UNIT ONE EXAM STUDY GUIDE OUTLINE

To receive full credit for this homework assignment you must answer all the following outline
sections to include defining the listed words and terms. To ensure you get full credit please
make sure you copy and paste the outline into your own word document, bold or underline the
original outline, then clearly add your answers to the document. When you finish make sure
your answers are easily identifiable then save the complete outline as a PDF prior to uploading
it to Blackboard. Please remember that while this is a study guide to help you prepare for the
exam it is also a homework assignment and my TA will be grading this for completion not
content. If you do not follow directions and complete the assignment, she has been instructed to
deduct points.
To prepare for the exam you should know and fully understand the following…...
Define the following terms and words:
Acid- a chemical substance that neutralizes alkalis, dissolves some metals, and turns litmus
red; typically, a corrosive or sour-tasting liquid of this kind.
Adaptation- a change or the process of change by which an organism or species becomes
better suited to its environment.
Adhesive- The ability of a substance to stick to an unlike substance; attraction between unlike
molecules.
Amino Acids- organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional
groups. histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan,
and valine.
Anion- ions that are negatively charged
Artificial Selection- the identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals,
and the steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future generations.
Atom- smallest unit into which matter can be divided without the release of electrically charged
particles. It also is the smallest unit of matter that has the characteristic properties of a chemical
element.
Atomic Orbital- a function describing the location and wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom.
This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific
region around the atom's nucleus.
ATP- Adenosine triphosphate, is a molecule that carries energy within cells. It is the main energy
currency of the cell, and it is an end product of the processes of photophosphorylation (adding a
phosphate group to a molecule using energy from light), cellular respiration, and fermentation.
Base- a substance that can accept hydrogen ions in water and can neutralize an acid. Bases feel soapy
or slippery on the skin.
Binomial Nomenclature- the system of nomenclature in which two terms are used to denote a
species of living organism, the first one indicating the genus and the second the specific epithet.
Biogeography- the branch of biology that deals with the geographical distribution of plants and
animals.
Biology- the study of living organisms, divided into many specialized fields that cover their
morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.
Biosphere- the regions of the surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere of the earth (or analogous
parts of other planets) occupied by living organisms.
Carbohydrate- a naturally occurring compound, or a derivative of such a compound, with the
general chemical formula Cx(H2O)y, made up of molecules of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O)
Cation- a positively charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the cathode in electrolysis
Cell Division- the division of a cell into two daughter cells with the same genetic material.

