MODULE 1

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: PARATHYROID GLAND

Glands and Their Hormones - Produces hormones that control
the calcium levels in your body
- Located in the neck
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hormones
Is composed of different glands which
secrete hormones into the body. Parathormone

HORMONES THYMUS GLAND

● Organic substances released by - Produce hormones that enable the
the glands of the endocrine system body to produce T-cells
● Maintains HOMEOSTASIS (Antibodies)
- Located in front of the heart
PITUITARY GLAND
- Produces hormones that stimulate Hormones
growth
Thymosin
- Also called the “Master Gland”
- Controls the functions of other
glands ADRENAL GLAND
- Located at the base of the brain - Produces hormones that affect
mainly blood pressure and stress
Hormones reaction
- Located on top of the kidneys
Oxytocin Adrenocorticotrop
hic Hormone
Growth Hormones (ACTH) Hormones
(GH) Adrenaline
Antidiuretic
Prolactin Hormone (AH)
PANCREAS GLAND
Luteinizing Thyroid - Produces hormones that regulate
Hormone (LH) Stimulating blood sugar levels
Hormone (TSH)
Follicle Stimulating
Hormones
Hormone (FSH)
Insulin Glucagon
THYROID GLAND
- Produces hormones that regulate TESTES
body metabolism - Produces hormones that control
- Located in front of the neck and the maturation of sperm and
below the voice box development of the secondary
male sexual characteristics
Hormones - Located in the scrotum
Thyroid Hormone
Hormones
Testosterone

OVARIES
- Produces hormones that influence
the development of the secondary
 female sexual characteristics, and ovulation by regulating the
maturation of the egg cells and estrogen-progesterone level
ovulation
- Located in the pelvic area
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM DISORDER
Hormones
Estrogen Progesterone Hormonal Imbalance - Organs and
Hormones do not produce the right
amount of chemicals needed leading to
dysfunctions
THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE
OSTEOPOROSIS
FEMALE AND MALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - Bone is brittle and porous because
of reduced mineral density
Possible cause: Parathyroid hormone
- The pituitary gland controls the
secretion
function of both the testes and
ovaries
GOITER
- The endocrine system helps the
- Abnormal enlargement of the
reproductive system to function
Thyroid gland
properly
Possible cause: Underproduction or
overproduction of thyroid hormones
MALE SYSTEM
(STEPS)
GIGANTISM
1) Pituitary Gland releases FSH and LH
- Abnormal increase in height
2) FSH enters the testes and stimulates
Possible cause: Too much secretion of
Sertoli Cells (responsible for nourishing
growth hormones
the sperm cells)
3) LH also enters the testes and stimulates
DWARFISM
Leydig Cells - interstitial cells (makes and
- Short stature condition (PANDAK)
releases testosterone)
Possible cause: Insufficient growth
hormone
Testosterone - develops the male
secondary sexual characteristics and
MODULE 2
stimulates the sperm production in the
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
testes
SYSTEM AND THE MENSTRUAL
CYCLE
FEMALE SYSTEM
1) Follicles in the ovary produces estrogen
(controls the growth and release of eggs THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
from the ovary) ● A series of changes during which
2) Progesterone also prepares the uterus an egg matures and the uterus is
so that the fertilized egg can grow prepared for possible pregnancy
3) Progesterone also prevents muscle
● It entails a biological feedback
contraction of the uterus to protect the egg
system
from detaching
● It is influenced by the endocrine
4) Together the FSH and LH affects the
system
development of the follicles and maturation
● Its average cycle is 28 days
of the egg as well as the process of
● Can continue for about 40 years
 ● Stops temporarily during
pregnancy and resumes after
giving birth
Menstruation is a sign that a girl is
capable of producing offspring (baby)
Gonads are reproductive or sex organs
(testes and ovary)
AVERAGE
Menstruation: 1 - 7th Day
Follicular: 1 - 14th Day
Ovulation: 14th Day (Mid-Cycle)
Luteal Phase: 15th Day until next
Menstruation
FOLLICULAR PHASE
- Starts on day 1 of menstruation and
ends with ovulation (day 14)
STEPS
(1) The Anterior Pituitary/Brain sends FSH
to the ovaries
(2) The FSH signals the follicles to grow
and mature
(3) The follicles then produce estrogen
(4) Estrogen then stimulates the thickening
of the Endometrium (Uterine Lining) in the
uterus
(5) Once estrogen peaks, it signals the
brain to release LH
(6) LH triggers ovulation
OVULATION PHASE
- Occurs mid-cycle (around 2 weeks
or so before menstruation)
STEPS
(1) The mature egg from the follicle travels
down the fallopian tube (oviduct) and into
the uterus
● At any time during the egg’s
journey, sperm can fertilize it
● If fertilization does occur during this
phase, the egg continues to the
uterus
● The egg dies within 6 to 24 hours if
not fertilized
LUTEAL PHASE
- Includes the day after ovulation to
the day before your next period.
- The hormonal changes of this
phase are associated with
Premenstrual Syndrome (pimples,
headaches, fatigue, dizziness,
mood changes, bloating, pain,
swelling of the breast, and food
cravings)
STEPS
(1) LH and FSH levels decrease
(2) If the egg isn’t fertilized, the corpus
luteum degenerates and estrogen levels
decrease
CORPUS LUTEUM (STEPS)
(1) The follicle releases the egg
(2) The empty follicle turns into a Corpus
Luteum
(3) The corpus luteum produces
progesterone
● IN SHORT
Anterior Pituitary
A. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- Stimulates follicular growth in
ovaries
 - Stimulates estrogen secretion from
developing follicles (small sac
containing the egg)
B. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Surge causes ovulation
- Results in the formation of a corpus
luteum
- Triggers corpus luteum to secrete
progesterone
Ovaries
A. Estrogen
- Thickens endometrium
- Stimulates the pituitary gland to
release LH causing ovulation
- Stops FSH being produced so that
only one egg matures in a cycle
B. Progesterone
- Thickens endometrium
- Inhibits FSH and LH during Luteal
Phase
UNDERSTANDING FEEDBACK
MECHANISM
direction. In your body, there are fewer
examples of positive feedback because
they tend to amplify processes rather than
maintain balance. An example is childbirth.
When a woman goes into labor, the baby's
head pressing on the cervix causes the
release of a hormone called oxytocin,
which makes the contractions stronger.
Stronger contractions then cause more
pressure on the cervix, leading to even
more oxytocin release and stronger
contractions. This continues until the baby
is born, and the cycle stops.
Feedback Loops are biological processes
that maintain homeostasis or body
balance.
Negative Feedback: Reduces the effect
of a Stimulus
Positive Feeback: Intensifies a response
Negative feedback affects the
production and release of hormones in
the menstrual cycle.

