UNIT 1

UNDERSTANDING GENDER
By
Efiritha Chauraya and Tenson Mugodzwa

1. 1 Introduction

Although women have made important gains in terms of accessing vital resources useful
for social mobility in Zimbabwe and the world over, they are still socially disadvantaged
as men continue to hold positions of relative privilege. This inequality is often thought to
reflect innate differences between the sexes but it is actually a creation of society itself.
Research has revealed that sex is a pervasive element in the structure of society and in the
lives of people. It shapes other people’s views of us as well as our own self- concepts.

This module is an ‘introduction to gender studies’ hence an understanding of the term

gender is important. In gender studies we are neither interested in women as a group nor
with men as a group but in the social relations between them. In this unit we make you
have an understanding of gender as a concept. We also clarify some selected concepts
central to the study of gender. The explanations offered are neither comprehensive nor
definitive. They are only intended to help you explore key ideas about the concepts. You
will develop a deeper understanding when you read about them in the subsequent
chapters. The unit also covers how gender is socially constructed through the family, the
school, the peer group and the mass media. Although there are many types of gender
socialisation, in this unit we focus on Oakley’s types of gender socialisation.

1.2 Unit Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Define and explain gender
 Differentiate between gender and sex
 Define and explain some key concepts in relation to gender
 Discuss how gender is socially constructed, maintained and perpetuated
 Examine the various types of gender socialisation

1.3 Gender and related concepts.

To best understand the term gender it is essential to first understand the term sex as these
two terms are often confused and sometimes used interchangeably.

Sex
According to Macionis (1989), sex refers to the division of humanity into biological
categories of male and female. As a biological distinction, sex is determined at the

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moment a child is conceived. Sex is also defined as the biological differences between
men and women, that is, “…their physical characteristics: external genitalia, internal
genitalia, gonads (the organs which produce sex cells), hormonal states and secondary
sex characteristics.” (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004: 94). Sex is therefore a fact of
biology, which is the physiological distinctiveness or state of being male or female.

Gender

Gender refers to human traits linked by culture to each sex (Haralambos and Holborn,
2004).Within a society; males are socialized to be masculine as females are taught to be
feminine. Walter and Manion (1996) maintain that gender is the difference that sex
makes within a society, guiding how we are to think of ourselves, how we interact with
others, the social opportunities, occupations, family roles and prestige allowed males and
females.

“Gender can also be defined as a set of characteristics, roles and behaviour patterns that
distinguish women from men which are constructed not biologically but socially and
culturally” (Gita Sen in Towards Earth Summit 2002:1). Like the variable concepts of
class, race, ethnicity, culture and economics, gender is an analytical tool for
understanding social processes that affect human beings. The following table1.1 helps
you differentiate between gender and sex.

Table 1.1Differentiating gender from sex.

Sex
 Is in born
 Is biologically determined
 Is exclusive to a particular sex and
is fixed. It does not change over
time, once born male always male
and once born female always
female.
 Is universal, that is, the organs that
determine a male or a female are
uniform the world over for
example the penis for the males
and the vagina for the females.
 Is natural.
Gender
 Starts the moment the sex is
known.
 Is socially constructed.
 Varies within and among cultures.
Different individuals and societies
give different meanings to
maleness and femaleness.
 The attributes, expected roles,
expected behaviours and expected
responsibilities that go with
maleness and femaleness differ
from society to society, community
to community and from individual
to individual.
 Is learnt

Activity 1.1
 What is your understanding of gender?

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  Why do you think ‘gender’ is a contemporary issue in your country today?
Sex roles
Sex roles are duties, activities, tasks or responsibilities that males and females perform or
undertake that are an inevitable product of one’s biology, for example, breastfeeding for
females and impregnating for the males. Like sex, these assignments are biologically
determined, fixed, universal and exclusive to a particular sex.

Gender roles
Gender roles are duties, chores, tasks, responsibilities or assignments that a particular
cultural group consider appropriate for its males and females on the basis of the meaning
attached to their sexual identity. These roles are not a direct or an inevitable product of
males’ or females’ biology e.g. caring for children by females and mending a puncture
for males.
They are learnt, vary within and among cultures, dynamic, interchangeable and can be
affected by factors like class, religion, age, race, education, geographical location and
ethnicity.

Gender Equality
When we say 2+2=4, we mean that the value of 2+2 and the value of 4 are the same. In
gender equality, we are interested in the same valuation of men and women and sameness
of enjoyment of rights, power, opportunities, treatment and control of resources between
males and females in society. We are also interested in the sameness in enjoying of the
benefits from resources. Gender equality is therefore not only the absence of
discrimination and bias, but “… the equal valuing by society of both the similarities and
differences between women and men and the varying roles that they play” (Gender
Equality Analysis Policy-Status of Women Canada page 5).It does not mean that men and
women will become the same. No. But they will have same opportunities in life. An
example of practising gender equality is according men and women enjoyment of same
voting rights. Gender equality, therefore, “denotes the equivalence in life outcomes for
women and men, recognizing their different needs and interests and requiring a
redistribution of power and resources” (Bridge Report No. 55:10).

Gender Equity
Gender equity is a process of achieving fairness and justice among men and women. The
fairness and justice is in relation to distribution of opportunities, responsibilities and
resources as well as in accessing and controlling the benefits from the resources. “To
ensure fairness, measures must often be made available to compensate for historical and
social disadvantages that prevent women and men from operating on a level playing
field” (Gender Equality Analysis Policy- Status of Women Canada page 5).
Gender equity also entails proportional distribution of social resources and services, as
well as proportional representation of men and women in the development process, that
is, the composition of males and females at all levels should closely represent the general
population. What we mean here is that, if we are practicing gender equity, say in our
enrolment of male and females into university then the ratio of males to females should

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be commensurate with the national population ratio of 48:52. Gender equity leads to
gender equality.

Gender bias
Gender bias is the tendency to be in favour of, or against males and females on the basis
of their gender rather than on anything else, like what some teachers do when they take
only females for fashion and fabrics because of their stereotypical belief that women are
better at sewing than men.

Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination is an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a
group on the basis of their gender which denies them rights, opportunities or resources.
When universities lower entry points for only female students, (whatever the reasons may
be) they will be discriminating against the male students. Gender discrimination can be
positive or negative and whether positive or negative, differential treatment is given to
males and females on basis of their gender.

Gender Neutrality
This is the claim that one is indifferent to issues of gender as he/she has no ultimate
gender practice. It assumes that all people are affected by programmes or polices in the
same way. “It is premised on the theory that all people are already equal, therefore
treating all people the same way is fair,” (Women’s Policy Office, Government of
Newfound land and Labrador (undated) Facilitator’s Guide, Gender Inclusive
Analysis….An Overview St Johns, NF, p.14) like what most universities do when they
give one tissue roll to every student in residence for a specified period of time. Female
students, by virtue of their biology require more tissue paper. It thus may not allow for
sensitivity to disadvantages, hence it replicates stereotypes and restrictive views of males
and females.

Gender Blindness
When one is blind one cannot see. Gender blindness is total failure, out of sheer gender
ignorance, to recognize the differences between males and females and subsequently
leads to failure to provide or cater for the differences.
Gender blind people fail to realize that policies, programmes and activities can have
different effects on men and women and this often leads to rigidity and unchanging
attitudes. It is a characteristics feature of conservative societies, where gender bias and
discrimination is orchestrated on ill knowledge and innocence. A good example is what
happened at a certain school which had been originally a boys’ only school and then
decided to become co-educational. The school administration made girls stay in hostels
that were previously boys’. The toilets in these hostels had urinals and the administration
did not see anything wrong with that. This is gender blindness.

Gender Sensitivity
Imagine entering a bus which is ferrying students from your university home and you
find that 90% of the bus load is males and the majority of those that failed to enter the

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bus are females. You will obviously sense a gap of something between male students as a
group and female students as a group. What is it that you are sensing? You are right!-that,
whatever the reason, there is a gender gep between men and women. You see, you are
becoming gender sensitive. Gender sensitivity is the mere ability to perceive existing
gender inequalities. It is gender perceptiveness or gender consciousness, which is,
looking at an issue with a gender eye. It is the beginning of gender awareness.

Gender Awareness
In the example of the bus situation given immediately above, what do you think is the
cause of the problem given that the passengers in the bus were self drawn from a
population of equal numbers between males and females? You are now searching for the
possible gender problems. You are now becoming gender-aware. Gender awareness is,
therefore, the ability to identify problems arising from gender discrimination and bias
which affect men’s and women’s ability to access and control resources and /or even
access and control of benefits from the resources is gender awareness. It is still gender
awareness even when and where the problems are disguised and defended as culture and
tradition.

Gender Responsiveness
What solutions would you offer in the transport problem above so that females are not
discriminated against? You are now becoming gender responsive. Gender responsiveness
mainly constitutes responding to gender issues with a view to eradicate the bias and
discrimination in order to ensure equality and equity (FAWE, 2004).It is the ability to
visualise and practicalise gender equity and gender equality. You see, it starts from
gender sensitivity to gender awareness then to gender responsiveness. For detail we refer
you to Unit 7.