Chemical Reaction- a process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a
substance, as opposed to a change in physical form or a nuclear reaction.
Cohesive-Cohesion is the ability of like molecules to stick together.
Community- also called biological community, in biology, an interacting group of various
species in a common location.
Comparative Experiment- designed to determine the differences between different forms of
treatments. two or more different treatment types.
Compound- a unique substance that consists of two or more elements combined in fixed
proportions.
Control Group- a group separated from the rest of the experiment, where the independent
variable Being tested cannot influence the results.
Controlled Experiment- an experiment or trial that uses controls, usually separating the
subjects into one or more control groups and experimental groups.
Convergent Evolution- the process whereby distantly related organisms independently evolve
similar traits to adapt to similar necessities.
Covalent bond- consists of the mutual sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two
atoms.
Data- multiple facts (usually but not necessarily empirical) used as a basis for inference, testing,
models, etc.
Dependent Variable- The variable in a functional relation whose value is dependent upon, or
influenced by, an independent variable
Development- The series of changes which animal and vegetable organisms undergo in their
passage from the embryonic state to maturity, from a lower to a higher state of organization.
Disaccharides- any class of sugars whose molecules contain two monosaccharide residues.
Ecosystem- a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
Electron- a stable subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms
and acting as the primary carrier of electricity in solids.
Electronegativity- a measure of an atom's ability to attract shared electrons to itself
Element- A substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means
and is made up of atoms all with an identical number of protons.
Energy- The capacity for work. The ability to do work or produce change.
Enzyme- a substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a
specific biochemical reaction.
Equilibrium- a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
Evolution- the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have
developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.
Experimental Group- The group in a clinical research study that receives the drug, vaccine, or
other intervention being tested.
Fats- a type of lipid consisting of triesters of glycerol and fatty acids or triglycerides.
Fitness- A biological condition in which a competing variant is increasing in frequency relative
to other competing variants in a population
Function- The special, normal, proper physiologic activity of a body part or an organ.
Gene-a unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine
some characteristic of the offspring.
Genus- a principal taxonomic category that ranks above species and below family, and is
denoted by a capitalized Latin name, e.g., Leo.
Glycosidic Bond- a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to
another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.
Growth- the increases in cell size and number that take place during the life history of an
organism.
Heritable Trait- an offspring's trait that resembles the parents' corresponding trait more than it
resembles the same trait in a random individual in the population.
Hexose- any of the class of simple sugars whose molecules contain six carbon atoms, such as
glucose and fructose. They generally have the chemical formula C6H12O6.
Homeostasis- the tendency toward a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent
elements, especially as maintained by physiological processes.
Homology- the state of having the same or similar relation, relative position, or structure.
Hydrogen Bond- a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction
between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other
Hydrolysis- the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.
Hydrophilic- having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.
Hydrophobic- tending to repel or fail to mix with water.
Hypothesis- a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a
starting point for further investigation.
Independent Variable- a variable (often denoted by x) whose variation does not depend on that
of another.
Interspecies- existing or occurring between species.
Ionic Bond- type of linkage formed from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions in a chemical compound
Isotope- each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons
but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not
in chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an element.
Lipid- any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include many natural oils, waxes, and
steroids.
Lipoprotein- any group of soluble proteins that combine with and transport fat or other lipids in
the blood plasma.
Liposome- a minute spherical sac of phospholipid molecules enclosing a water droplet,
especially as formed artificially to carry drugs or other substances into the tissues.
Macroevolution- major evolutionary change. The term applies mainly to the evolution of whole
taxonomic groups over long periods of time.
Macromolecule- a molecule containing a very large number of atoms, such as a protein,
nucleic acid, or synthetic polymer.
Metabolism- the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.
Micelle- an aggregate of molecules in a colloidal solution, such as those formed by detergents.
Microevolution- evolutionary change within a species or small group of organisms, especially
over a short period.
Molarity- the amount of a substance in a certain volume of solution.
Mole- 6.02214076 × 1023 of some chemical unit, be it atoms, molecules, ions, or others.
Molecular Formula- a formula giving the number of atoms of each of the elements present in
one molecule of a specific compound.
Molecule- a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a
chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Monomer- a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
Monosaccharides- any of the class of sugars (e.g., glucose) that cannot be hydrolyzed to give
a simpler sugar.
Morphology- the branch of biology that deals with the form of living organisms, and with
relationships between their structures.
Multicellular- having or consisting of many cells.
Multimeric proteins- a protein that's made up of more than one polypeptide chain stuck
together
Natural Selection- the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to
survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by
Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution.
Neutron- a subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric
charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary hydrogen.
Noble Gas- any of the gaseous element's helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon,
occupying Group 0 (18) of the periodic table. They were long believed to be totally unreactive,
but compounds of xenon, krypton, and radon are now known.
Nonpolar bond- a type of chemical bond that is formed when electrons are shared equally
between two atoms
Nucleic Acid- a complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA,
whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain.
Nucleotide- a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. Nucleotides
form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA.
Null Hypothesis- the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified
populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
Oligosaccharides- carbohydrate whose molecules are composed of a relatively small number
of monosaccharide units.
Organ- a part of an organism that is typically self-contained and has a specific vital function,
such as the heart or liver in humans.
Organic Molecule- A molecule that is normally found in or produced by living systems.
Organism-an individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form.
Pentose- any of the class of simple sugars whose molecules contain five carbon atoms, such
as ribose and xylose. They generally have the chemical formula C5H10O5.
Peptide Bond- a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of
one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule, releasing a molecule of water
(H2O).
pH- quantitative measure of the acidity or basicity of aqueous or other liquid solutions.
Phospholipid- a lipid containing a phosphate group in its molecule, e.g., lecithin.
Phylogenetic tree- diagram that depicts the lines of evolutionary descent of different species,
organisms, or genes from a common ancestor.
Polar Bond- A type of covalent bond between two atoms in which electrons are shared
unequally.
Polymer- a substance that has a molecular structure consisting chiefly or entirely of a large
number of similar units bonded together, e.g., many synthetic organic materials used as plastics
and resins
Polypeptide- a linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues
bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule.
Polysaccharides- a carbohydrate (e.g., starch, cellulose, or glycogen) whose molecules
consist of a number of sugar molecules bonded together.
Population- all the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or country.
Protein- any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that consist of large molecules
composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living
organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, collagen,
etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
Quantitative Observation- an objective method of data analysis that measures research
variables using numerical and statistical parameters.
Reproduction- the production of offspring by a sexual or asexual process
Salts- substance produced by the reaction of an acid with a base.
Saturated Fatty Acids- a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds.
Scientific method-a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th
century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the
formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
Solute- the minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent.
Solution- a liquid mixture in which the minor component (the solute) is uniformly distributed
within the major component (the solvent).
Solvent- able to dissolve other substances.
Species- a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging
genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a
genus and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g., Homo sapiens.
Standardized Variable- a variable that has been rescaled to have a mean of zero and a
standard deviation of one
Steroid- any of a class of natural or synthetic organic compounds characterized by a
molecular structure of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings
Stimuli- anything that can trigger a physical or behavioral change
Taxonomy- the branch of science concerned with classification, especially of organisms;
systematics. the classification of something, especially organisms.
Theory- a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based
on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.
Tissue- a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit
Triglycerides- an ester formed from glycerol and three fatty acid groups. Triglycerides are the
main constituents of natural fats and oils, and high concentrations in the blood indicate an
elevated risk of stroke.
Unicellular- consisting of a single cell. characterized by the formation or presence of a single
cell or cells.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids- a fatty acid in which the hydrocarbon molecules have two carbons
that share double or triple bond(s) and are therefore not completely saturated with hydrogen
atoms.
Valence- the combining power of an element, especially as measured by the number of
hydrogen atoms it can displace or combine with.
Variable- a factor or a quantity whose value may vary
Vestigial Trait- the retention, during the process of evolution, of genetically determined
structures or attributes that have lost some or all of the ancestral function in a given species.