Negative Feedback High levels of one hormone may inhibit

Think of it like this - when your house gets the production of another hormone.
too warm because the heater is on, the
thermostat senses this and tells the heater During the cycle, the negative feedback
to turn off. Once it cools down a bit, the mechanism keeps the levels of
thermostat tells the heater to turn back on. hormones relatively stable.
It's like a balance where the system works
to keep things steady. In your body, FEEDBACK MECHANISM
negative feedback systems work similarly.
For example, when your body temperature
rises (like when you're exercising), your
body signals to sweat, which cools you
down. When your body temperature drops
too low, you might shiver to generate heat.
These actions help maintain a stable body
temperature.

Positive Feedback
Let's imaTransfer RNA (tRNA) correctly
and keep blowing air into it. As you blow
more air in, the balloon gets bigger, and
you want to keep blowing more air because
it's fun! This is like a positive feedback
system - it keeps going in the same
MODULE 3
NERVOUS SYSTEM:
The Control System of the Body
NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Is a complex network of nerves and
cells that carry messages to and
from the brain and spinal cord to
various parts of the body
● Body’s storage center of
information
● Body’s control system
● Responsible for controlling and
coordinating all the organ system
by sending messages from the
brain through nerve signals
● Makes sure that all the body parts
are working together efficiently
● Provides quick responses in
maintaining homeostasis
MAJOR DIVISIONS AND PARTS OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
I. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Main processing center of the
Nervous System
A. Brain
- Organ located within the skull
- Organizer and distributor of
information for the body
● Cerebrum: controls activity and
thought
● Cerebellum: controls posture,
balance, and coordination
● Brain Stem: controls automatic
functions (breathing, digestion,
heart rate, and blood pressure)
B. Spinal Cord
- Serves as a channel for signals
between the brain and the majority
of body parts
- Controls simple musculoskeletal
reflexes (even without the
processing of the brain)
II. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Connects the nervous system to
the organs and limbs
A. Somatic Nervous System
- Associated with the voluntary
control of the body movements
● Spinal Nerves: carry motor and
sensory signals between the spinal
cord and the body
● Cranial Nerves: nerve fibers that
carry information into and out of the
brain stem
B. Autonomic Nervous System
- Associated with the involuntary
control of body movements
● Sympathetic Nervous System:
activated when the body is in a
dynamic role or stress (increased
heart rate and breathing, dilation of
pupils, sweating)
● Parasympathetic Nervous
System: maintains body functions
and restores the body to normal or
relaxed mode
THE NERVE CELL
- The basic unit of the nervous
system
- Also called neuron