Feminism
Feminism is a social and political movement aimed at defending and expanding the rights
of women. It is both a cause and a result of the changing positions of women in society. It
is also an ideology, which recognizes the systematic discrimination against women on the
grounds of their gender. Feminism gives commitment to work towards correcting the
undesirable situation of women. It challenges the idea that gender like sex is natural. For
detail we refer you to Unit 2.

Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system that propagates male superiority, power and control over
women as natural. It oppresses exploits and subordinates women. In patriarchal societies
leadership roles, control of valuable resources and decision making is a male preserve.
Patriarchy draws a clear demarcation line between males and female. It also creates a
social stratification with males always on top. Meena (1992) says that, in patriarchy, even
the weakest man has a woman to oppress and exploit. In patriarchy women are perceived
as perpetual minors who cannot take independent decisions. It is in short, “systematic
societal structures that institutionalize male physical social and economic power over
women” (Bridge Report No. 55:29). For detail we refer you to Unit 2.

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 Gender Mainstreaming
“…..is the process of assessing the implication for women and men of any planned
action; including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a
strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral
dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the policies and
programmes in all political, economic, and societal spheres so that women and men
benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender
equality.” (Towards Earth Summit, 2002: 2).It is a strategy to achieve gender equality
that was universally adopted at the fourth world conference on women in 1995, at
Beijing- a means to the bigger end of attaining gender equality. For detail you go to Unit
7.

Gender Empowerment
This is one of the words that are difficulty to define because of taking different forms in
different people and different contexts.Babikwa (2004:72) says “empowerment does not
mean individual self assertion, upward social mobility or increased disposable income or
when psychological experience of feeling self realized….it means....an understanding of
the causes of powerlessness, recognizing systematically oppressive forces and acting
individually and collectively to change the conditions of life” Basically, then, it is to do
with one’s participation in decisions and processes affecting one’s life.It is a process
about people, taking control over their own lives, setting their own agendas, building self
confidence, solving problems [Kabeer, (1994) in March etal 1999:25] “Empowerment
cannot be given, it must be self generated” because such change must be believed in,
initiated, and directed by those whose interests it is meant to serve. What other external
forces like education can do is to provide those who need empowerment with an enabling
environment and resources which will allow them to take greater control of their lives;
determine what relations they would want to live within and devise strategies to help
them get there (Naila Kabeer, in March, Smyth and Mukhopadhyay, 1999:.25).For detail
you go to Unit 9.

Gender Affirmative Action

Gender affirmative action is a corrective or compensatory measure for past injustices or
gaps and an accelerator for the process of equitable development. It is an intended justice
measure through deliberately according the previously excluded or disadvantaged sex
group preferential treatment to increase the group’s representation in areas of education,
employment, business and politics among others. It entails gender discrimination because
it gives unfair, though justifiable, advantage to the once discriminated sex group. It is
therefore positive or reverse discrimination. Gender affirmative action is meant to redress
the effects of past discriminations rather than discriminate. An example of gender
affirmative action is the practice done by most universities when these institutions lower
their entry points for female students only. For detail you go to Unit 7.

Gender Stereotypes

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Gender stereotypes are socially constructed ideas or beliefs about men and women which
are not necessarily true but taken as truth by society. They are maintained, perpetuated
and transmitted from generation to generation by social institutions like the family, the
school, the media, religion, the culture among others. Most common gender stereotypes
are based on:
 Sex, for example, males are aggressive while females are affectionate
 Personality, for example men are cheerful while women are nervous
 Age, for example, young men are rebellious while older women are conservative
 Ethnicity, for example, Ndebele women are good home managers while Shona
women are good fieldworkers
 Class for example upper class men are playful while lower class men are
ambitious
 Occupations, for example male nurses are kind and loving while female nurses
are rude and short hearted with women in labour.
Stereotypes can be positive or negative.

Gender Identity
‘….it is how an individual adapts the prescribed sex role to his or her individual identity.’
(Http: // www.gender.org.uk about gender definitions.htm page 2)

Gender Relations
These are “the range of gendered practices, such as the division of labour and resources
and the gendered ideologies such as ideas of acceptable behaviour for men and women”
(Bridge Report No. 55:18.).They are simply the social relationships between men as a sex
group and women as a sex group. They determine what is socially accepted and what is
socially inappropriate. They work in most cases to subordinate and discriminate against
women.

Gender practical needs

These are the concrete, immediate and often essential needs/wants for human survival.
The men and women survive better in their socially accepted roles, within their gendered
power structures. Practical gender needs include food and shelter among other things.

Gender strategic needs

These are human requirements which when met challenge and change power relations
between men and women. They are often less visible than the practical ones and are long
term, one example being access to decision making positions.

Gender Socialisation
Gender socialisation “refers to the means whereby social expectations regarding gender-
appropriate characteristics are conveyed to the child. These expectations are often based
on stereotyped beliefs.” It has a dual significance for these children, that is, it provides
them with models for present behaviour and it prepares them for adult life (Dekker and
Lemmer, 1993:9).

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Activity 1.2
 In your own words define and explain, using examples where necessary, each of
the terms given above.
 Differentiate between: a)gender equity and gender equality b) gender blindness
and gender neutrality c) gender sensitivity and gender awareness d) gender roles
and sex roles e) feminism and patriarchy f) gender affirmative action and gender
empowerment g) gender mainstreaming and gender empowerment.

1.4 Social Construction of Gender

To construct is to build or to make. The social construction of gender is the social making
of gender. Gender is constructed by society through the process of gender socialization.
The social institutions that are responsible for gender construction are called socialisation
forces like the family, the school, the media, the language, music religion among others.
The people who carry out the socialization are socialisation agents like the parents, the
teachers, pastors, peers and many others. Some institutions like the family are primary in
the sense that they are the first that any child comes into contact with. Murdock in
Haralambos and Holborn (2004), says the family is the child’s first window to the world
and no other gender socialisation institution rivals it in gender socialisation. Such prime
gender socialisation institutions are called primary socialisation forces, while those
institutions that the child comes in contact with after primary socialisation are called
secondary socialisation forces like the school, the peer group, and others. Both the
primary and secondary forces create, reinforce, maintain and perpetuate gender but the
primary forces are the chief creators, while the secondary forces are the chief
maintainers, reinforcers and perpetuators.

The family, the school, the peer group and the mass media are going to be discussed
briefly here though other agents of gender socialisation are just as important.

The Family
The family constructs gender through the way family members:
 interact with and treat the child
 talk to the child
 dress the child,
 give the toys and types toys they give to the child
 assign roles and the roles they give
 accord the child benefits and opportunities and the type of benefits and
opportunities they accord
 position the child within the family
 give the child the name and the name given and even the other pseudo names
given
among other things.

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The School
The school is a secondary socializing force and the teachers are the chief socialising
agents. The school operates on two levels, that is, the intentional and official and the
unintentional and none examined both of which gender differentiated (Dekker and
Lemmer 2003.)Gordon (1995) says that teachers don’t explicitly teach gender, but gender
emerges on its own in the curriculum. What the school pupils’ eyes see, what their ears
hear and what their minds in turn believe in through:
 the school management structure
 the ways teachers talk ,organize and treat the pupils
 the portrayal of men and women in the texts and reading books
 the learning media
 the subject allocations
 the teachers’ teaching methodologies
 the teachers’ attitudes and expectations
 the extra curricula activities the sort of carrier guidance offeredamong other
things, discerns a gender social code on the pupils.

Therefore you see that, the exclamations ‘it’s a boy! Or it’s a girl!’ upon delivery sets a
course of action that from that moment on, influences multiple facets of a person’s life.
The answer ‘boy or girl’ carries significance in the child’s entire life in terms of the
individual’s:
 opportunities
 associations and relationships
 benefits
 societal roles and responsibilities
 value in society
 social identity
 expected behaviour

The Peer Group

On reaching school age, children begin to interact more intensively outside the family,
especially with others of their age (the peer group).Within the peer group, the blue and
pink worlds are further developed.

Children’s games provide important cultural lessons. Lever cited in Macionis (1989)
concluded that the peer group activities of boys and girls differ considerably, providing in
each case a distinctive type of socialization. Lever found out that boys engage in team
sports that involve many roles and complex rules, and clear objectives like scoring a goal.
These games are almost always competitive, producing winners and losers. Such activity
among boys reinforce s the characteristics of masculinity, notably aggression,
competition, and remaining in control.

Girls on the other hand, tend to play games such as jump rope in small groups, or simply
sing or dance together. Such activity tends to be spontaneous, involving few simple rules.

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Just as important, since these games rarely have ‘victory’ as their ultimate goal, girls
rarely oppose one another. However, female peer groups do serve to teach the
interpersonal skills of communication and cooperation that are the basis for life within
the family.

Gilligan cited in Giddens (2004), noted that boys and girls learn to use distinctive
patterns of moral reasoning. Boys tend to reason according to rules and principles, that
‘rightness’ is largely a matter of ‘playing by the rules’. Girls however, understand
morality more in terms of responsibility to other human beings, so that ‘rightness’ lies in
maintaining close relationships with others. Clearly then, these distinctive patterns of
moral reasoning are encouraged by the different kinds of peer group activity common to
boys and girls.

ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Which games do young boys and girls in your community play?
11. How do the different games reinforce the traditional gender stereotypes?

The Mass Media

Mass mediaare channels of communication directed to vast audiences within a society
(Macionis, 1989).The mass media include both electronic and print media such as the
television, radio newspapers, and magazines. All of these constantly present us with
information of all kinds and, as a result, have an enormous effect on our attitudes and
behaviour. The mass media are a powerful force in the socialization process. Films,
magazines, literature and especially the television, have a significant effect on the ways
we think and act.

ACTIVITY 1.3

1. Think of a novel you have read.

11. Identify the main actors, their sex, their roles in driving the play towards its climax.
111. Identify the gender issues in your chosen novel.
1v. How can literature be turned into a gender responsive environment?

From the above activity, we may note that beyond the inclusion of both sexes in the mass
media, the issue is how they are portrayed. In most instances, males play the brilliant
detectives, fearless explorers, skilled surgeons, and interesting conversationalists. Males
take charge; they give orders and are portrayed as competent and capable. Females on the
other hand, are mostly portrayed as reliant on males, less competent and more often the
targets of comedy (Busby, cited in Haralambos and Horlborn, 2004). Women have also
long been portrayed as sex objects important for little other than their physical
attractiveness (Macionis, 1989). These negative stereotypes continue to persist in modern

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day programs, although admittedly there is more programming with interesting and
responsible women in major roles.

ACTIVITY 1.4

Choose a current television program. Identify the gender stereotypes in the program.
Discuss giving examples, how the mass media can be turned into a gender responsive
environment.

Although gender stereotypes in the mass media have lessened recently, commercial
advertising has changed less. This is because advertising sells the most products by
conforming to widely established cultural patterns. Haralambos and Horlborn (2004)
maintain that television and magazine advertising presents women in the home far more
often than in occupational role. In most cases, women are found primarily in adverts for
household items such as cleaning products, foods, clothing, and domestic appliances,
while men predominate in adverts for cars, travel, banking and finance, industrial
appliances, and alcoholic beverages.

Goffman, cited in Macionis (19890, similarly concluded that advertising conveys cultural
ideals of each sex. In his study of advertising in magazines newspapers, Goffman found
that men were typically placed in photographs to appear taller than females, implying
social superiority. In addition, women were far more likely than men to be shown lying
down on sofas and beds, or, like children, seated on the floor.

The music industry is also no exception in portraying females as sex objects .Good
examples are productions by the late ‘Dr Love’ Paul Matavire, the ‘Lonely Lover’
Gregory Isaacs, and in some cases the late Simon ‘Chopper’ Chimbetu, Dr Thomas
Tafirenyika Mapfumo and many others.

ACTIVITY 1.5
Compile a list of some musicians of your choice and their songs where females are
portrayed as sex objects. Suggest measures that may be adopted in the music industry to
create a gender responsive environment.

TYPES OF GENDER SOCIALISATION

There are many types of gender socialisation. Oakley in Haralambos and Holborn (2004)
talks about the types discussed below.

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 Canalisation
Canalisation is gender socialization through interaction with toys and objects. Toys align
children play to behavior expected of them when they graduate to be men and women
and again through interacting with these toys children develop different sets of aptitudes
and attitudes.

Verbal Appellations
These are the differential use of descriptions and labels among boys and girls like, what a
“good boy!” or “nice girl!” or reprimands like, ‘oh! Boys don’t cry.’ This makes the
children want to keep up gender appearances as the children internalize the label(s) and
start to act and operate according to it.

Manipulation
Manipulation is the differential attention and valuing given boys and girls like, mothers
paying attention to girls’ hair. Soon boys and girls learn that different things are expected
of them through the different treatment accorded them and engrave a deep sense of what
it is to be a boy or girl (that is, a deep sense of their self concept.)

Imitation
Imitation is when children observe their parents or other elders within and try to be like
them. They, thus, learn how local governance operates through observing its officers at
work.

N.B However, though the argument here is that gender is PURELY a social construct,
other scholars explain gender differences as partly products of Brain lateralization and
hormonal variations, (Haralambos and Holborn 2004).

For detail on both the socio-generic and the bio-generic sources of gender turn to Unit 2.

Activity1.6
Critically discuss the notion that gender is a social construct. Illustrate your response with
concrete examples.

CONCLUSION

This part of the unit has tried to show that gender is a product of gender socialization.
This is largely achieved through social institutions such as the family, the school, the peer
group and the mass media. Other important socializing agents are religion, culture and
the work place. Some of these agents will be discussed in unit 5.

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References

Babikwa D, J (2004) ‘Tensions, Contradictions and Inconsistencies in Community-Based

Environmental Education Programmes: The role of defective educational theories.’ in
Southern African Journal of Environmental Education VOL.21 (2004) pp 61-80

Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing.

Psychological Review, 88, 354–364

Chalfant H.P. and LaBeff E.E. (1988)Understanding People and Social Life:
Introduction to Sociology. St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company.

Giddens, A. ( 2004)Modernity and Self Identity Cambridge: Polity Press.

Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (2004) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London:

Collins Educational.

Kohlberg, L. A. (1966) Cognitive-Developmental Analysis of Children's Sex-Role

Concepts and Attitudes. in The Development of Sex Differences, edited by E.E. Maccoby,
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,.

Macionis, J.J. (1989) Sociology: Second Edition Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Gender Equality Analysis Policy-Status of Women Canada.

Women’s Policy Office Government of Newfoundland and Labrador (undated)
Facilitators’ Guide, Gender Inclusive Analysis An overview St John’s NF

March C, Smyth I; Mukhopadhyay M. 1999 A Guide to Gender Analysis Frameworks.

Oxfam. Oxford.

Meena, R. 1992 Gender in Southern Africa; Conceptual and Theoretical Issues. Sapes
Books, Harare.

Towards Earth Summit 2002 Social Briefing Paper number 2.

UNESCO (2004) Guidelines for Implementing, Monitoring and Evaluating Gender

Responsive EFA Plans

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Van Scotter D, R (1991) Social Foundations of Education, Prentice Hall, New Jersey

UNIT 2

THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES

By Winfridah Matsa

2.1 Introduction
In unit 1 we defined and explained gender concepts. Unit 2 deals with theories of gender
inequalities. Theories of Gender Inequalities do not only offer explanations of gender
differences but also help to clarify differences between gender and sex as well as gender
and feminism which are often misconstrued and confused. This unit discusses first,
biological theories that explain gender differences in terms of natural biology and innate
abilities which were dominant theories before the rise of gender and feminism. Gender
theories view and locate differences between males and females in social constructs
(created by society.) This chapter covers both macro and micro theories of gender
inequalities. Macro theories tend to be comprehensive and include a variety of factors
while micro theories centre explanations on individual aspects like environment, biology,
culture or ecology. Origins, major expositions and applicability of each theory are
discussed in this chapter. Also activities are provided at the end of each theory to enhance
your understanding of it through interaction.

2.2 UnitObjectives
By the end of the unit you should be able to:

1. Differentiate:
a. Gender from sex
b. Gender from feminism
2. Outline origins and major expositions of each theory
3. Evaluate the applicability of each theory especially to your country situation.
4. Explain limitations of each theory.
5. Answer questions that relate to the activities at the end of each theory.

2.3 What is a theory?

Henslin (1999) defines a theory as a general statement that explains how two or more
facts are related to one another.Haralambos and Holborn (1990:8) define a theory as a set
of ideas which claim to explain how something works: it provides a logical explanation
for why things happen the way they do. A theory therefore defines the causal factors of a
relationship and explains the nature of that relationship.

2.4 What is Feminism?

According to Magezis’ (1996) feminism is a broad social movement which allows
different points of view that work for women’ rights. It is the organizational movement

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which promotes equality for both men and women in political, economic and social
spheres of life (Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). Feminists focus on why and
how women are oppressed in different spheres of life and work for their liberation.
Feminism can be viewed in the following three ways:
1. As a social and political movement that fight for the rights of women and their
equality with men in all spheres of life.
2. As an ideology or philosophy or way of thinking that questions oppressive
relations of men and women using women’s perspectives.
3. A theory that questions relations of men and women and aims at transforming
them (Mannathoko in Meena, 1992).
To Henslin (1999:292) Feminism is the view that;

Biology is not destiny and therefore stratification by Gender is

wrong and should be resisted, met with strong opposition both
by men who have privileges to lose and by women who
accepted their status as normally correct.

2.4.1 Rise of Feminism

It rose as a challenge to functionalism which is conservative and views sexual division of
labour and the subordinate position of women as functional for the stability of society. It
was also a reaction to the biological theories that viewed the position of women as
natural. Feminism also questioned the dominant views or philosophies that viewed
women as les human than males. Examples of these philosophies are:
 The female is female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities( Aristotle)
 A woman is an imperfect man (St Thomas Aquinas).
 The chief distinction in the intellectual powers of the two sexes is shown by man
attaining to a higher eminence in whatever he takes up, than women can attain-
whether requiring deep thought, reason, imagination or merely the use of senses
and hands( Charles Darwin).
(Sandi, 1997; 1)
The feminist movement gave rise to a body of theory which attempts to explain
discrimination of women. The theory is not unified but is made of a variety of theories
that focus on women though differing in causes of subordination and strategies of
women’s liberation.