Lecture 2: What is life?

1. What are the six defining characteristics of life and how do they each apply to
unicellular vs multicellular organisms?
Evolution- change in genetic makeup of biological populations through time.
Organization- (cells) consist of one or more cells.
Growth and development.
Metabolism- total chemical activity of a living organism.
Reproduction (genetic material)- continues life and provides the basis of evolution (uses
genetic information to do so).
Regulation-(homeostasis) can regulate their internal environment
Response to environment
2. What is cell theory? All organisms are composed of cells. cells are the smallest unit of life
All new cells come from pre-existing cells via cell division.
3. What are the levels of biological organization -smallest to largest? Molecules, cells,
tissues, organs, organisms, populations, communities, and the biosphere.

4. What is the tree of life? It is a diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among
biological species based on similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or
both.

5. What is meant by life having a single common ancestor?

The theory of common ancestry holds that all life forms descended from one "universal common
ancestor". Darwin proposed that similarities among species could mean that they are related
and could be traced back to a common ancestor that evolved into new species due to adapting
to their specific environment.
6. What are the eight levels of taxonomic system of classification- largest to smallest?
Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.

7. What are the three domains of life? Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

8. How is Binomial Nomenclature used-give an example for a multicellular and a
unicellular organism? System of scientifically naming organisms with two words.
Multicellular: Elephas maximus Unicellular: Entamoeba histolytica

Lecture 3: Studying Life

1. What are the necessary components of a good hypothesis?

Scientific hypotheses must be testable and have the potential of being rejected.

2. How does a hypothesis differ from a theory?

Hypothesis are an explanation for a natural phenomenon based on other observations
and can never be really proven too, while theories are a broad explanation of the natural
world supported by a large body of evidence, they are vely likely true and help make
predictions

3. What are the common features of Experimental Design?

They include an independent variable that can be manipulated, a dependent variable that
cannot be directly manipulated and can be measured, and a standardized variable

4. What is a peer reviewed journal publication and why is it important?

They are scientific papers that a scientist’s colleagues and peers review. It helps ensure that
research in scientific paper is original, significant logical and thorough.