There are billions of neurons in the body.
(1) A neuron has a cell body
(2) In the cell body:
- is a nucleus
- are root-like structures called the
dendrites and axons
Dendrites: carry impulses towards the cell
body
Axons: carry impulses away from the cell
body
Synapse: the gap between neurons
Homeostasis: is the state reached when
each part of the body functions in
equilibrium with other parts
MODULE 4
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF
PROTEIN
Channels in Membranes: control the
movement of molecules in and out of the
cell
Structural Molecules: For example,
making up hair or muscle in animals
Hormones: Regulate the activity of cells
Antibodies: In the immune system
Enzymes: Act as catalysts in biological
systems
DNA and RNA work together to produce
proteins from genetic codes
Genetic Codes
- Are found in DNA or RNA
- Made up of nucleotide bases in
three
3 TYPES OF RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- Transcribes the DNA nucleotide
bases to RNA nucleotide bases
- Carries the information needed to
build a polypeptide
- The RNA form of the gene that
leaves the nucleus (through the
pore and moves to the cytoplasm)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- Binds the mRNA and tRNA to
ensure that codons are translated
correctly
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- Translate the mRNA codons into
the correct amino acids
2 STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. Transcription
- occurs inside the nucleus
- DNA unzips through the help of
RNA Polymerase
- Combine nucleotides to form an
RNA strand (using one of the DNA
strands as a template)
- The process wherein the DNA
sequence of a gene is “rewritten”
using RNA nucleotides
2. Translation
- There are 3 stages in Translation
- Where the codes in the mRNA are
translated to a polypeptide that
contains a specific series of amino
acids
(1) Initial
- Involves the complementary
pairing of codons in mRNA with
anticodons in tRNA (a process
facilitated by the ribosome
- Where the ribosome sandwiches
the mRNA between its small and
large subunit to be translated
- The first codon will be “AUG” (start
codon), and consequently codes
for the amino acid methionine
(2) Elongation
- Where the amino acid chain gets
longer
- This process repeats many times
as new codons are translated and
 new amino acids are added to the - An example is Color Blindness
polypeptide chain
Acquired/Somatic Mutations
STEPS - Occurs usually because of lifestyle
(1) mRNA reads one codon at a time or environmental factors like
(2) The amino acid corresponding to each exposure to chemicals or diseases
codon is added to a growing polypeptide - Can also occur due to errors during
chain cell division
(3) Each time a new codon is read, a
matching tRNA gets into ribosomes
Acquired mutations in Somatic Cells are
carrying the anticodon, and the
inherited
corresponding amino acid of the mRNA
codon
(4)Amino acids are connecter by peptide
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS
bonds becoming a polypeptide
- Occurs due to errors in cell division
(crossing over meiosis 1)
Genetic codes that are found in DNA - Affects large portions of the DNA
and RNA which are made up of strand
nucleotide bases usually in three codes - Can happen in both the autosomal
for the amino acids making up the and sex chromosomes
proteins - Can manifest in a range of physical
and developmental problems
(3) Termination
- Where the finished polypeptide is
released
- Starts when a stop codon (UAG,
UAA, or UGA) is read by the
Ribosome
- Stops the translation and
disassembles the subunits of the
ribosomal RNA
Deletion
MODULE 5 - Happens when a base is deleted
MUTATION from the nitrogen base sequence

