Biology

Structure and function

Subcellular structures found in plant and animal cells
- Microorganisms, single celled organisms
- Functions of cell structures
a) Cell membrane
- Permeable to some substances but not to others:
controls the movement of substances in and out the
cell
b) Cytoplasm
- Jelly-like substance containing dissolved
nutrients, salts and organelles + contains enzymes
/ biological catalysts to speed reaction: site of
many chemical reactions
c) Nucleus
- Contains genetic material, including DNA:
controls all the activities of the cell
d) Mitochondria
- Organelles that contain enzymes for respiration:
where aerobic respiration occurs, providing
energy for the cell
Subcellular structures found in only plants
e) Cell wall
- Made from cellulose: strengthens the cell and
maintains the shape of the cell
f) Chloroplast
- Organelles that contain chlorophyll (absorbs
light energy) + contains enzymes for
photosynthesis: where photosynthesis takes place,
providing food for the plant
g) Sap vacuole
- Contains cell sap (solution of sugar and salt
dissolved in water): keeps the cell turgid (swollen
and hard) + improves the cell’s rigidity
- Structures of specialised cells and functions
a) Red blood cells
- Specialised for the transport of oxygen
- Biconcave disc shape (increases surface area for
more efficient diffusion of oxygen); contains
haemoglobin which joins with oxygen to transport
it; no nucleus (increase amount of space available
for haemoglobin inside cell)
b) Neurones (nerve cells)
- Specialised to transmit electrical signals
quickly from one place in the body to another
 - Long axon, enabling the impulses to be carried
along long distances to and from different parts
of the body to the central nervous system; axon is
covered with a fatty sheath (insulates the nerve
cell and speeds up the nerve impulse) have lots of
extensions from the cell body (dendrites) so
branched connections can form with other nerve
cells/communicate with other nerve cells, muscles
and glands; the nerve endings have many
mitochondria which supply the energy to make
special transmitter chemicals called
neurotransmitters, allowing the impulses to be
passed from one cell to another
c) Ciliated cells
- Movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi
- Extensions of cytoplasm at the surface of the cell
form hair-like structures called cilia which beat
to move mucus and trapped particles up to the
throat
d) Root hair cells
- Specialised to take up water by osmosis and
mineral ions
- Have large surface area due to root hairs (ensure
maximum absorption of water and mineral ions);
walls are thin to ensure water moves through
quickly; no chloroplasts
e) Palisade cells
- For photosynthesis
- Large surface area to maximise absorption of
sunlight; contains many chloroplasts for maximum
photosynthesis
- Similarities and differences between structures of plant and
animal cells
- Grouping of cells: tissues, organs, organ systems
a) Cells- basic functional and structural units in a
living organism
b) Tissues- groups of cells of similar structure working
together to perform the same function
c) Organs- made from different tissues working together
to perform specific functions
d) Organ systems- groups of organs with related
functions, working together to perform body functions
- Ball-and-socket and hinge joints + how antagonistic muscles
move the bones at a hinge joint
a) Muscles transfer force to bones through tendons
 b) A muscle pulls in one direction at a joint and another
muscle pulls in the opposite direction (one muscle of
the pair contracts to move the body part, the other
muscle then contracts to return the body part back to
the original position) → antagonistic pairs
* contracting muscle = agonist, relaxing muscle =
antagonist
c) To raise lower arm: bicep contracts and tricep relax
- Components of blood and their functions
a) Red blood cells- transporting oxygen around the body
