Introduction to Biological Molecules

Biological molecules are consumed or produced in order to provide

nutrition
Carbohydrates (energy)
Lipids (energy, membranes, hormones)
Protein (growth and repair, energy)
These are macronutrients, and are vital for life.

Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen account for more than 99%
of the atoms in living things.
Carbon is particularly important as it can form long chains or ring
structures (4 covalent bonds). It forms a basic skeleton to which other
groups can attach. Organic molecules always contain carbon.
Some important words:

Monomer – a single subunit

Dimer – two subunits bonded together

Polymer – many repeating subunits

Bonds are formed by condensation reactions

Bonds are broken by hydrolysis reactions.

It would help you to know the monomers for all biomolecules:

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids

 Carbohydrates
(Pages 2-5 of Textbook)

Contain C, H, O in the ratio 1:2:1

General formula Cx(H2O)y
3 Groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
Monosaccharides

simple sugars (mono = one)

dissolve easily in water to form sweet solutions
have the general formula (CH2O)n
single sugar molecule (monomer)
classified by number of carbon atoms:
trioses (3 carbons), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C)
Molecular formulae:
triose: C3H6O3 or (CH2O)3 e.g. glyceraldehyde
pentose: C5H10O5 or (CH2O)5 e.g. ribose, deoxyribose

hexose: C6H12O6 or (CH2O)6 e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose

Pentoses and hexoses are most important in Biology as they form the units in long
carbohydrate molecules. As monomers they are both energy sources and building blocks.
Trioses are important in mitochondria, where glucose is broken down to triose sugars in
cellular respiration.
(NB if a word ends in –ose it is usually a sugar!)
 Pentoses and hexoses are long enough to join up and form a stable ring
In aqueous solutions most sugars form rings
Glucose – a 6 carbon monosaccharide (hexose)
- universal cellular fuel
Structural formulae:

C1 joins to the O on C5; the ring contains oxygen, and C6 is not part of the ring
The hydroxyl group (-OH) on C1 may be above or below the plane of the ring
Below the ring = alpha glucose, above the ring = beta glucose
This small structural difference has big implications when glucose forms polymers
More hexose sugars: they have the same chemical formula as glucose –
C6H12O6 – but are different structurally. Known as structural isomers
Fructose, also known as fruit sugar – found in fruit and sweet vegetables (including
sugar cane), and honey.
Galactose – found in dairy products and sugar beets. It is also synthesised by the
body, where it forms part of glycolipids and glycoproteins in several tissues
Pentoses – 5 carbon sugars:
Ribose and deoxyribose are very important in biology, as they bond with a phosphate
group and a nucleotide base to form the genetic molecules RNA and DNA
Ribose forms ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Deoxyribose forms deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Disaccharides, polysaccharides and glycosidic bonds
Two monosaccharides can be joined in a condensation reaction, to form a
disaccharide (di- = two).
Two hydroxyl -OH groups line up, a water molecule is released, and an O
‘bridge’ joins the two sugars together.
The reaction is called a condensation reaction, because water is released.
The O bridge is called a glycosidic bond.
A disaccharide is formed, which is still a sugar.
When disaccharides are digested (broken down) the reaction is reversed and
water is added
This reaction is called hydrolysis
Both reactions are controlled by enzymes
Examples of disaccharides:
Maltose
Formed by a condensation reaction between two alpha glucose molecules
Found in germinating seeds such as barley as they break down their starch stores to use
for food. It is also produced when glucose is caramelised.
Maltose is a component of malt, a substance which is obtained in the process of
allowing grain to soften in water and germinate. It is found in beverages, beer, cereal,
pasta, potatoes and in many processed products which have been sweetened
(Malteasers!).
Sucrose
Formed by a condensation reaction between an alpha glucose molecule and a fructose
molecule
Commonly known as table sugar, generally extracted from sugar beet or sugar cane
Found naturally in many food plants such as pineapple and apricot
Lactose
Formed by a condensation reaction between glucose and galactose
Found primarily in milk and milk products
Polysaccharides (poly = many)
Polymers whose subunits are monosaccharides, joined by condensation reactions.
Each successive monosaccharide is added by a glycosidic bond.
They may be thousands of units long, forming a macromolecule.
The most important polysaccharides are starch, glycogen and cellulose, all of which
are polymers of glucose
Polysaccharides are not sugars.
Starch (found in plants) and glycogen (found in animals) are storage molecules of
glucose
Glucose itself would dissolve in cells and alter the concentration, which would
seriously affect osmosis
It’s also reactive and would interfere with cell chemistry
By converting it to a storage molecule it’s convenient, compact, inert and insoluble
Glucose can be made available again quickly by an enzyme-controlled reaction
Starch is a mixture of two substances, amylose and amylopectin
Amylose:
Made by many condensations between alpha glucose molecules
A long, unbranching chain of several thousand 1,4 linked glucose molecules is built
up
The chains are curved, and coil up into helical structures like springs, making the
final molecule more compact.
Amylopectin:
Also made of many 1,4 linked alpha glucose molecules
The chains are shorter than in amylose, and branch out to the sides
The branches are formed by 1,6 linkages
Mixtures of amylose and amylopectin molecules build up into relatively large starch
grains
Commonly found in chloroplasts, and in storage organs such as the potato tuber, and
the seeds of cereals
Starch grains are easily seen with the light microscope, especially if stained