Mutations
- Changes to a DNA sequence

Mutagens
- Agents that cause alteration in the
DNA and can lead to permanent
mutations in the DNA sequence
Duplication
2 TYPES OF MUTATIONS - Occurs when a part of a
chromosome is copied (duplicated)
too many times
Hereditary/Germline Mutation - Can result in extra copies of genetic
- Inherited from parents material from the duplicated
- Present in almost all the cells in segment
bodies because they were inherited

Inversion
- Happens when a segment of a
chromosome is reversed end to
end
Insertion
- The addition of one or more
nucleotide base pairs into a DNA
sequence
Translocation
- Segments of two chromosomes
are exchanged
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MUTATIONS
Point Mutation
- One single nucleotide base is
deleted, added, or altered, which
can lead to substitution mutation
● Silent: happens when a
nitrogenous base is altered but the
same amino acid is produced
● Missense: when one nitrogenous
base of the DNA is replaced and
the results is an altered codon but
do not form a stop codon
- Conservative: new amino
acid formed has the same
properties of the one that
was supposed to be
produced
- Non-Conservative: new
amino acid formed has
different properties of the
one that was supposed to
be produced
● Nonsense: results in the formation
of a stop codon due to the
substitution of one base
Frameshift Mutation
- Happens when the normal
sequence of codons is
disorganized by the insertion or
deletion of one or more nitrogenous
bases.
- A deletion or insertion of one or
more nucleotides that can result in
a change in the reading frame of
the coding strand
EFFECTS OF MUTATION
Sickle Cell Anemia
- Caused by a recessive disorder
through a single substitution
mutation in the gene that is
responsible for hemoglobin
reproduction
- Glutamic acid is affected
- Sickle-shaped blood cells cannot
properly carry oxygen
Albinism
- Type 1 oculocutaneous albinism
- Autosomal recessive disorder
- Melanin formation is reduced or
absent in the skin, hair, and eyes
due to lack of tyrosinase
- Caused by the deletion of
tyrosinase gene
Cystic Fibrosis
- Recessive inherited disorder
- Deletion affects the cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance
regulator gene that leads to the
deletion of the amino acid
phenylalanine
Down Syndrome or Trisomy 21
- Related with slight retardation of
cognitive ability
 - Characterized with impairment or
physical growth, body, and facial
features
- Caused by a translocation during
meiosis that transfers most of
chromosome 21 onto chromosome
14
BENEFICIAL MUTATIONS
● Trichromic Vision
● Increased bone density
● Mutation in protein that leads to
resistance to some diseases
MODULE 6
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
DEFINITIONS
MYTH
- Refers to an ancient story or set of
stories, especially explaining the
early history of a group of people
CREATIONISM
- Held the idea that all forms of life
were evolved in their present form
by a divine being, and they remain
unchanged from the beginning
FOSSILS
- Any preserved remains impression
or trace of any once-living thing
from a past geological age.
CATASTROPHISM
- The doctrine that sudden
catastrophes, rather than
continuous change, cause the
main features of the Earth's crust
UNIFORMITARIANISM
- It is a geological theory that
describes the processes shaping
the Earth and the Universe. It
states that changes in the Earth's
crust throughout history have
resulted from uniform, continuous
functions that are still occurring
today.
EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
- Evolution occurs at this moment
- Populations constantly adapt to
variations in their environment and
thereby gather changes
Charles Darwin
- Proposed the idea that all new
species descend from an
ancestor
- Significant evidence for this theory
is the fossil record, embryology,
comparative anatomy, and
molecular biology
DIRECT EVIDENCE
- Evidence that can be directly
observed or seen
INDIRECT EVIDENCE
- Does not involve actual
observation of evolution
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE AND
EVOLUTION OF ANIMALS AND
PLANTS
GIOVANNI AVDUINA