2.4.2 Common aspects shared by Feminists

1. Gender is not natural but a social construct.
2. They take the position that women are unfairly treated in all spheres of life.
3. Strategies can be developed to make the world a better place for women.

2.4.3 Feminist Differences

1. Explanations of women’s oppression.
2. Areas of focus e.g. cultural stereotypes, biology, patriarchy, capitalism, class etc.
3. Direction of change or what constitute women’s liberation.

2.5. What is Gender?

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Sifuniso et al (2000:2) define gender as:
The social meanings given to being either a man or a woman in a given society
and the expectations held as to the character, attitude and likely behaviour of
men and women.
Gender, unlike sex which is biological, is socially constructed. Gender influences the
different behaviours, roles, responsibilities, identities and treatment of males and females
in society. Gender depends on the culture and history of a particular society and differs
from culture to culture (Refer to unit 1).

Though gender theories do not differ much from feminist theories, they focus on both
males and females, while feminist theories centre on women.

Table 2.1 Differences between Feminist and Gender Theories

Feminist Theories Gender Theories

Are women centered Men and Women centered
Focus on experiences of women Focus on experiences of women and men
View issues from women’s social world View issues from a gender perspective
Seek to produce a better world for women
Seek to produce a better world for both
Are about peaceful co-existence of males
Are about fighting back (revenge) and females not fighting back
View males as enemies and to blame for Males are viewed as victims of socio-
subordinate position of women cultural institutions created by society
Reject assistance by males in their Accept assistance by gender sensitive
struggles males
The question is: What about men and
Ask questions like: What about women? women?

2.6 Both feminist and gender theories agree on the following:

* Gender differences are socially rather than biologically constructed.

* Gender differences can be deconstructed
* Both questions and challenge oppressive gender relations
* Gender differences are embedded in socio-economic structures such as:
a) capitalism
b) sexism or patriarchy
c) racism
d) social and cultural institutions

2.7 Biological Theories

Biological theories view differences between men and women as natural and God given
hence cannot be changed. Some of the theories are:

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Table 2.2 Biological Theories

Theory Theorists
Brain Laterisation Theory John Nicholson
Gray J.A.
Buffery A.W.H.

Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud

Socio-biology E.O.Wilson
David Barash

Biology and Practicality G.P. Murdock

Biology: Expressive & Instrumental Roles Talcott Parsons

Biology has been the most widely accepted explanation for inequalities between men and
women for a long time. Scientists observe natural differences ranging from hormones,
chromosomes, brain size and genetics as responsible for innate differences in behaviour
of women and men (Giddens, 2001). Even stereotypical behaviours like men’s physical
strength, superior intelligence aggression women’s softness, care, passivity and love are
all attributed to biological determinism.

Biologists argue that the above characteristics are evident across cultures. However,
critics of biological theories reveal that the level, for example of passivity of women and
aggression of males vary depending on cultures. They argue that, if a trait is not
universal, then it cannot be natural. Giddens (2001) notes that such theories neglect the
vital role of social interaction in shaping human behaviour.

2.7.1Brain Laterisation and Hormonal Explanations

Scientists believe that behaviour, personality and emotional disposition are controlled by
hormones in males and females. Studies by Nicholson showed that there is correlation
between levels of testosterone and male aggression. Girls with high levels of oestrogen
exhibit ‘tomboy’ characteristics. John Nicholson cited in Haralambos and Holborn
(2004) argue that the Right and left wings of the brain specialize in different tasks
because of hormones which have effects on the brain. The right specializes in visio-
spatial abilities while the left specializes in verbal and language skills. This is supported
by Gray and Buffery (Ibid) who pointed out that the left is dominant in girls hence girls
have verbal ability, whileboys perform better in mathematical texts. However, not all
boys score higher in maths and lower in languages. Similarly not all girls score low

17
marks in maths and higher in language. There are also differences in ability at infant
stage where girls score higher in all subjects. This shows that there are other factors that
influence ability.

2.7.2 Psycho-analytic theory (by Sigmund Freud)

Freud in Giddens (2001) argues that gender differences at infant are centred on the
presence or absence of the penis. Having a penis is equivalent to being a boy while being
a girl means one lacks a penis. The boy views the father as a rival in the affection of the
mother. The boy suppresses feelings for the mother and identifies with the father in fear
of threats, discipline and demand for autonomy by the father. Girls suffer from penis
envy and devaluethe mother who does not have one. She identifies with the mother and
takes dependency and submissive attitudes. The above theory assumes that the penis is
superior to the vagina and that gender learning is concentrated at the age of 4-5years.
There are more factors and processes that contribute to gender learning, genetic factors
are not enough.

2.7.3 Sociobiology

The theory was propounded by William (1975) and applied to gender by David Barash
(Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Barash argues that genetics are governed by
instructions to maximize the chances of passion on the genes to future generations from
breeding. Males produce more sperms hence have interest in making many females
pregnant. As a result males are likely to be promiscuous than females. Men compete for
scarce reproductive capacities of females. Females invest more time and energy in one
off-spring and gestate the foetus in her womb. Women are sure that children are
genetically theirs hence devote time to child care. It is assumed that women can tolerate
men’s infidelity more readily than men. The theory falls short of the realization that
human behaviour is governed by the environment not instincts. It is conservative and
views human behaviour as natural, inevitable and universal.

2.7.4 Biology and Practicality

George Murdock in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) views males and females
differences in physical strength, as leading to differences in roles. Sexual division of
labour is taken to be the most efficient way of organizing society. He points out that a
survey of 224 societies showed that men’s tasks were those demanding physical strength
eg, mining, hunting, quarrying etc. Women were limited to less strenuous tasks like
fetching water, cooking, gathering firewood, preparing clothes. Women were tied to the
home, child bearing and care. To Murdock, physical strength and child bearing are
biological and determine roles and spheres of operation in the home and public place.
The findings from the survey of 224 societies are not enough to conclude that sexual
division of labour is biological. Societies construct roles but these roles are not universal.
What would be the biological explanation in these societies which do not stick to the
roles given above?

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2.7.5 Biology: Expressive and Instrumental Roles (Talcott Parsons)

Though a sociologist, Parsons starting point in explaining sexual division of labour was
in biology. He argues out that childbearing and early nursing is linked to biology. The
male is achievement oriented; playing instrumental role that has stress and anxiety. The
woman’s role is expressive, that is providing warmth, emotional support and stabilizing
adult personalities. She relieves stress by providing the breadwinner with love,
consideration and understanding. Clear sexual division of labour is for efficiency as a
social system. Expressive and instrumental roles complement each other and promote
family solidarity. Each sex is biologically suited for these tasks. Parsons did not foresee
the future of the modern industrial society where women also perform instrumental roles
that are stressful. Mothers can have substitutes in childcare for love and affection
(O’Donnell, 1992). This is because although child bearing is biological, child rearing is
not. In a modern industrial society even the type of work has changed and sexual
division of labour is not universal.

2.7.6 Summary

Biological theories assume that nature is more significant than one’s social experiences.
They focus on sex hence are heavily criticized by sociologists and feminists who are
interested in gender instead. Sociologists and feminists feel that the differences between
men and women are socially rather than biologically produced. Feminist theories were a
reaction to the shortfalls of biological theories. There has been a shift from biological
explanations to psychosocial patterns of socialization. Biology alone is not enough to
explain social, economic, political and religious differences between men and women.

2.8 MACRO-THEORIES OF GENDER INEQUALITIES

2.8.1 Liberal theory

2.8.1.1 Origin

It is the first documented form of feminism. According to Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992),

liberal feminism dates back to the 18th Century Britain. The proponent, Mary
Wollerstone Craft questioned views about women which were damaging and
discriminatory. The theory rose as a result of the following;

 Industrial Revolution in Europe especially Britain that created structural changes

in the methods of production and social relations. For example, women joined
wage labour but were not treated as their male counter parts;
 Democratic political ideas in capitalist USA that emphasized ‘Equality, Liberty
and Fraternity’;
 Ideas of Scholars of Enlightment for example,Rousseau,Aristotle among others;

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  Influence of the modernization theory and Women in Development
(WID)approach to Development which emphasized borrowing of Western ideas
and did not revamp economic and social structures of society;
 Philosophy of liberalism with the belief in individual rights eg. Right to freedom
and autonomy.

The second wave of feminism was widespread in the 1950s. The 1960s ushered in new
rights in many countries that were gaining independence, especially third world countries
(Tandon, 1996). These included rights to independence, vote, work, protection, dignity
and freedom. Liberal feminism was based on the belief that women possess reason and
as such are entitled to full human rights and are free to choose their role in life, explore
their potential and compete with men.

2.8.1.2 Major Exposition

Giddens (2001:692) defines liberal theory as a:

Feminist theory that believes gender inequality is produced by reduced access for
women and girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as
education and employment.