from the lungs to cells which require it for aerobic
respiration (biconcave disc, no nucleus but plenty of
haemoglobin)
b) White blood cells- defend body against infection by
pathogens (big nucleus, different types have slightly
different structures)
c) Plasma- transporting blood cells, nutrients, mineral
ions, urea, hormones and carbon dioxide, and heat
energy (straw coloured liquid)
d) Extra: platelets- helping blood to clot (fragments of
cell)
- Human respiratory system and gas exchange (in terms of lung
structure and action of the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles) + breathing vs respiration
a)
Structure Description
ribs Bone structure that protects
internal organs such as the
lungs
Intercostal muscle Muscles between the ribs
which control their
movement, causing
inhalation and exhalation
Diaphragm Sheet of connective tissue
and muscle at the bottom of
the thorax to allow
inhalation and exhalation
Trachea Windpipe that connects the
mouth and nose to the lungs
(surrounded by rings of
cartilage)
Larynx Aka voice box, when air
passes across here, we are
able to make sounds
 Bronchi (PL) Large tubes branching off
the trachea with one
bronchus for each lung
Bronchioles Bronchi split to form
smaller tubes called
bronchioles in the lungs
connected to alveoli
Alveoli Tiny air sacs where gas
exchange takes place
b) Intercostal muscles: 2 sets of intercostal muscles
(because muscles only able to pull on bones), one to pull
rib cage up, another to pull it down; one set on outside
of rib cage (external intercostal muscles), another
found on the inside of the rib cage (internal
intercostal muscles)
c) Inhalation: diaphragm contracts and flattens; external
set of intercostal muscles contract to pull the ribs up
and out; volume in chest cavity (thorax) increases;
decrease in air pressure inside lungs relative to
outside the body; air is drawn in
d) Exhalation: diaphragm relaxes (moves upwards back to
its domed shape); external set of intercostal muscles
relax so ribs drop down and in (internal set contracts);
volume of chest cavity decreases; air pressure
increases inside the lungs; air is forced out
e) Respiration is a chemical reaction which occurs in
every cell in the human body. It releases energy stored
in glucose. Aerobic respiration slowly releases lots of
energy stored in glucose in the mitochondria in the
presence of oxygen (cells e.g. sperm cells / muscle cells
have more mitochondria) GLUCOSE + OXYGEN → CARBON
DIOXIDE + WATER
f) Anaerobic respiration: glucose → lactic acid
g) Breathing (ventilation) is getting air into and out of
your lungs
- Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and
the air in the lungs
a) Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in diffusion
(movement of a gas from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration)
b) Air in the alveoli contains a high concentration of
oxygen, the oxygen diffuses from the alveoli and into
the blood capillaries before being carried away to the
rest of the body for aerobic respiration
 c) The blood in the capillaries has a relatively low
concentration of oxygen and a high concentration of
carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood
and the alveoli and is then exhaled
d) Alveoli structure: large surface area (increases space
available for oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse);
thin walls (one cell thick so gases have a very short
diffusion distance and so gas exchange is as quick and
efficient as possible)
- Pathway of water and mineral salts form the roots to the
leaves in flowering plants
a) absorption in root hair cells
b) transport through xylem
c) transpiration from the surface of leaves
- Structure of the human excretory system + function
a) Kidneys- filter blood to remove urea, which is excreted
in urine
- Chromosomes contain genes, made of DNA + genes contribute to
the determination of an organism’s characteristics