- Developed the first geological time
scale
- The oldness of the earth is about
4600 million years
- Life first initiated in water (3600
million years ago)
- Eras
ORDOVICIAN PERIOD
- Where the origin of vertebrates
took place in Ostracoderms
- Marine algae was abundant
Ostracoderms were small, jawless body
fish-like forms
SILURIAN PERIOD
- Where the acanthodians appear
(the earliest known vertebrates with
lower jaws)
- Placoderms (the ancient
gnathostomes-jawed vertebrates)
also emerged
- Origin of vascular plants
DEVONIAN PERIOD
- The origin of amphibians
CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD
- Reptiles appeared
- Origin of the first seed plants
TRIASSIC PERIOD
- Origin of dinosaurs and mammals
JURASSIC PERIOD
- Origin of toothed birds (first birds)
CAMBRIAN PERIOD
- Different kinds of algae were
present
CRETACEOUS PERIOD
- Angiosperm (diversified in Miocene
and their adaptive radiation in the
Pliocene)
VASCULAR PLANTS
● Pteridophytes
● Gymnosperms
● Angiosperms
PT 1. EVIDENCE OF FOSSIL
FOSSIL
- Remnants of a creature from
primitive times
- Generally formed when an
organism is covered by sediments
that then harden into stone
(sandstone, slate, mudstone, flint)
- Organisms also fossilize when
buried in volcanic ash or entombed
in tar or tree sap
- Provides direct evidence for
evolution (it can tell what has
happened by studying different
strata of rocks)
Most organisms do not fossilize, and
geological processes usually destroy
those that do, or they never surface for
examination.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
HOMOLOGOUS AND ANALOGOUS
STRUCTURE
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURE
- Similar embryonic origins
- Examples are birds’ wings and the
foreleg frog (different functions;
embryonic origins are alike)
- Implies an evolutionary linkage
between two species
ANALOGOUS STRUCTURE
- Identical only in function
- Examples are birds’ and flies’ wings
(same function; different embryonic
origins)
The more species have the same
functions in terms of the body, the nearer
they are related.
VESTIGAL STRUCTURE
- Structures that have gone their
function in an organism and have
become reduced in size (because
of efficiency)
- Gradual changes have occurred
through time that have reduced or
removed the function of
somebody's organs and structure
Examples:
The human’s appendix that is reduced
and no longer digests rough vegetation
 Pelvic bones of snakes with reduced
hind legs Let's imagine you're making a cake. You
start with some basic ingredients like
flour, eggs, sugar, and milk. As you mix
EMBRYOLOGY
these ingredients together and bake
them in the oven, they transform into a
“ONTOGENY SUMMARIZES
delicious cake.
PHYLOGENY”
- Proposes that if a certain organism
Now, think of embryology as something
undergoes its embryonic
similar, but instead of making a cake, it's
development “ontogeny”, it
about making animals, including us
duplicates (recapulates) the stages
humans! When a baby animal, like a
in its evolutionary history
puppy or a kitten, starts to grow inside its
(phylogeny).
mommy, it begins as a tiny ball of cells.
- Small changes in early
These cells divide and grow, just like
development can have severe
when you mix ingredients for a cake.
significance in advanced phases
concluding a “domino” effect
But here's where it gets really
interesting. As these cells keep growing,
A study of an organism's embryonic they start to change and develop into
progress provides further clues to its different parts of the body, like the head,
evolutionary past. the arms, the legs, and all the organs
inside. This process is called
embryology.
BIOGENETIC LAW
- during your development, human
Now, here's the cool part about
folds in the neck area are referred
embryology and evolution. When you
to as pharyngeal pouches, which in
look at different animals, you might
some animals become gills. This
notice that they have similar body parts,
notion of embryology as an "instant
even though they're not the same kind of
replay" of evolution
animal. For example, think about how
humans and dolphins both have flippers
that look similar even though we're not
closely related.