Lecture 4: Evolution
1. What is evolutionary theory?
It states that humans, beetles, plants and all bacteria share a common ancestor, but millions of
years of evolution have shaped of these organisms into their now forms.
2. What are the five points of evidence for evolutionary change?
Fossil records
Biogeography
Convergent evolution
Selective breeding
Homologies
3. How did the following scientists contribute to evolutionary theory?
a) Carolus Linnaeus- developed modern-day classification system, and did not believe
evolutionary change resulted in development of new species
b) Jean-Baptiste Lamarck- believed living things evolved upward toward human perfection,
and inherited desired/acquired characteristics
c) Charles Darwin- believed that populations evolved over time (descent w modification)

4. Give examples of each of the following terms in evolutionary theory:

a) Decent with Modification- populations evolved and there is variation within species
(heritable traits, natural selection), ex variety in sizes of birds beak
b) Transformational Model of Evolution-
c) Natural Selection- individuals with better traits flourish, survive and reproduce, thereby their
traits become more prominent in the species
d) Fitness- Traits that are better for survival and reproduction
e) Adaptation-
f) Populations- members of the same species that are located in the same geographical area
(increases their chances of reproducing)
5. What is artificial selection and how does it differ from natural selection?
Natural happens simply through nature while artificial selection happens through the
manipulation or breeding of species to achieve certain characteristics.

Lecture 5: Chemistry of Life & Small Molecules

1. What are the components of an atom and what are their importance?
a) Proton- it is found in the nucleus, carried a positive charge and is major part of atoms mass
b) Neutron- it is found in nucleus, neutral charge, also major part of atoms mass
c) Electron- found in outer shells called orbitals, negative charge, nearly no mass
1. What is atomic number? If you know this number, what do you know about the
atom?
The atomic number is represented by the number of protons, you know the name of the
atom or where it is found in the periodic table
2. What are the units of atomic mass?
AMU or Daltons
3. What does the mass number describe?
It is the addition of the protons and neutrons, it is the mean of the mass number for all of
an elements isotopes
a. Is this a constant for each atom? Explain?
 Atoms of the same chemical elements don’t always have the same amu because there
are isotopes within each element that although they have the same number of protons,
they don’t always have the same number of neutrons
4. What are electron shells and orbitals? How are electrons placed in electron
shells?
They are defined spherical (s orbitals) and dumbbell shaped (p orbitals) structures that
exist surrounding the nucleus in which the electrons move. First orbital can hold 2
electrons, but outer can hold up 8 electrons, the fuller they are the stabler they are
a. What are the differences between a p-orbital and an s-orbital?
S orbitals are spherical and p orbitals are dumbbell shaped
5. What is the octet rule?
It states that atoms are stable when their outer shell is filled with 8 electrons, the only
exception is hydrogen, which wills with 2 electrons
6. When are atoms stable?
When their outermost shell is full
7. What are valence electrons?
The electrons in an atoms outermost shell
8. What is the periodic table and how is it organized?
It is an organization of all of the elements known, they are organized by atomic number,
the rows correspond to the number of electron shells, and the columns (from left to right)
indicate the number of valence electrons. Elements with wimilar properties properties
occur because of same number of valence electrons which = similar chemical bonding
properties
9. What is a reactive element? What is an inert or nonreactive element?
It is a measure of how readily a substance undergoes a chemical reaction. Most reactive
will ignite spontaneously or explosively.
10. What are covalent bonds? Single, Double, Triple?
They are the sharing of electrons to fill valence shells, they are stronger than ionic bonds
because shared electrons behave as if they belong to each atom, single are 1 pair of
electrons, double 2 pairs and triple 3 pairs
11. What is the difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds?
In polar covalent bonds, electrons are pulled closer to the nucleus of the more
electronegative atom and in nonpolar bonds, electrons are shared equally
12. How are ionic bonds formed?
They are formed when a cation binds to an anion by electrostatic attraction, ionic
compounds are called salts (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2)
13. What is the difference between an anion and a cation?
An anion has a net negative charge and a cation has a net positive charge
14. How do ionic compounds behave in water?
They often dissolve in water, and it renders the strength of the ionic attraction irrelevant
in living systems
15. How are hydrogen bonds formed?
They are formed when the hydrogen atom from one polar molecule is attracted to an
electronegative atom of another, they are usually weak but can be strong in large
numbers
Lecture 6: Macromolecules-Carbohydrates & Lipids
1. What are the four major classes of macromolecules? Lipids, carbohydrates, proteins,
nucleic acids.
2. What are carbohydrates composed of and what are their defining characteristics?
They are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, most are linked to a hydrogen
atom in a hydroxyl group,

