of every swimming bath shall discharge at least 9


    inches above the water line in the inlet chamber so as to prevent
    contamination of the public water supply due to back-siphonage.

    The water authority's consent is required before a swimming bath


    can be filled (refer to Rule 804) and the inlet chamber is locked so
    as to prevent unauthorised filling.

    The water authority is thus able to prevent the pressure in the


    public mains being greatly reduced due to the drawing-off of large
    quantities of water for filling swimming baths. The water authority
    may, when granting approval for the filling of a swimming bath
    specify that the swimming bath can be filled only during the off-
    peak periods, like al night and/or limit the rate at which water can
    be drawn from the public mains. For the same reason, the water
    authority will limit the maximum size of inlet pipe to a swim.ming
    bath when approval is given for the construction of a swimming
    bath. · ··

    In addition to the inlet pipe mentioned in this Rule, a separate


    cistern is also provided for supplying make-up water to the
    swimming bath. This make-up cistern is fed from the main storage
    cistern and supplies the swimming bath through a small pipe
    controlled by a ball valve. The outlet of this make-up water inlet
    pipe is also in the in.let chamber of the swimming bath.

    (iv) Certain makes of treatment plant for the purification of the water in
    a swimming bath does not provide proper continuous chlorination
    of the water but depend on the plant operator dosing the water
    periodically with chloride-of-lime. This arrangement is not
    considered satisfactory as the quality of disinfection of the water in
    the swimming bath depends solely on whether the operator is
    conscientious in his work or not.
    Swimming baths accessible to the public should be inspected
    reqularly by the water authority and the State Director should
    consider withdrawing the certificate of test of a swimming bath if
    its treatment plant is not in working order.

    802. . A certification of satisfactory leakage test of the swimming bath and Certificate of Test
    satisfactory operation of the treatment plant shall be obtained from
    the State Director and shall be renewable annually. The consumer
    shall not permit any person to use the swimming bath until such
    certificate shall have been granted or renewed as the case may be.
    The charges for granting or renewing such a certificate shall be as set
    out in the Second Schedule hereto.

    A swimming bath should be retested every year before the renewal of its
    certificate of test

    803. The operator of every swimming bath accessible to the public shall Operator's
    ensure that the quality of the water of the swimming bath shall at all Responsibility
    times meet the requirements of the relevant health authorities.

    The draft of this Rule has been approved by the Ministry of Health.

    The water authority should inform the relevant health authorities every
    time it issues a certificate of test,

    804. Should the bath become depleted by an amount of 25,000 litres (five Depletion of Bath
    thousand and five hundred gallons) or more due to the bath being
    cleansed or otherwise, notice in writing shall be given to the State
    Director at least three . days prior to the consumer wishing to re-
    charge the bath. It shall be at the discretion of the State Director to
    refuse consent for the recharging of any swimming bath owing to
    reasons of shortage of supply, or if the water from the public mains is
    required for more important uses. '

    Refer to the notes on-Rule 801(ii) and {ill).


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    I

    I. ' 805 . No swimming bath and its .associated equipment and fittings shall be Avoidance of Waste
    so constructed and installed or be in such a state as to cause waste or
    undue consumption of the water supplied from the public mains.

    Waste will occur as a result of leakage from cracks in a swimming bath or


    from fractured pipes. The State Director should consider disconnecting
    the supply of water to any swimming bath which is leaking and shall not
    re-connect until the defects are rectified.

    In the case of treatment plant equipment becoming defective and resulting


    in undue consumption, the State Director should issue a warning letter to
    the consumer requesting him to repair the equipment which is causing
    . I undue consumption within a reasonable period, otherwise the supply of
    water to the swimming bath would be disconnected. ·

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    -·-- -------· -·----------


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    (ii) The service pipe from the meter (or, if there be no meter, from such a r
    suitable point as the State Director may direct) and all the pipes and 1f
    fittings which have been fixed in connection with the installation may
    be subjected to a test pressure of 12.0 bar (one hundred and seventy-
    ~
    four lbs. per square inch). This test shall not be applied to cisterns,
    flushing cisterns or feed cisterns, tanks, or ball valves. J ~J:
    i

    (iii) H the installation shall prove satisfactory on examination and test a


    f l
    Completion-Certificate, in such form as may be approved by the State
    Director, shall be given to the applicant, !'
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    (i} The pipework of a water-supply plumbing system shall not be concealed
    before it has been examined and tested by the State Director or his
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    representative. J
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    ,[
    (ii) Although this Rule stipulates that all new. extended or altered supplies are
    to be tested, it may be only practical to carry out tests on random samples
    of plumbing in houses in big housing estates or in installations where the
    workmanship or quality of materials used is suspect or in important
    -~· .....,.....: rI·
    installations. The reason for this is that this test can be very time
    consuming.

    905. The repair or replacement by a Licensed Plumber of a faulty pipe or Report on Repair and
    fitting or replacement thereof shall be reported to the State Director
    by such Licensed Plumber within one week.
    Replacement
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    Because the repair or replacement of a faulty pipe or fitting is usually I
    urgent and the work is normally minor in nature, this Rule allows the r~.
    repair or replacement to be carried out prior to the State Director being
    informed. ·

    90<i. In a case where the installation shall not prove satisfactory to _the Notice regarding
    j
    State Director, he shall send to the consumer' a notice indicating in
    which respect tile installation has not been satisfactory.
    faults
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    This Rule is a sequel to Rule 904_
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    -SECTION TEN - WATER SUPPLY ( ) {CHARGES} RULES, 198Q


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    This section is intended to be an example only. Each State will have its l
    own schedule and rate of charges for the supply of water.

    Basically there are 2 methods of pricing water, namely the flat rate and
    11
    the block rate. Water authorities throughout the world are increasingly
    adopting the block rate policy. Quite a number of States in Peninsular
    Malaysia have to some extent adopted this policy and have block rates for
    domestic supplies while the other States have a flat rate for domestic use.

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