Option D - Astrophysics - IB Physics

04/04/2024, 20:33 Option D: Astrophysics – IB Physics
IB PHYSICS
Option D: Astrophysics
See the guide for this topic.
D.1 – Stellar quantities
Objects in the universe
The solar system is comprised of the Sun, eight planets, several dwarf planets, numerous moons,
and hundreds of thousands of other material left over from the construction of the solar system
such as asteroids and comets.
https://ibphysics.org/optiondcore/ 1/18
Oops, try watching this video in YouTube Kids
However, the solar system in which we live in is merely a speck of dust in the vast universe.
Single star: A luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity.
Binary star: Two stars orbiting a common center.
Black hole: A singularity in space-time.
Cepheid variable: A star with a period of varying luminosity. The luminosity can be determined
from the period and along with the apparent brightness can be used to determine the distance of
the star from Earth.
Clusters of galaxies: Two or more galaxies that are close enough to each other to affect each
other through gravitation.
Constellation: A pattern of stars visible from Earth that are not gravitational bounded.
Dark matter: Matter in galaxies that are too cold to radiate. Its existence is inferred from
theoretical physics rather than direct visual contact.
Galaxies: stars, gas, and dust held together by gravitational forces.
Main sequence star: A normal star that is undergoing nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.
Neutron stars: A very dense star, consisting only of uncharged neutrons. Nebula: A cloud of dust,
hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases.
Planet: A celestial body that orbits a star.
Planetary system: Gravitationally bounded non-stellar objects in orbit around a star or star
system.
Planetary nebula: The ejected envelope of a red giant star.
Stellar clusters: A group of stars gravitationally bounded together.
The nature of stars
The stability of a star depends on the equilibrium between two opposing forces. The equilibrium
depends on the gravitation which can collapse the star and the radiation pressure which can
make the star expand. This equilibrium is gained through nuclear fusion which provides the
energy the star needs to keep it hot so that the star’s radiation pressure is high enough to oppose
gravitational contraction.
Apart from single stars like the Sun, there are many types of stars in our universe (see previous
section).
Astronomical distances
Our universe is composed of mostly empty space with occasional encounters of matter apart
large distances.
A light year is a unit of measurement of ultra-solar system distances. It’s the distance traveled by
light in one year. The speed of light is 3*10^8m/s. You can find out the number of seconds in a
year by multiplying the number of seconds in a minute (60) by the number of minutes in an hour
(60), then multiplying that by the number of hours in a day (24) and multiplying that by the
number of days in a year (approximately 365.25). One light year is thus approximately equivalent
to 9.46 x 10^15m, which is also approximately equivalent to 0.3068 parsecs (pc).
Example: The distance to the nearest star other than the Sun (Proxima Centauri) from the Earth is
4.31 light years, which is equivalent to 1.3pc. This means that it would take 4.31 years to send or
receive a message to/from Proxima Centauri by electromagnetic wave transmission.
The average distance between stars in a galaxy is approximately 1 pc, which is equivalent to 3.26
light years. The average distance between galaxies within the same cluster ranges from 100 kpc
(kiloparsecs) to several hundred kpc. Galaxies in different clusters can be up to a few mpc
(megaparsecs) apart. 1 mpc is equivalent to 1000 kpc.
To recognize the scale of the universe compared to common objects, see the link below.
http://htwins.net/scale2/
Stellar parallax and its limitations
Stellar parallax is a term used to describe the distance between two objects in space. When an
observer on Earth photographs a relatively nearby star against a background of distant stars on
two different occasions six months apart, the target star image will appear to have shifted against
the more distant stellar background.
The baseline shift of the observer on Earth is 2 astronomical units (AU). By convention,
calculations are normalized to one AU, the radius of the Earth’s orbit, so one half of the measured
shift in apparent position is deemed the “parallax” of the target.
A parallax of one arcsecond is called a parsec. Since we know, the radius of the Earth’s orbit,
simple Euclidean geometry allows us to calculate that a star exhibiting a one arcsecond shift is
3.26 light years or one parsec away from Earth.
However, if a star is too far away from Earth, its parallax will be too small to be measured with
accuracy.
Luminosity and apparent brightness
The total power radiated by a star in all directions is known as its luminosity and the SI unit for
luminosity is watts ( W ). When you compare this to the power received by an observer on the
Earth, you can see that the two quantities are quite different. The power received per unit is
known as the star’s brightness and this is measured in watts per metre squared (W/m^2).
If two stars were at the same distance from Earth, the one that had the greatest luminosity would
also have the greatest brightness. However, because stars are at different distances from the
Earth, their brightness will depend on the luminosity as well as the distance from Earth. The
luminosity of a star will decrease with distance according to the inverse square law.
D.2 – Stellar characteristics and stellar evolution
Stellar spectra
The stellar spectra can be used to identify elements in stars.
Most stellar spectra use the absorption spectrum which is a continuous spectrum that passes
through a cool gas and has specific spectral lines removed (inverse of an emission spectrum). The
missing wavelengths in a star’s absorption spectra correspond to the absorption spectrum of a
number of elements in the star.
There are 7 basic spectral classes: O, B, A, F, G, K and M.
Class Surface temperature (K) Color
O 28000-50000 Blue
B 9900-28000 Blue-white
A 7400-9900 White
F 6000-7400 Yellow-white
G 4900-6000 Yellow
K 3500-4900 Orange
M 2000-3500 Orange-red
As temperature increases, electrons are kicked up to higher levels by collisions with other atoms.
Large atoms have more kinetic energy, and their electrons are excited first, followed by lower
mass atoms.
If the collision is strong enough (high temperatures) then the electron is knocked off the atom and
we say that the atom is ionized. So as we go from low temperatures in stars (a few thousand
Kelvins), we see heavy atoms, like calcium and magnesium, in the stellar spectra. For stars with
higher temperatures, we see lines from lighter atoms, such as hydrogen. The heavier atoms are all
ionized by this point and have no electrons to produce absorption lines.
Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram
The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram shows the relationship between absolute magnitude,
luminosity, classification, and surface temperature of stars.
Most of the stars occupy the region along the line called the main sequence. During this stage,
stars are burning hydrogen.
The H-R diagram is also used by scientists to help the figure out roughly how far away the stars
are from Earth. This can be done because if we know the apparent magnitude, we can plot the
star onto the graph using its spectral class and the type of star it is. We can then use the graph to
deduce the absolute magnitude of the star.
Mass–luminosity relation for main sequence stars
For main sequence stars, the luminosity increases with the mass with the approximate power law
where L⊙ and M⊙ are the luminosity and mass of the Sun. The value a = 3.5 is commonly used for
main-sequence stars and does not apply to red giants or white dwarfs.
Cepheid variables