Liberal feminists believe:-

 In individual rights for women.

 That women’s discrimination is based on prejudice, sexism and socialization
(Magezis, 1996).
 Those women have mental capacities as their male counterparts and should be
given the same opportunities in political, economic and social spheres.
 Those women are constrained by social legal and cultural institutions.
 That there should be fairness, justice, equal opportunities and equal participation
in the management of society.
 That attitudes, stereotypes and biases against females constrain women
 Confinement of women to the private sphere and dependency on men .
Disadvantage women

2.8.1.3 Solutions

Liberals propose the following as solutions to women’s problems:

 Give women equal rights, opportunities to jobs, education to challenge directly
the ideology of patriarchy.
 Proportional representation and equal access of males and females in education,
employment, health, resources, political organs, training etc.
 Sought women’s liberation through legal reforms.
 Advocate for gender mainstreaming in education and training.
 Education is viewed as a liberating force hence both boys and girls should be
educated.

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  Focus on changing attitudes, stereotypes and biases in language, textbooks and
the media.
 Call for diversification of the curriculum.
 Call for catering for special needs of girls to improve their social status, self
esteem and confidence.
 Advocate for women’s participation in the public sphere.
 Reorient women into crucial decision making positions of executives, directors,
ministers, presidency and so on..
 Empower women through education, training, workshops and projects.
 End discrimination of build positive role models for women and girls.

2.8.1.4 Applicability of the Liberal Theory

Achievements

In SADC countries, liberal feminists are responsible for many important Acts of
legislation that have greatly improved the situation of women. In Zimbabwe, these
include reform in welfare, education and health.

Education

In Zimbabwe, the 1980 Education act declared Education for all despite class, gender
religion, and ethnicity. The liberals have fought for a gender sensitive curriculum and
removal of stereotypes in texts, and any teaching material. This has seen subjects and
sports in the school curriculum being open for both boys and girls. There have been
changes in stereotypical language in the school e.g. :

Headmaster - School Head

Choirmaster - Choir Director
Sportsmaster - Sports Director
Senior Master/mistress – Senior Teachers.

Liberals have called for gender sensitive teaching methods to afford pupils equal
treatment. There has been proportional representation in enrolments of males and
females at primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. Proportional representative has
also been applied in promotion of women to positions of authority eg. School heads,
Education officers etc. There has also been equal access to bursaries and scholarships.

Workplaces

In Britain equal pay and sex discrimination acts came into being in the 1970s. In
Zimbabwe the 1985 Labour Relations Act was introduced. It had the following
provisions:-

 Equal pay for males and females;

 Minimum wages for everyone

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  Equal treatment and access to male dominated occupations.
 Maternity leave benefits and recently paternity leave
 No discrimination on the grounds of sex, not even on adverts in the media.
 Access to top positions of executives, directors and ministers.

Politics

The SADC declaration on gender led to the consideration of women participation in

politics. This led to the introduction of the quota system where one third of
parliamentarians have to be women. Women now have access to top positions and
participate in electoral and legal reform processes.

Legal sphere

Internationally equal rights for men and women were included in the United Nations
(UN) Charter of 1947. Trafficking in human beings who were mostly females was
stopped in 1948. In Zimbabwe Acts were passed to protect and improve the social status
of women,for example:

 Legal Age of majority Act (1982) which lifted women from a state of being
perpetual minors. Women above 18years are now viewed as adults who can
consent on their own, make contracts and own property like land, cattle, bank
accounts houses among others.;
 Matrimonial causes Act which allows sharing of property at death or divorce.
 Sexual offences Act that protects both males and females from sexual harassment.
 There has also been conscientisation of women on marriage Acts and their
provisions. Pension’s Acts have been amended also. These and many
unmentioned Acts including the recent domestic Act are all in a bid to bring
gender equality.

For a detailed treatment of each of these acts refer to Unit 9 of this module.

2.8.1.5 Limitations of the Theory.

The liberal Theory is mainly criticized by socialist and radical feminists who argue that
liberals:

 .Do not addresses underlying causes of women’s oppression (Bryson, 1992).

 .Ignore power relations (structural inequalities) prevailing in society
 .Do not goes deeper into explaining causes of women’s subordination hence
cannot offer solutions for an unknown cause.
 Do not offer strategy to counter traditional norms and values that constrain
women.
 Is reformist in nature moving in a gradual process to influence the government to
pass laws (Magezis, 1996). No major structural changes are made in the socio-
economic arrangement of the society.

22
  View women as a homogeneous category ignoring class, race and ethnicity.
 Its calls for access to education, health, employment, legal instruments leave out
lower class women.
 It’s blending well with the WID approach to development; its welfare and anti-
poverty approaches compromise women rights, access and control of resources.

Activity 2.1

Discussion Questions.

a)What are the characteristics of liberalism as an ideology?

b)After a close reflection of the solutions offered by liberal feminists, what would you
consider to be their weaknesses?
c)To what extent have the following been effective in redressing gender imbalances
between males and females?

i. legal instruments
ii. access to Education

d) In view of the political changes that have taken place in your country, complete the
table below.

POSITIONS MALES FEMALES % FEMALES

Presidency
Ministers
Provincial.
Governors
Parliamentarians
Chiefs

2.8.2 Marxist- Feminist Theory

2.8.2.1 Origin

Marxist Feminists are a variety of scholars who were applying the Marxist theory of
economic determinism in explaining the oppression of women. These were drawing
from Karl Max and Fredrick Engels’ writings, for example: ‘The origin of the family,
private property and the State. (O’Donnell1992). The theory rose in the 1970sowing to
the Women and Development (WAD) approach to development and as a critic of the
liberal feminist theory, modernization theory and Women in development approach.

23
Women and Development (WAD) approach had been influenced by the critics of the
modernization theory, which were dependency theorists and Under-development scholars
of the Third World especially Latin America. These were the likes of Walter Rodney,
Dos Antos and Gunder Frank. The proponents of the Marxist Feminists are Sue Sharpe,
Juliet Mitchel and Marynard among others.

2.8.2.2 Marxist Terms

Economic Base- I t consists of the means of production including land, capital, labour
and time.
Forces of production- which include tools/implements or technology.
Relations of production-which define who owns, controls, dominates, profits as well as
who has power.
The ownership of the means of production and productive forces determine the relations
of production.
Superstructure-Is made of ideologies that monitor, maintain, reproduce and legitimize the
status quo (Relations of production at the base). The ideologies are;

- patriarchy
- capitalism
- cultural beliefs
- religion
- State institutions e.g. schools, legislation and repressive state
apparatus.

Economic determinism – states that ownership of the economy greatly determines how
the two classes (owners and non-owners of the means of production) relate in a capitalist
system.
Subordinate and dominant class-Those who own the means of production are the
dominant class while those who do not own themconstitute the subordinate class.

Exploitation and Oppression-Those who do not own the means of production are
exploited of their labour by being given low wages. The powerful owning class
oppresses the subordinate class.

2.8.2.3 Marxist –Feminist Expositions

 Gender inequalities are rooted in capitalism and its ownership of private property
(Bryson, 1992).
 They challenge attempt to isolate gender from social class.
 Men are powerful because they own the means of production (dominant class)
 Women do not own the means of production hence are a subordinate class that is
oppressed, exploited just like the proletariats.
 The base determines relations between men and women.
 Women’s position in a capitalist society is economically determined
 Capitalism divides work into private (home) and public sphere (workplace).

24
  Capitalism values men’s labour and devalue that of women by giving low wages.
 Women enter wage labour from a subordinate position.
 Women are a reserve army of labour, that is, they can be recruited any time to
replace males at a low cost.

Sharpe in O’Donnell (1992; 172) argues that;

Employers …. Frequently regard women as mere temporary

labour, and consider that they should be thought lucky to have
the opportunity to earn some money for themselves. They can
be used as surplus labour force, to be employed or laid off at
will.

 Men are viewed as bread winners’ hence higher wages while women are viewed
as appendages of men (Bryson, 1992).
 Women suffer double exploitation, for example, they produce in factories and
produce future labourers at no cost.
 Domestic work in the private sphere is not remunerated.
 Women are alienated (separated) from their production, reproduction and
sexuality. This means women do not own and control what they produce in the
public sphere, at home and even that which relates to their sexuality (children and
their bodies).
 Mitchel in O’ Donnell ( ibid.) argues that oppression in the family produces:

…A tendency to small-mindedness, petty, jealousy, irrational

emotionally and random violence, dependency competitive
selfishness, possessiveness, passivity, a lack of vision and
conservativism….
 These characteristics are embedded in women’s objective conditions and a sexist
society.
 Women serve the interest of capitalism through the management of the family.
They provide productive, psychological and social needs.

2.8.2.4 Solutions
Marxist-Feminists propose the following as some of the solutions to women’s problems;
 Marxist Feminists stress the need to overthrow capitalist economic system. They
call for a socialist Revolution that would change the structure and ownership of
the means of production.
 There must be an ideological change first in the consciousness of both sexes.
(Pilcher and Whelehan,2004)
 Females should free themselves from dependence and traditional gender roles that
confine them to the private sphere.
 Participation of women in the public sphere is key to their liberation.
 Men and women should struggle against capitalist oppressors.
 Class and gender struggles should take place at the same time.