Life processes
- 7 characteristics of living organisms
- Viruses, living or nonliving
- Species: group of organisms that can reproduce to produce
fertile offspring
- Dichotomous keys
- Constituents of a balanced diet for humans + functions
a) Protein
b) Carbohydrates
c) Fats and oils
d) Water
e) Minerals (calcium and iron)
f) Vitamins (A, C and D)
- Carbohydrates and fats as a store of energy and animals
consume food to obtain energy and nutrients
- Human growth, development and health can be affected by
lifestyle, including diet and smoking
- Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria of plant and
animal cells and gives a controlled release of energy
- Aerobic respiration word equation- glucose + oxygen →
carbon dioxide + water
- Fusion of gametes to produce fertilised egg with new
combination of DNA
a) Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male
gamete (sperm cell) and a female gamete (egg cell)
b) Occurs in the oviducts
 c) Gametes adaptations to increase chances of
fertilisation and successful development of an embryo

i) Sperm cell: has a flagellum (tail)- enables it to swim

to the egg; contains enzymes in the head region
(acrosome)- to digest through the jelly coat and cell
membrane of an egg cell when it meets; contains many
mitochondria- provide energy from respiration so that
the flagellum can move back and forth for locomotion

ii) egg cell: cytoplasm containing a store of energy-

provides energy for the dividing zygote after
fertilisation; jelly-like coating that changes after
fertilisation- forms an impenetrable barrier after
fertilisation to prevent other sperm nuclei entering
the egg cell
- Inheritance of sex in humans in terms of XX and XY
chromosomes
a) Sex is determined by an entire chromosome pair (other
characteristics are determined by one or a number of
genes)
b) Females sex chromosomes: XX
c) Males sex chromosomes: XY
d) Only the father can pass Y chromosome (responsible for
determining the sex of the child)
e) Half of the million sperms carries the X chromosomes, if
one of these sperm fertilises the egg, the fetus will be
female; if sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilises the
egg, will result in a male fetus
- Variation within a species and its relation to genetic
differences between individuals
- Natural selection and how it relates to genetic changes over
time
- Plants require minerals to maintain healthy growth and life
processes
a) Magnesium- make chlorophyll
b) Nitrates- make protein
- Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, the process by which
plants make carbohydrates, using energy from light
- Word equation for photosynthesis- carbon dioxide + water →
glucose + oxygen, in the presence of light and chlorophyll
- Fetal development is affected by the health of the mother,
including the effect of diet, smoking and drugs
a) Other substances can pass through the placenta (not just
oxygen and nutrients), including recreational drugs
and alcohol
 b) Drugs- slow growth of fetus + reduce amount of oxygen
and causing bleeding
c) alcohol/smoking- increase risk of stillbirth,
premature birth and long-term health conditions
Ecosystems
- Ecological role of microorganisms as decomposers
- Food chains and webs which include microorganisms as
decomposers
- Different ecosystems on the Earth, habitats that exist within
an ecosystem
- How a new and invasive species can affect other organisms
- What could happen to the population of a species, including
extinction, when there is an environmental change

* flower stuff

Chemistry
Materials and their structure
- All matter is made of atoms, each different atom being a
different element
- The periodic table
- 2 main groupings of elements: metals and non-metals
- Elements, compounds, mixtures (e.g. alloys)
- Vacuum: space devoid of matter
- 3 states of matter in terms of arrangement, separation and
motion of particles
- Particle model to represent elements, compounds and
mixtures
- Rutherford model of the structure of an atom
- Electrons have negative charge, protons have positive charge
and neutrons have no charge
- The electrostatic attraction between positive and negative
charge is what holds together individual atoms
- Purity is a way to describe how much of a specific chemical
is in a mixture
- The structure of the Periodic Table is related to the atomic
structure of the elements and the Periodic Table can be used
to predict an element’s structure and properties
- A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together
- A covalent bond is a bond made when a pair of electrons is
shared by two atoms
- An ion is an atom which has gained at least one electron to be
negatively charged or lost at least one electron to be
positively charged
 - An ionic bond is the attraction between a positively charged
ion and a negatively charged ion
Properties of materials
- Substances have chemical and physical properties
- The acidity or alkalinity of a substance is a chemical
property and is measured by pH
- Indicators to distinguish between acidic, alkaline and
neutral solutions: Universal Indicator and litmus
- Tests to identify hydrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen gases
- Differences between metals and non–metals, referring to
their physical properties
- Alloys are mixtures that have different chemical and
physical properties from the constituent substances
- Particle model to explain the differences in hardness
between pure metals and their alloys
- Concentration of a solution relates to how many particles of
the solute are present in a volume of the solvent
- Paper chromatography used to separate and identify
substances in a sample
- Groups within the Periodic Table have trends in physical
and chemical properties
- The density of a substance relates to its mass in a defined
volume
- Calculate and compare densities of solids, liquids and gases
- Elements and compounds exist in structures (simple or
giant), and this influences their physical properties
Changes to materials
- Identification of a chemical reaction through observations
of the loss of reactants and the formation of products which
have different properties to the reactants (evolving a gas,
formation of a precipitate or a change of colour)
- Why a precipitate forms, in terms of a chemical reaction
between soluble reactants forming at least one insoluble
product
- Particle model to describe chemical reactions
- Neutralisaiton reactions in terms of change in pH
- Word equations to describe reactions
- Endothermic and exothermic reactions, identified by
temperature change
- Reactivity of metals: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
zinc, iron, copper, gold and silver with oxygen, water and
dilute acids
- Reactions do not always lead to a single pure product,
sometimes a reaction will produce an impure mixture of
products
- Solubility of different salts varies with temperature
 - Some substances are generally unreactive and can be
described as inert
- Word equations and symbol equations to describe reactions
(balancing symbol equations not required)
- Examples of displacement reactions and predict products:
reactions involving calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, copper,
gold and silver salts)
- How to prepare common salts by the reactions of metals with
acids, and metal carbonates with acids, and purify them
using filtration, evaporation and crystallisation
- The effects of concentration, surface area and temperature on
the rate of reaction, and explain using particle model
- In chemical reactions, mass and energy are conserved