Cepheid variables are stars in which its luminosity increases sharply and falls gently in a period of
time. Thus, the period is correlated to the luminosity of the star and the Cepheid variable can be
used to estimate the distance of the star.
Cepheid variables on a luminosity-period graph, due to their brightness increase and gradual
fade offs, curves on the graph, giving a sine graph picture. The outer layers of the star go through
contractions and expansions periodically. When it expands outward, the star becomes brighter
because of high velocity, and when it contracts, the star becomes dimmer as the surface it moves
inward.
Cepheid variables are thousands of times more luminous than the Sun and provide us with such a
benchmark which is known in astronomy as a “standard candle”.
Stellar evolution on HR diagrams
The nebulae in space from which stars are created are actually the remains of a previous star that
has reached the end of its lifecycle and died. Generally speaking, they consist of hydrogen and
helium and small amount of the other heavier elements. The nebula, under the influence of
gravity, begins to condense, and eventually, a protostar is formed. Such protostars can be
observed in nebulas such as the horsehead nebula and the crab nebula. It is in this stage that the
process of nucleosynthesis begins. Nucleosynthesis, in contrast to the nuclear processes that we
are used to on Earth, is fusion, not fission. That is, instead of splitting a heavy nucleus, light nuclei
are smashed together and fuse to produce a heavier nucleus, and gamma rays. It is called the
proton-proton cycle. The star will continue to react its core of hydrogen into helium for all of its
main-sequence lifetime (see previous section: the nature of stars).
Once the star runs out of hydrogen, the core collapses, and, under the additional gravitational
pressure, the hydrogen in the core will start to undergo fusion. This causes the outer layers of the
star to expand, however, the outer layers also cool, and the star becomes a red giant. The core
continues to react and elements such as carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon and iron are produced. It is
here that the elements that compose our world are created. Without the stars then universe
would be composed of hydrogen and little else.
When the star finally runs out of fuel completely; usually when the core becomes iron, the red
giant star collapses. The next stage of the star is determined by the mass of that star and the
Chandrasekhar limit.
If a star is below 1.4 solar masses (Type G), it is less that the Chandrasekhar limit and when it
collapses, its forms a white dwarf of 1.4 solar masses or less, along with a planetary nebula. The
white dwarf star continues to cool and eventually becomes invisible.
If a star is above 1.4 solar masses (Type A, B, O), it is above the Chandrasekhar limit and instead of
becoming a regular red giant, it becomes a super red giant. In this case, when the star dies, it
takes a rather more spectacular path than the star below the Chandrasekhar limit, becoming a
supernova. Depending on the mass of the star, it will either go on to become a black hole or a
neutron star.
For stellar masses less than about 1.4 solar masses, the energy from the gravitational collapse is
not sufficient to produce the neutrons of a neutron star so the collapse is halted by electron
degeneracy to form white dwarfs. Electron degeneracy is a stellar application of the Pauli
Exclusion Principle, as is neutron degeneracy. No two electrons can occupy identical states, even
under the pressure of a collapsing star of several solar masses.
H-R diagrams can also be used to plot the evolution of a star from its birth as a protostar until its
death as a white dwarf.
Red giants, white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes
See previous section.
Chandrasekhar and Oppenheimer–Volkoff limits
Chandrasekhar limit
The largest mass a white dwarf can have is about 1.4 solar masses.
Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit
Oppenheimer-Volkoff limits the largest mass a neutron star can have to approximately 2-3 solar
masses. The uncertainty in this limit comes from the fact that the equation of state of the matter
inside a neutron star is not precisely known.
D.3 – Cosmology
The Big Bang model
The Big Bang theory states that both space and time originated with the expansion from a
singularity.
The evidence that supported the Big Bang theory was observed through the redshift (Doppler
effect) of almost all the galaxies. This indicates that all of the galaxies are moving away from us.
Although that observation would seem to indicate that we, or rather, the Earth, are at the centre
of the universe, this is not the case. It only appears to be this way as we are observing from the
Earth. If we were on a different galaxy, we would see our own galaxy moving away in the same
manner as we are observing that galaxy moving away. This can be related to the idea of painted
dots on the surface of a balloon; as the balloon is inflated, all of the dots move away from each
other equally.
Ultimately, however, what gave the Big Bang theory weight above all others was the discovery of
the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.
This discovery supports the Big Bang theory in two major ways:
1. The early universe was in thermal equilibrium and the radiation from then had a black body
spectrum, which has traveled through space, becoming increasingly redshifted up to this
point in time. This reduces the temperature of the black body spectrum and the radiation
should be visible from every point in space.
2. As the radiation travels throughout the universe, space has expanded, causing the
wavelength to increase and its energy to decrease.
All these observations are in accordance with the Big Bang theory.
Cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation
See previous section.
Hubble’s law
Hubble’s law states v = Hd, where v is the speed, H is the Hubble parameter, and d is the distance.
It describes Hubble’s observation, that most lines in the spectra of other galaxies were redshifted
where the amount of shift was approximately proportional to the distance of the galaxy from us.
Thus, the velocity is proportional to the distance.
We can use Hubble’s law to estimate the age of the universe.
However, Hubble’s law really describes the speed at which celestial bodies move away from each
other at the present time and changes because the expansion of the universe if accelerating.
The accelerating universe and redshift (z)
The evidence for an accelerating expansion comes from observations of the brightness of distant
supernovae. We observe the redshift of a supernova which tells us by what the factor the Universe
has expanded since the supernova exploded. This factor is (1+z), where z is the redshift. However,
in order to determine the expected brightness of the supernova, we need to know its distance
now. If the expansion of the Universe is accelerating due to a cosmological constant, then the
expansion was slower in the past, and thus the time required to expand by a given factor is longer,
and the distance now is larger. But if the expansion is decelerating, it was faster in the past and
the distance now is smaller. Thus for an accelerating expansion, the supernovae at high redshifts
will appear to be fainter than they would for a decelerating expansion because their current
distances are larger.
The cosmic scale factor (R)
The cosmic scale factor is a function of time which represents the relative expansion of the
universe.
This may be represented by
where d(t) is the proper distance at time t, d0 is the distance at time t0, and a(t) is the cosmic
scale factor.
Astrophysicists would out the cosmic scale factor using Einstein’s theory of general relativity laws.
FYI
Referenced sources
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/IB_Physics/Astrophysics_SL#F.1_Introduction_to_the_Universe
http://sciencevault.net/ibphysics/astrophysics/astrophysicsindex.html
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/