25
  Abolition of private property and setting up of a communally owned means of
production in a communist society.
 Household work should be paid for.

2.8.2.5 Applicability of the Marxist-Feminist Theory.

In SADC countries as patriarchal societies, men own private property more than women
e.g. land, capital, houses, machinery and labour. Most of the productive forces are
registered on male names. As a result men become powerful, oppress and dominate
women. The one who owns decides and has final judgement over resources. Domestic
work in the home is either not paid for or low wages are given to maids. Women
employed in the public sphere mostlydo domestic work which has been transferred from
the private sphere to the public sphere for examplenursing (caring), teaching
(socializing), and catering (servicing) and being secretaries for bosses who are mostly
males. Women are employed in large numbers in export processing as well as textile
industries for low wages. These careers are characterized by low wages. The children
produced belong to the father in a traditional family and what the woman produces from
her labour is controlled by the husband. Patriarchy, culture and religion are ideologies
that legitimate inequalities making them appear normal, natural and unchangeable. State
institutions e.g. education, reproduces patriarchal values. Ownership of the means of
production does determine one’s (women’s) position and power in a capitalist society.
Schools in a capitalist society re-enforce social inequalities by producing a workforce
divided by class. Schools in Zimbabwe, for example, can be classified into private,
former group A, former group B, mission schools and what used to be called upper-tops.
Products from these schools still exhibit glaring class and gender differences.

2.8.2.6 Limitations

Marxist-Feminist criticism is based on the following:

 Society has changed from the classes and conditions observed by Karl Marx and
Fredrick Engels. Some women these days own private property.
 Some SADC countries have come up with national gender policies and legal
instruments that enable women to access property, capital, loans and land.
 Entry into wage labour by women from the 18th Century to today does not prove
to be key to their liberation. It has instead increased women’s labour burdens.
 Experiences in Socialist countries, for example, Soviet Union, Cuba, China and
the former Eastern Block, did not show that women’s positions in these societies
were any better. These societies are still male dominated with powerful posts in
male hands.
 In countries like Zimbabwe, most women find themselves in the informal sector
with low unreliable income. They are not part of the proletariat working in public
places. The majority of women are in rural areas. The theory did not look at
majority of women in Third World countries.
 Marxist- feminists are gender blind. They failed to focus on power relations of
males and females as independent from social class. They did not explain why
men exploit and oppress women even in socialist societies.

26
  They also fail to explain subordinate position of women before the advent of
Capitalism.
 Marxist-Feminists ignore patriarchy and male control of women’s sexuality,
culture, violence, race and ethnicity.
 The economic factor is not enough to explain gender inequalities; other sources of
inequalities are ignored.

ACTIVITY 2. 2

i) Discuss men and women ownership of the means of production and the
productive forces in your country..
ii) How do the above elements of the Superstructure maintain male dominance
and legitimize the ownership of the means of production in your country?
Explain giving examples.

2.8.3 Radical theory

2.8.3.1Origin

Radical feminism is a movement that rose in the 1960s – 80s as a breakaway of Marxists
who were frustrated by the inability to apply social class in analyzing gender oppression.
It also emerged as a reaction to the liberal theory (Meena, 1992: Bryson, 1992). Its
impetus came from women’s experiences in the Civil Rights, anti war, new-left and
student movements in North America, Europe and Australia. The first radical group was
influenced by the Maoist ideas and the need to develop political strategies for women’s
liberation. Their slogan was the ‘Personal is political’ (Bryson, 1992) meaning that no
aspect of life lacked a political dimension (power relations). Political struggles can take
many new forms. It was important to break the silence through consciousness raising.
The theory is radical in nature, that is it is violent, fast, uncompromising and strongly
oppose patriarchal systems. Some of the proponents are Kate Millet, Shulamith Firestone
and Ortner. These demand radical transformation of oppressive gender relations.
Mannathoko in Meena (1192:75) cites that radicals:

…Launched a wholesale onslaught against male dominated society and consider

men as the enemy.

2.8.3.2 Major Expositions

Radical Feminists have come up with the following factors as explanations of gender
inequalities:

1. Patriarchy;

27
 2. Gender Socialisation;
3. biology (sexuality)

2.8.3.2.1 Patriarchy

According to Bazili (1991:9)

Patriarchy is an ideology of male supremacy that results from

social construction of gender which in turn justifies the social,
economic and political distinction between men and women.

Walby in Smelser (1994:320) defines patriarchy

As a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate oppression
and exploit women.

Patriarchy stretches back to the time of creation in Genesis, where a woman was made
from Adam’s rib. (Acker,1987) argues that it appears as if the women came as an after
thought.

Genesis 3 v16
…Thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee.
(The Holy Bible; King James Version,
2007)
Genesis 3 V18

It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him a help meet for him.
(ibid.)
The word patriarchy is derived from the Greek word patriarchs meaning ‘head, of the
tribe. Patriarchy is viewed as universal, oldest and worst kind of oppression in the world.
(Byrson, 1992; Different Types of Feminist Theories, 2006). It cuts across time, cultures,
races, classes and ethnicities. It is a belief in society dominated and ruled by men. It is
viewed as natural, universal, unchangeable and unquestionable. (For a broader definition,
refer to Unit 1).

To radicals like Kate Millet politics means power and men derive their power from the
patriarchal system that supports and favour males. Patriarchy as an ideology is sustained
by early socialization in the family, secondary socialization in schools, churches and
workplaces. It also rests upon the economic exploitation and use of threat and force
(Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Patriarchy benefits from the oppression of women.
Women as a group have interests opposed to those of men. These interests unite them
into sisterhood across classes and cultures. Male power is not confined to the public
worlds of political and paid employment but extends into private life (sphere).

2.8.3.2.2 Gender Socialization

28
Gender inequalities are learnt through primary socialization and reinforced later by
every other institution,for example, School, media, community, church among others. In
a patriarchal society children are socialized to be different. Being male or female is
emphasized. Oakley in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) points out that this is done
through processes like manipulation, canalization, verbal appellations and exposure to
different activities. (See unit 1).

2.8.3.2.3 Biology/Sexuality

Subordination of women has origins in biology, the fact that women give birth (firestone
in Marcus and Ducklin, 1998). The core of power and female domination is male control
of female’s roles in reproduction and child rearing(Firestone in O’Donnell 1992). Women
become dependent on men for material necessities of life and protection especially in the
nuclear family. Men control women’s production, reproduction, child rearing and
sexuality.

It is for this reason that other radicals like Kate Millet view the family as a central site of
women’s oppression. Ortner in Haralambos and Holborn (2004) cites that women are
viewed as closer to biology (nature) while men are closer to culture (social construct).
This has led to the belief that what relates to women cannot be changed while that, which
relates to males can be changed. Biology is seen as the inevitable form of sexual division
of labour. Rape and violence against women is used by m ales to secure and maintain
power. The New York Restocking Manifesto of 1969 Read:-

Women are an oppressed class. Our oppression is total,

affecting every facet of our lives. We are exploited as sex
objects, breeder, domestic servants and cheap labour. We are
considered inferior beings whose only purpose is to enhance
men’s lives… (Bryson, 1992:183-184).

2.8.3.3. Solutions
Radicals prescribe the following solutions for the liberation of women:
 Women are to struggle on their own for their own liberation against their
oppressors (males). This is evidenced by the quotation…Radicals reject
assistance by males because men are viewed as enemies of the liberation. They
are blamed for being responsible for all the other problems of women,for
example, Conflict, war, destruction of the environment, and abuse. A war should
be raged against men.
 Reject gender roles and call for child care facilities.
 Radicals are of the view that gender differences can be reduced by taking
desirable characteristics of males and females because these are socially
constructed.
 However, cultural feminists (Extremists) celebrate feminine characteristics like
interdependence and sharing:

29
 …It is better to be feminine than to be masculine. Thus
women should not try to be like men. (Tong in Haralambos
and Holborn, 2004:103).

(Refer to micro theories, Unit 2).

 Call for total restructuring of society. To them doing away with

male domination is a means of eliminating women’s oppression.
 Demand women’s empowerment in education, politics and
sexuality.
 Focus on violence against women, for example,rape, sexual harassment, incest,
pornography and domestic violence.
 Challenge also men’s control and monopoly over the production and use of
knowledge, for example, in the mass media.