Scanning electron micrograph

(SEM) of a slice through a raw
potato, showing starch grains.

Testing for starch: adding iodine

solution (orange-brown colour). Iodine
molecules fit exactly into the middle of
the spiral in starch molecules, forming
a complex with a strong blue-black
colour.
Glycogen: the storage molecule in animals
Like amylopectin, also made of chains of 1,4 linked alpha glucose with 1,6
linkages forming branches
Glycogen tends to be even more branched
Molecules clump together to form granules
Granules are visible in liver and muscle cells, where they form an energy reserve

Liver section
Cellulose
Most abundant organic molecule on earth, due to its presence in plant cell walls and
its slow rate of breakdown in nature
Mechanically strong molecule (unlike starch and glycogen) and has a structural role
Cellulose is a polymer of beta glucose – the OH group on C1 projects above the ring
To form a glycosidic bond with C4, where the –OH group is below the ring, one of
the glucose molecules must be upside down relative to the other
Successive glucose units are linked at 180° to each other
This means that cellulose forms straight chains with many projecting –OH groups
The –OH groups form hydrogen bonds with O atoms in the same molecule, and also in
neighbouring molecules
Hydrogen bonds are individually weak, but so many can form – due to the large
numbers of -OH groups, that collectively they develop enormous strength
60-70 cellulose molecules become tightly cross-linked to form bundles called
microfibrils
These are in turn held together in bundles called fibres
A cell wall typically has several layers of fibres, running in different directions to
increase strength
Cellulose makes up 20-40% of the cell wall; other molecules help to cross link the
fibres, and some form a glue-like matrix around fibres to further increase strength
Fibres have very high tensile (pulling) strength, almost like steel
This means the cell can withstand large pressures within it due to osmosis; without it
the cell would burst in dilute solution
These pressures provide support for the plant – make tissues rigid
Freely permeable – water and solutes can reach the plasma membrane
Testing for Sugars: Benedict’s Test
The Benedict’s test identifies reducing sugars (monosaccharides and some disaccharides) which have free ketone or
aldehyde functional groups. Benedict’s solution can be used to test for the presence of glucose in urine.
Some sugars, such as glucose are referred to as reducing sugars because they are capable of transferring hydrogens
(electrons) to other compounds, a process called reduction. When reducing sugars are mixed with Benedict’s reagent
(an alkaline solution of copper (II) sulphate) and heated, a reduction reaction causes the Benedict’s reagent to change
colour. The colour varies from green to dark brick-red depending on the amount and type of sugar.
Procedure of Benedict’s Test:
1. Approximately 1 ml of sample is placed into a clean test tube.

2. 2 ml (10 drops) of Benedict’s reagent (CuSO 4) is placed in the test tube.

3. The solution is then heated in a boiling water bath for 3-5 minutes.

4. Observe for colour change in the solution of test tubes or precipitate formation.

Results:
Benedict’s reagent is a clear blue solution
A positive test will form a coloured precipitate (solid particles suspended in solution)
Reducing sugars include all monosaccharides (e.g. glucose) and some disaccharides (e.g.maltose and lactose)
A negative test will remain blue.
Non-Reducing Sugars:
If the result of the reducing sugars test is negative, there could still be a non-reducing sugar (such as sucrose)
present.
To test for non-reducing sugars you must break them down into monosaccharides by heating with dilute
hydrochloric acid, then neutralising with sodium hydrogencarbonate.
The Benedict’s test can then be performed as for a reducing sugar.