Physics
Forces and energy
- Changes in energy as a result of an event or process
- Energy tends to dissipate and in doing so becomes less useful
- Gravity is a force of attraction between any two objects and
the size of the force is related to the masses of the objects
- There is no air resistance to oppose movement in a vacuum
- Speed = distance distance / time
- Distance / time graphs
- Effects of balanced and unbalanced forces on motion
- Moment = force x distance
- Pressure is caused by the action of a force, exerted by a
substance, on an area (pressure = force / area)
- Particle theory to explain pressure in gases and liquids
- Diffusion of gases and liquids- the intermingling of
substance by the movement of particles
- Density to explain why objects float or sink in water
- Difference between heat and temperature
- Energy is conserved, cannot be created or destroyed
- Thermal energy will always transfer from hotter regions or
objects to colder ones; heat dissipation
- Thermal transfer: conduction, convection and radiation
- Cooling by evaporation
Light and sound
- The vibration of particles in a sound wave + why sound does
not travel in a vacuum
- Explain echoes in terms of the reflection of sound waves
- Reflection at a plane surface using the law of reflection
- The refraction of light at the boundary between air and glass
or air and water in terms of change of speed
- White light is made of many colours and this can be shown
through the dispersion of white light, using a prism
 - Colours of light can be added, subtracted, absorbed and
reflected
- Draw and interpret waveforms and recognise the link between
loudness and amplitude, pitch and frequency
- Use waveforms to show how sound waves interact to reinforce
or cancel each other
Electricity and magnetism
- Electricity is the flow of electrons around a circuit
- Electrical conductors = substances that allow electron flow;
electrical insulators = substances that inhibit electron
flow
- How to measure the current in series circuits
- How adding components into a series circuit can affect the
current (addition of cells and lamps)
- Diagrams and symbols to represent, make and compare
circuits that include cells, switches, lamps, buzzers and
ammeters
- A magnetic field + how it surrounds a magnet and exerts a
force on other magnetic fields
- How to make an electromagnet and electromagnets’
applications
- Factors that change the strength of an electromagnet
- How current divides in parallel circuits
- How to measure current and voltage in series and parallel
circuits and the effect of adding cells and lamps
- Resistance = voltage / current + how resistance affects
current
- Use diagrams and symbols to represent, make and compare
circuits that include cells, switches, resistors (fixed and
variable), ammeters, voltmeters, lamps and buzzers

Earth and Space

Planet Earth
- The model of plate tectonics, in which solid outer layer
(made up of the crust and uppermost mantle) moves because of
flow lower in the mantle
- How earthquakes, volcanoes and fold mountains occur near
the boundaries of tectonic plates
- Clean, dry air contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and small
amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases, and this
composition can change because of pollution and natural
emissions
- The reason Earth has a magnetic field is because the core
acts as a magnet
 - Renewable resources (wind, tidal and solar power and
bioplastics); non-renewable resources (fossil fuels) + how
humans use them
- Movement of tectonic plates in terms of convection currents
- Why the jigsaw appearance of continental coasts, location of
volcanoes and earthquakes, fossil record and alignment of
magnetic materials in the Earth’s crust are all evidence of
tectonic plates
Cycles on Earth
- The water cycle (evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
water run-off, open water and groundwater)
- There is evidence that the Earth’s climate exists in a cycle
between warm periods and ice ages, and the cycle takes place
over long time periods
- The Earth’s climate can change due to atmospheric change
- The difference between climate and weather
- The carbon cycle (photosynthesis, respiration, feeding,
decomposition and combustion)
- The historical and predicted future impacts of climate
change, including sea level change, flooding, drought and
extreme weather events
Earth in space
- How planets form from dust and gas, which are pulled
together by gravity
- Gravity is the force that holds components of the Solar
System in orbit around the Sun
- Tidal forces on Earth as a consequence of the gravitational
attraction between the Earth, Moon and Sun
- How solar and lunar eclipses happen
- Galaxy in terms of stellar dust and gas, stars and planetary
systems
- Asteroids = rocks, smaller than planets + their formation
from rocks left over from the formation of a planetary system
- The consequences of asteroid collision with Earth,
including climate change and mass extinctions
- The evidence for the collision theory for the formation of
the Moon
- Nebulae are clouds of dust and gas and can act as stellar
nurseries