2.8.3.4Applicability of the Radical Feminist Theory

Unlike the liberals who fight for equal educational opportunities, radicals have
challenged both the quality and quantity of education being offered to women. Their
ideas have significantly influenced changes in the curriculum which has resulted in the
eliminating of gender stereotyping that impact negatively on women’s academic
achievement. This gender stereotyping is evident in subjects as sciences, maths,
commercials and social studies that were male dominated. These have been made
available to women. Women are also empowered health wisee.g. use of birth control
measures of their choices, use of protection (female condom), There are women’s
pressure groups, for example, Women’s Action Group (WAG), Affirmative Action
Group(AAG) and Women Of Zimbabwe Arise(WOZA) fight for rights of women and
girls. Other women facilities include the Girl Child Network, scholarships for girl
children and victim friendly courts for abused children. The passing of the sexual
offences Act, HIV AIDS Act, Domestic Violence Act and stiffer penalties for rape
perpetrators are all efforts of radical feminists. Organizations like Msasa Project have
protected women experiencing gender domestic violence of any kind in Zimbabwe. A
shelter for such women was set up in Harare. Single sex schools, women’s University and
women’s Institute of Governance are all products of radical feminists. Women have been
made to access legal instruments that allow them to abort under special circumstances
like rape, incest, mental health or anything that endangers the woman’s health. Radical
feminists have also influenced the setting up of childcare institutions, and introduction of
new reproductive technologies like donation of sperms, artificial insemination, surrogate
motherhood and making choices of family planning methods. All these enable women to
control their bodies.

2.8.3.5 Limitations
The following can be cited as limitations of the Radical Feminist Theory:

30
  It is criticized as Western, for example,in Africa, abortion is male dominated
(males decide) and it touches religious and moral issues. As a result the
theory is heavily criticized and opposed.
 It emphasizes differences between men and women making peaceful co-
existence and co-operation impossible.
 It is hostile towards the man who is also victims of socialization.
 Separatists and their rejection of marriage and relationships with males can
lead to the end of the human race.
 Views women as passive victims and assumes that all women are good and all
males are bad.
 That all males are able to oppress all women, ignoring the fact that some men
are oppressed by women or by both
 The theory fails to explain the origins of patriarchy and its power.
 It leaves out other factors like race, class and ethnicity.

ACTIVITY 2.3

1.Discuss how biology is a constraint to men and women’s equality in the following
areaswith reference toyour country
a) education
b) workplace
2 What reproductive changes have taken place in your country as a result of radical
theorists’ influence?

3 How does patriarchy interfere with women’s participation in

a) Politics
b) Decision making in the home
c) Community

2.8.4Socialist Feminist Theory

Socialist Feminism is not a theory on its own, but a critique of the Marxist and radical
feminist theories. Bryson (1992:234) argues that:

It refers to recent attempts to synthesize the insights of

Marxists and radical feminism to build a new theory
combining the best of both. It rose in the 1960s.

Some of the proponents are Heidi, Jaggar and Ann Ferguson. The socialist- Feminists
differ from Marxist- Feminists in that their explanation for gender inequalities extend
from capitalism to patriarchy. Unlike Marxists, they looked at women in both the public
and the private spheres. Marxists focused more at the workplace.

2.8.4.1Major Expositions

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 The modern society is viewed as both capitalist and patriarchal. Socialist-
feminists believe that the subordination of women is rooted in the two evils of
capitalism and patriarchy:
 The theory is dualistic in nature with two evils mutually reinforcing.
 Sometimes the two systems conflict – for example,. Capitalist demand for
labour is opposed by patriarchal demand for personal services in the home.
However, both capitalist and patriarchal men benefit from the above
arrangement that subordinate women.
 Marxists are criticized for focusing only on capital ignoring relations of men
and women.
 To socialist feminists, women’s subordinates go beyond capitalism to
patriarchy that pre-dates capitalism.
 Patriarchy is based on men’s control over women’s labour and this is part of
the productive process.
 Capitalism is based on the capitalist control of labour in the productive
process.
 Ferguson feels that patriarchy is semi-autonomous, while Young views
patriarchy and capitalism as not dual but unified systems (Bryson, 1992).
 To support the above, Jaggar says the two are inseparable. For both,
oppression of women touches issues of reproduction and production, for
example, patriarchy controls reproduction of women and their labour in the
production process. Patriarchy benefits from the control of the produce from
reproduction (children) and women’s labour (products). Capitalism like
patriarchy benefits from reproduction of future workers and produce from
women’s labour.
 Vogel says maintenance and production of the working class are essential
requirements of capitalism. Hence, the two systems of domination are
‘inextricably entangled’ (Bryson, 1992:247).
 Socialist- feminist argue that entry into wage labour by women cannot be key
to their liberation as Marxists suggested.
 Women entered wage labour during the industrial revolutions in Europe, for
example, Britain (1800) France (1830), Germany (1850) but the position of
women did not change in homes and workplace. Again, during world wars
(WWI 1914- 1918) and (WW II 1939-1945) women participated in industries
but this did not usher the fruits they expected.
 Class analysis by Marxists is not enough. They ignore patriarchy and over
estimate the power of capital.
 Socialist Feminists focus on women’s question and make demands as both
workers and women.
 Men have vested interest in the subordination of women because they benefit
socially and materially.
 Women produce, reproduce, socialize and service families at no cost. Women
reproduce workers for capitalists. They also reproduce heirs as well as
workers for their husbands.

32
  Education is seen as reproducing both class and gender inequalities.
(Stromquist1989; Sanderson, 1988). Schools through socialization reproduce
capitalists and patriarchal values, habits of passivity, conformity among girls
as well as children from lower class background.
 Capitalism and patriarchy legitimizes class and gender inequalities.
 Capitalism and patriarchy work hand in hand in the exploitation of women.
Male supremacy is embedded in economic structures. These are strengthened
by patriarchal relations.

2.8.4.2 Solutions
The following are solutions suggested by Socialist- Feminists:
 A revolution that challenges the two ideologies leading to uprooting of both
capitalism and patriarchy;
 Women struggle should focus on conditions of production, reproduction,
reproductive rights, sexuality, and new forms of family organization.
 Women should be united by their experiences, disputes, race, class, ethnicity or
religion.
 All class and cultural forces of oppression should be ended in order to liberate
women.
 Women should work side by side with men.

2.8.4.3 Applicability of the Socialist- Feminist Theory

The Socialist- Feminist Theory has led to Gender and Development (GAD)Approach
where men and women work side by side with men in political, economic and social
development. (Refer to Unit 3). It has made development agencies or governments to
focus on inequalities in the private and public spheres. Economic ownership,
reproduction, family organization and reproductive rights are now areas of focus in some
SADC countries. This has led to introduction of laws that enable women to access
property, health care, and reproductive rights and to choose marriage types (forms of
family organization). Some governments in the SADC like Zimbabwe have crafted
national gender policies for development. These policies look at men and women’s
access to land, education and training, housing, water, health, political decision making,
natural resources. The policies encourage participation of women and men in al spheres
of life.

2.8.4.4 Limitations
The following have been identified as weaknesses of the Socialist- Feminist Theory:
 It focuses on working middle class women leaving out peasants..
 Socialist- Feministsdo not explain the origins of patriarchy and give no
suggestions of how it can be uprooted.
 Socialist- Feministsdo not offer a theory of their own but only critique existing
theories.
 Patriarchy can work in other modes of production besides capitalism, for
example, pre-capitalist and socialist modes of production.

33
  Patriarchy can be strengthened and supported by other ideologies beside
capitalism, for example,culture, religion and socialization.

Activity 2.4

1. Discuss the similarities between patriarchy and capitalism. Enter these in the
table below:-

PATRIARCHY CAPITALISM
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

2. Show how patriarchy subordinates women in the following institutions:-

a) Home
b) School
c) Workplace
d) Church.

Third World Countries Political Economy Approach (Post Modernism)

Origins
It is important forus to note that the traditional feminist theories (liberal, Marxist, radical
and socialist feminist) focused on the concerns of middle class women. They also viewed
women as a homogeneous group. Gaidzanwa in Meena (1992) refer to these theories as
‘bourgeoisie theories’. Women’s concerns did not transcend class and race. Wollenstone
craft’s liberal feminism belonged to the bourgeoisie class concerned with bourgeoisie
women. Women of the other creeds, religion, age, class and ethnicity were excluded.

The proponents of third world economy approach are third world feminists who offer a
critique of the (traditional dominant) feminist theories. Third world political approach is
part of post modernist theories. Post modernism is a reaction to modernist theories’
failure to account for different changes in society. Post modernists argue that:

1. It is not possible to study society and develop unified conclusions.

2. Human behavior is characterized by heterogeneity rather than homogeneity
3. Positivism and generalizations are not accurate in human behavior

34
The Third World Political approach looks at the following factors as explanations for
the subordinate position of women especially in Third World Countries:
 Location on the Globe ( first, second and third world)
 International/ Global economy
 History of colonization
 Race
 Class
 Patriarchy
 Ethnicity
 Religion
 Age
 Gender among others.

Major Tenants
 The theory focuses on the 3rd world minorities of women previously
ignored. These are unrepresented black, rural, disabled, and younger and
lower class women among others.
 Women are viewed as fragmented or heterogeneous because of ethnicity,
race, religion, age, disability, class, nationality, marital status, history and
multiple identities.
 As a result women do not have shared experiences as suggested by
traditional feminist theories. Marcus and Duckling (1998:59) argues that
social theory can not offer general and inclusive views of the social world.
 A feminist theory is not possible especially in 3rd world countries like
Africa where women are divided by a lot of factors listed above.
 Subordination of 3rd world women should be situated in their histories and
their location within neo-colonial nations.
 It looks at multicultural or global feminism where all other differences are
recognized not just gender.
 It also looks at intersection of gender with race, class and issues of
colonization and exploitation of women in the developing world
 According to the 3rd world feminist writers, women in the 3rdworld
countries are subordinated in many ways: they are subordinated and
oppressed as:
1. Third World women
The relationship that exists between the first world (developed industrial nations) and
the 3rd world (underdeveloped nations) is in such away that the first world exploits
third world resources and labour. The periphery (satellites that is third world
countries supply the metropolis (core), the first world with resources and labour
(Gunder Frank and Dos Santos in Anderson (1995). Zimbabwe is a third world
country and women are subordinated as third world women.