Scientists believe that this similarity in

body parts, especially during the early
stages of development, can tell us
something about how different animals
are related to each other. It's like finding
similar ingredients in different recipes.
Just like how flour and sugar can be
used in different cakes, similar body
parts can show that animals share a
common ancestor in their family tree.

So, in simple terms, embryology helps

scientists understand how different
To have a clear view, here is an animals are related to each other and
explanation!

how they've changed over a long, long
time through a process called evolution.
It's like looking at the recipe of life and
seeing how all the ingredients are
connected!
MODULE 7
OCCURRENCE OF EVOLUTION
DEFINITIONS
DIRECT
- Evidence is something that can be
directly seen or observed
FOSSIL
- Remains or impression left by an
animal or by plants preserved in the
earth’s crust.
INDIRECT
- Evidence is something that does
not involve actual observation of
evolution but for which we can infer
that evolution has taken place.
HOMOLOGOUS
- Structures suggesting similar
ancestors of different species
irrespective of their appearance or
functions
ANALOGOUS
- Structures that have similar
appearance but originate from
different ancestors
VESTIGIAL
- Anatomical features or parts that
are usually reduced or with little to
no function in some organisms.
DARWIN
- He believed that the group of
animals on each island is adapted
to a different way of life.
NOTOCHORD
- The supporting dorsal rod of
vertebrates
PRIMATES
- Species who have hands capable
of grasping objects
EMBRYO
- It is an early stage of development
in an organism.
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
JEAN BAPTISTE DE LAMARCK
- French naturalist
- The first to believe that organisms
change over time
- Proposed that organisms evolve
(to change gradually) in response
to their environment
● Theory of Need: states that
organisms change in response to
the changes in their environment
They were able to develop
characteristics necessary for them to
adapt to their modified environment that
leads to size increase of body parts or
function changes
● Theory of Use and Disuse: shows
that organs that are not used will
disappear while those that are
constantly used will be developed
Lamarck believed that short-necked
giraffes strained their necks to reach
food from trees causing their necks to
become longer. The acquired long necks
of these giraffes were then passed on to
their offspring.
● Theory of Acquired
Characteristics (Traits): changes
acquired during an organism's
 lifetime can be passed down to the
offspring.
CHARLES DARWIN
- On the Origins of Species by
Menas of Natural Selection (1859)
- Suggested the theory of natural
selection after he voyaged to
Galapagos island aboard the HMS
Beagle; he observed that finches
have different beak structures for
various food types
● Theory of Natural Selection:
According to Darwin, originally,
giraffes had varying neck lengths.
Natural selection favored the
survival of long-necked giraffes
because it allows them to reach for
food on tall trees while
short-necked giraffes were
eliminated because of their inability
to reach higher vegetation when
low vegetation is scarce such as
grasses. This eliminated them from
the population of giraffes.
GENETICS BASIS OF EVOLUTION
POPULATION GENETICS
- Deals with the hereditary factors
affecting a population
- Gene flow occurs whether a
foreign individual interbreeds with
an individual of another population
resulting in a recombination of
genes for different traits, increasing
the variation
For example, during the colonization
period in the Philippines, the gene pool
of the population was altered because
the Spanish, American, and Japanese
soldiers had children with Filipino
women.
ALLELE FREQUENCIES
- Represent the fraction or
percentage of the population
carrying the allele
- Non-random mating means that
sexual selection is not merely
based by chance but on some
physical and behavioral
characteristics
- The gene pool in non-random
mating rapidly shifts so it contains
only the desired alleles
For example, white rabbits preferentially
mate with rabbits of their color. Also,
some tall women prefer tall men rather
than short men.
SYNTHETIC THEORY (Neo-Darwinian
synthesis)
- Combination of Darwin’s evolution
and the Mendelian principle of
genetics
- describes the evolution of life in
terms of genetic changes occurring
in the population that lead to the
formation of new species.
MUTATION
- Any change in chromosomes or
genes
THE HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM
- Deals with the distribution of alleles
within the population
- States that in a stable population,
allele frequencies remain constant
from generation to another if
several conditions are met
- Population must have unchanging
gene pool frequencies
EVOLUTIONARY PATTERNS
NATURAL SELECTION
- Nature selects organisms that will
or will not survive based on their
existing traits
- The survivors will pass on their
favorable traits to their offspring.
GENETIC DRIFT
- Defined as a change in the gene
pool due to chance alone
- Certain traits in the population
could be reduced or eliminated
through some unpredictable
disasters or accidents such as
earthquakes, floods, fires, and
diseases
- Happens when a small population
breaks off from a larger population
and forms a new population; the
newly founded population
becomes different from the
population of origin because of the
acquired traits from the founder
For example, a flood wiped out a
population of organisms and large land
vertebrate animals. Even when the
animals have good traits adapted to their
habitat, such natural calamities may
affect their survival. Therefore, the
survival or death in the population has
nothing to do with the general structure
or physiology of the organism.
SPECIATION
- A process within evolution that
results in the formation of new, and
distinct species that are
reproductively isolated from other
populations
- There is no gene flow
● Allopatric (allo=other,
patric=place): occurs due to
geographical isolation and both
species evolve separately. Different
development of each species was
based on the demands of their
unique habitat or the genetic
characteristics of the group that
passed on to offspring.
● Peripartic (peri=near,
patric=place): geographical
barriers separate the species at the
periphery isolating the small
population.
● Parapatric (para=beside,
patric=place): species spread out
over large geographical areas but
individuals only mate with those in
their geographical region. Also,
different habitats influence the
development of different species
and are separated by differences in
the same environment, instead of
being separated by a physical
barrier.
● Sympatric (sym=same,
patric=place): ecological
differences or random genetic
changes occur in a small
population that reproduces and
evolves within the population of the
parent population. The two species
evolve together without any
geographical isolation.
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
- Proposed by Niles Eldredge and
Stephen Jay Gould in 1972
- Suggested that population
demonstrate rapid change when
there is a need to survive sudden or
abrupt environmental changes
MICROEVOLUTION
- Is a change in gene frequency that
occurs within a population in short
periods
COEVOLUTION
- The process wherein a species
adapts or evolve in tandem with
another species as they interact
with each other
An example is the prey-predator
relationship between a bat and a moth.
When the moth evolves due to
environmental pressures, the bat will
also evolve because it has a dependent
relationship with the moth as the moth’s
predator.

CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
- The evolution of morphological
similarities in an organism that are
not closely related because they
have similarities in their habitats.
An example of this is a marsupial mouse
that looks like a placental mouse.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
- The process by which the species
diversifies rapidly into different
types of closely related species
with each type occupying a new
environment
An example of this type of evolution is
that of Darwin’s finches on Galapagos
Island.
MODULE 8
BIODIVERSITY AND STABILITY
ECOSYSTEM
- Where organism lives
- Where basic needs to survive are
met: food, water, shelter
HABITATS
- Constantly changing and evolving
- Animals must constantly adapt to
environmental changes
ADAPTATION
- All about survival
VARIETY OF WAYS ANIMALS CAN
ADAPT
Structural or Physical or using body
structures
● Camouflage: a defense
mechanism or tactic that the
organisms use to disguise their
appearance, usually to blend in
with their surroundings
● Mimicry: ability of an organism to
imitate and copycat another
species in terms of sound,
appearance, smell, behaviour or
location to protect itself. Also refers
to the resemblance of an animal
species to another species or to
natural objects
● Chemical Defense: include
substances utilized by prey which
are harmful to invading organisms
● Body coverings: cover the body
and protect animals from external
factors
BEHAVIORAL OR HOW ANIMALS
RESPOND TO ACT OR TO LIFE NEEDS:
could be instinctive or happen naturally
● Hibernation: when animals bare
sleep as a response to cold
weather and survive the cold winter
● Migration: involves an animal or
group of animals traveling from one
place to another and then back
again when seasons change
● Learned Behaviors: animal
behaviors are obtained and
acquired by interacting with the
environment and cannot be passed
on to the next generation except by
teaching
STABILITY MATTERS
BIODIVERSITY
RICHNESS
- A measure of the number of
different kinds of organisms or
species present in a particular area
- The more species present in a
sample, the “richer” the sample
EVENESS
- Compares the similarity of the
population size of each of the
species present
- More diverse and evenly
distributed ecosystems means
more stable ecosystems
If the ecosystem has an equal number
of species, it is evenly distributed, more
diverse, stable, and has more chance of
survival.
If the ecosystem has an unequal
number of species, it is not evenly
distributed, less diverse, not stable, and
has less chance of survival.
BIODIVERSITY VALUES
DIRECT ECONOMIC VALUE
- if their products are sources of
food, medicine, clothing, shelter,
and energy.
Examples are medicines extracted from
plants like coconut.
INDIRECT ECONOMIC VALUE
- if there are benefits produced by
the organism without using them.
Examples include certain species that
maintain the chemical quality of natural
bodies of water, prevent soil erosion and
floods, cycle materials in the soil and
absorb pollutants such as mangroves.
AESTHETIC VALUE
- a lot of species provide visual or
artistic enjoyment, like a forested
landscape and the calming beauty
of a natural park.
AGGRAVATED DESTRUCTION
● A High Annual Population Growth
Rate
● Loss Of Agricultural Lands
● Deforestation
● Soil Erosion
● Air And Water Pollution
● Improper Disposal Of Solid And
Toxic Wastes
● Loss Of Coral Reefs
● Mismanagement And
● Abuse Of Coastal Resources
● Overfishing
● Other Human-Caused
Environmental Issues.