Option D - Astrophysics - IB Physics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Option D - Astrophysics - IB Physics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

04/04/2024, 20:33 Option D: Astrophysics – IB Physics

D.1 – Stellar quantities

Objects in the universe

Oops, try watching this video in YouTube Kids

Binary star: Two stars orbiting a common center.

Black hole: A singularity in space-time.

Galaxies: stars, gas, and dust held together by gravitational forces.

Planet: A celestial body that orbits a star.

Planetary nebula: The ejected envelope of a red giant star.

Stellar clusters: A group of stars gravitationally bounded together.

The nature of stars

Stellar parallax and its limitations

Luminosity and apparent brightness

D.2 – Stellar characteristics and stellar evolution

The stellar spectra can be used to identify elements in stars.

There are 7 basic spectral classes: O, B, A, F, G, K and M.

Class Surface temperature (K) Color

Hertzsprung–Russell (HR) diagram

Mass–luminosity relation for main sequence stars

Stellar evolution on HR diagrams

Red giants, white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes

See previous section.

Chandrasekhar and Oppenheimer–Volkoff limits

The Big Bang model

Oops, try watching this video in YouTube Kids

Oops, try watching this video in YouTube Kids

Cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation

See previous section.

We can use Hubble’s law to estimate the age of the universe.

The accelerating universe and redshift (z)

The cosmic scale factor (R)

This may be represented by

Oops, try watching this video in YouTube Kids

You might also like