2. What do carbohydrates do?

They are all the source that that provides energy to the body through glucose. (grains fruits and
vegetables)
3. How do carbohydrates indicate cell identity?
They display info on outer surface of cells in the form of glycoprotein, their formula is (CH2O)
and there are three different kinds, monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
1. How do carbohydrates store chemical energy?
During cellular respiration, energy releases from glucose and that energy helps make
ATP. Plants synthesize the glucose using carbon dioxide and water and the glucose
provides energy for the plants, while humans and animals get glucose from catabolized
starch.
2. What is the basic molecular formula for all carbohydrates?
CH2O
3. How are glycosidic bonds formed and broken?
4. How do monosaccharides vary in structure?
They can range in number of carbons from three to seven, if there is an aldehyde group
it is an aldose, if it has ketone then ketose. Depending on the carbons in the sugar, they
can be trioses (w three carbons), pentoses (5), or hexoses, (6)
5. What are the main functions of lipids?
They are stored in cells for long term use of energy (through fats), they provide
insulation, from the environment through their water-fearing properties, and are also the
building blocks for many hormones.
6. What are lipids composed of and what are their defining features?
They are hydrocarbons containing mostly nonpolar carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen
bonds. They are hydrophobic (water-fearing).
7. What are the structure and function of the following three types of lipids?
A. Fats
They are formed of glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol has three carbons, 5 hydrogens
and 3 hydroxyl. Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group
is attaches. Unsaturated fats lower blood cholesterol levels, saturated ones form plaque
in arteries.
B. Steroids
Have fused ring structure, do not resemble other lipids yet are still hydrophobic. All have
four linked carbon rings and a short tail. Cholesterol is the most common steroid. Steroid
hormones include; testosterone, estradiol. It is the precursor to vitamin D, bile salts and
(they emulsify fats and help in the absorption of them).
C. Phospholipids
 They are what comprise the cells outermost layer. They are comprised of fatty acid
chains attached to a glycerol/sphingosine backbone. Only 2 fatty acids and a modified
phosphate group in the backbones third carbon. They have hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tails. They work for plasma membranes dynamic nature.
8. How are fats formed?
By bonding glycerol to 3 fatty acids via dehydration reaction.

9. What does it mean when we say phospholipids are amphipathic molecules?

Neutral, they are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.

10. What is a phospholipid bilayer and why is it important, how is it formed?

It is a barrier both to the entry of substances outside the cell and to the exit of contents
to the cell. It is important because it has polar outside heads that make cells
impermeable to large molecules (ex-glucose and amino acids) yet nonpolar inside tails.
11. What does selectively permeable mean?
The characteristic of a membrane that allows only certain substances through.
(semipermeable)
12. What affects membrane permeability?
It can be affected by temperature and types of solutes present as well as the level of a
cell hydration. (high temp makes cell very fluid, while low will slow membrane)
13. How do solutes move across a lipid bilayer?
They form aqueous pores that extend across the lipid bilayer and when these pores are
open,, they allow specific solutes to pass through them and cross the membrane.

14. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated are when all carbons are linked by singe bonds, they are solid in room
temperature. Unsaturated ones contain one or more double bonds, they are usually
liquid at room temperature.
Lecture 7: Macromolecules-Proteins and Nucleic Acids
1. What are condensation and hydrolysis reactions?
It is the process through which monosaccharides form, it happens when one
monosaccharides hydroxyl group combines with another monosaccharides hydrogen,
which releases a water molecule and forms a covalent bond.
2. How are protein polymers formed?
By the linking of many monosaccharides.
3. How are protein polymers broken?
They are broken through hydrolysis reactions, which is happens when a bond is broke
by addition of a water molecule
4. What are the functions of proteins?
They can be catalysts in biochemical reactions (ex, enzymes in digestion), help with
control/regulation of processes (ex, through hormones for metabolism, reproduction,
growth, etc), affect muscle contraction, carry substances, provide nourishment, and
protect body from pathogens.
5. What is the monomer unit of a protein?

Amino Acids
6. How are typical amino acids constructed with functional groups?
They are composed of amine (-NH2) and carboxylic acid (-COOH), linked to the same
carbon atom

7. How many different amino acids are used to build proteins?

20 different ones, they can be polar/non-polar and acidic/basic
8. How are amino acids bonded together?
They are bonded through peptide bonds, formin a long chain. (peptide bonds formed
through extraction of water molecule that joins amino group of one amino acid to
carboxyl group of a neighboring amino acid)
9. What does it mean that a polypeptide has directionality?
It has two ends that are chemically different from one another.
a. What is an N-terminus? A C-terminus?
The free amine end of the chain is called N-terminus, and the carboxylic acid end is
called C-terminus
10. What is a side chain?
It is the R group or different chain that is attached to the amino acid aside from the
carboxyl group, hydrogen atom and amino group
11. What are the four levels of protein structure and how do they differ?
1. Is amino acid sequence in which they are encoded directly by
genes, therefore are directly affected by a mutation
2. I the chemical and physical interactions that cause protein folding,
composed of x helices and p pleated sheets, they determine the
protein characteristics, & formation of helices is due to hydrogen
bonding (shape specific to bonding)
3. Folding that gives 3D sjape and is final level for ONE single
peptide chain (protein subunits)
4. Made up of two or more polypeptide chains, can be formed from
several copies of same chain (uni or monomeric) or of different
(multimeric)
12. How does protein folding affect their function?
It determines their 3D structure, if they don’t fold they can be inactive or toxic that will
cause diseases
13. What is a prion?
It is a infectious particle consisting of proteins that replicate without DNA or RNA
14. When a protein loses its specific conformation (shape) what is said to have
occurred?
Denaturation, which can happen due to change in temperate pH or chemical exposure
15. What are the defining features of nucleic acids?
They are made up of a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
and a singular/double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms (base)
16. What are the monomer units of nucleic acids?
Nucleotides (DNA and RNA)
17. What are DNA nucleotides called?
 Adenine, Thymine, guanine, cytosine
18. What are RNA nucleotides called?
Uracil, adenine, guanine, cytosine
19. How are nucleic acids formed?
When nucleotides come together through phosphodiester linkages between th 5 and 3
carbon atoms.

20. What are the similarities and differences between RNA and DNA?
Dna is the genetic material in all organisms, it forms a complex with histone proteins to
form chromate. It controls all cellular activities by turning genes on/off. Their molecules
never leave the nucleus but use RNA to communicate w the rest of the cell. RNA is
involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.
21. What are the base pairing rules for both DNA and RNA (Chargaff’s rules)?
It is the rule that states that there is always equality in quantity between the bases A and
T and between the bases G and C in
22. What is the directionality of a DNA molecule?
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions, which means that the 5 carbon end of
one strand will face the 3 carbon end of the matching strand
23. How are DNA molecules constructed and what bonds hold the base pairs
together?
They are linked into chains with the phosphate and sugar groups alternating, and are
held together by hydrogen bonds with adenide and thymine pairs and cytosine and
guanine pairs
24. How does DNA replicate?
Through 1. The opening of the double helix and separation of DNA strands. 2. The
priming of the template strand and 3. The assembly of the new DNA segment
25. What is the construction of an RNA molecule?
It is composed of ribose sugars attached to nitrogenous bases and phosphate groups.
26. Why was RNA thought to be the first genetic material?
Because it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical
reactions.
27. Why is DNA a more stable molecule than RNA?
Because DNA has deoxyribose and RNA ribose, this means that DNA is more
susceptible to hydrolysis.