2. Globalization of Economy
Thirdworldeconomies, Zimbabwe
includedareincorporatedintocapitalisteconomies of the developed world.

35
Transnational capitalists who are mostly the patriarchs control world economy
through trade. A system of dependency of 3rd world countries on the economies of
the first world has been created. There is dependency ‘….when the first society
(economy is organized by persons in the foreign society so as to benefit primarily
the foreign economy (Sanderson, 1995:217). Developed nations extracted raw
materials from third world countries, exported them to be manufactured in Europe
and brought back as finished goods expensive to the Africans. The third world
people become depended on the west for manufactured goods, technology and
technological know how. New dependency arose after the Second World War that
is financial dependency with multinational corporations that invested in 3 rd world
countries. Only a third is reinvested. The profits are repatriated. Peripheral market
conditions of the developed nations dictate the terms of trade (Dos Santos in
Sanderson 1995). Zimbabwean women are part of this dependency and
exploitation by the first world’s multinational companies and trade.

3. Class
Women in a capitalist global economy like men are part of the proletariats. Their
labour is exploited for low wages. In this global oppression, peasants farmers and
urban workers are the most exploited. Women are the producers of raw materials
in the periphery but are alienated from what they produce. They are exploited by
both global capitalists and capitalist elites in their nations. In Zimbabwe women
belong to a lower class that has no power or control of the means of production.

4. Race
Women especially in third world Africa Zimbabwe included are further
subordinated as a black race. White w omen in the first world are the capitalists
and consumers of what the black race produces. The voices of the black women
are not heard. The concerns of the traditional (modernist) feminist theories did not
take into account issues of race. White women and black women do not have
same experiences hence cannot speak with one voice. Black women are
subordinated by both white males and females of the first and 3rd world. The
situation of women during the colonial and post colonial has not changed much in
relation to racial issues in most African countries.

5. Gender
Women in third world countries are also subordinated and exploited as women by
males. In patriarchal societies where males dominate, ownership of property,
movable and immovable is largely in the hands of males. Such resources are land,
livestock, cars, tractors, capital, and homesteads among others. Studies conducted
by Women and Law in Zimbabwe (2000) reveal that women have access to the
resources but do not have control over them. Women are exploited as labourers
and child bearers. Most African cultures legitimize this male dominance.

6. By other women
Women are further subordinated by other women depending on age, position of
power and relationships (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003)

36
Generally, elderly women subordinate younger women. They dictate to them and
subject them to initiation ceremonies and cultural norms and values that trap
younger women in their subordination. Other women assume cultural and
patriarchal power that enables them to oppress other women. Examples of such
women are mothers in law and sisters in law. Senior women in polygamous and
non polygamous families enjoy a higher status as grandmothers, sisters and
sisters in law (gogo, sisi, maiguru and tete).They make sure their commands are
carried by junior women. They impart to them traditions and norms that support
male dominance and female subordination. In pre-colonial Zimbabwe, Lozikheyi
Dlodlo, Lobengula’s senior wife kept younger women under her Nabuiza, the first
wife of the Mutapa in the seventeenth century lived in the palace and served by
personal servants like (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003).

7. Ethnicity
Ethnicity like race is a serious factor in issues of subordination, the world over.
Different ethnic groups have different statuses in their countries. A woman who
belongs to the lowest ethnic group is the most subordinated. She is subordinated
by males and females of other superior ethnic groups and her husband. She is
looked down upon for ethnicity and gender. For example a Nguni woman would
always be the first wife during the reign of Mzilikazi and Lobengula(Ndlovu-
Gatsheni,2003).Her firstborn son would always be an heir even if the husband had
many wives and sons before her .Wives from royal families did not work in the
fields but had other women working for them while they participated in public
affairs

8. As rural women
The majority of women in third world countries are in rural areas. These make the
majority of illiterate women who lack access to information, technology,
technological know-how, training, health etc (Welshenman, et al, 1997 and
McFadden, 1992).Most such women do not own the means of production e.g.
land , machinery and capital despite changes in legal instruments. Historically,
these women were affected by colonial peasantisation. They made up 90% of
agricultural workers ( ). However, they had no access to and control of land,
seeds, credit facilities etc. These were registered in male names. Males took
produce of single crops like maize, cotton, palms and tobacco to marketing boards
(Marcus and Dunklin 1998) Money became a medium of exchange in the colonial
era, but women were not part of that money economy. Women produced for
commercial purposes but only controlled crops that had to do with subsistence
(consumption)

9. Religion
Almost all religions in the world subordinate women. In an Islamic religion, a
devout Muslim would stop praying when a strange women or a donkey appears
(Acker, 1997). A prayer by devout Jewish reads; I thank God that I am a Jew and
not a gentile, am a man and not a woman.

37
 In Christianity, it is believed that a woman was not created from the dist of the
earth but from Adam’s independent person. Adam was given dominion over
creation and a man is the head of the family as Christ is head of the church. In
traditional religion women do not speak to the ancestral spirit (midzimu) but can
talk to stray spirits (mashavi). Ancestral spirits from the mother’s side are not
important as those of the father’s side. Women do not make important religious
decisions in the families. They can not appease angry ancestral spirits. This is
done by fathers, brothers or brother’s children

Applicability of the Theory

 Indeed Third World women, like men are trapped in the global capitalist system
of dependency and exploitation.
 Women like man are producers but do not benefit from what they produce. They
are exploited as a class of workers and women.
 The condition of women especially the black race is worse than that of other
races. During the colonial period, most whites had black women as their maids
and nannies’. This has not changed much in the post colonial period.
 In patriarchal societies, majority of women do not own immovable property like
houses and land for homesteads especially in rural areas. They also do not own
movable properties like cars, scotch carts, cattle especially the married ones.
 Women are further subordinated by other women for example, in Shona and
Ndebele cultures of Zimbabwe a muroora/ Umalukazana/wife has to take without
questioning instructions from the husband’s mother (vamwene/umamazala) and
from the husband’s sister (vatete/ubabakazi). These decide on
muroora/umalukazana’s fate in marriage and the custody of children.
 Elderly women in these cultures dictate and subject younger women to initiation
ceremonies and cultural norms that trap younger women in their subordination.
For example:
1. Women should be quite whatever happens in her marriage she should
allow the husband to access what he paid bride price (lobola) for
(sexuality) at whatever cost and circumstances.
2. A women should endure (persevere) in marriage to avoid breaking up of
the marriage (kuputsa imba yake/ ukudiliza umuzi). In Zimbabwe, for
example, most rural women are engaged in agriculture. They produce for
both subsistence and commercial agriculture. However, few women have
access to credit facilities, technology, technological know how and
marketing facilities. Culture and patriarchy continue to maintain the status
quo despite introduction of legal instruments and policies on access to
resources and opportunities

Limitations
1. Third world political approach tends to focus on capitalism and post colonialism.
2. It does not focus on patriarchal and cultural constraints before capitalism.
3. It ignores biological or reproductive constraints.

38
 4. It divides women weakening their struggles because of emphasis of women
diversity.
5. Argue that homogenizing women is colonizing women denying them their
histories, cultures, identities and nationalities.

Activity 2.5
Explain, giving examples, how each of the following factors subordinate women in your
country?

* Religion, Christianity and Traditional religion

* Rural Environment
* Other women
* Class
* Ethnicity

Why is it difficult for third world women to develop a unified feminist theory?

Micro-Theories of gender inequalities

Post modernism has seen a shift from large scale theories with universal explanations of
gender relations, that is, patriarchy, capitalism, socialism and biology to issues of age,
class, race, and ethnicity among others.

Black Feminism

The Third world political approach focuses on heterogeneity of women. It is a theory of

third world women by third world women dissatisfied with other types of feminisms.
Black feminism looks at women affected by race especially the black women in the
western world who are excluded by macro theories. These are black women who are in
industrialized nations as a result of slavery, employment, studies, and refugee status.

Black feminists argue that versions of other feminists do not apply equally to white and
non-white women. Black women have particular problems of segregation or exclusion in
civil rights movements in industrialized nations. Race is viewed as the most/only relevant
label for identification. Womanhood is less than race. As a result black women have not
been central in women’s liberation movement .Where characteristics of women are
measured, those of white women are used as a yardstick (Hooks in Giddens, 2001)

Solutions

Theories of feminism should take into account issues of racism. Concentration should not
be on experiences and ideas of white women.

Applicability

39
Black women, the world over, are subordinated by the race issue.However, their situation
is worse in the western world. Their voices are unheard because of race, class and gender.

Activity 2.6

Describe giving examples, the problems of Black women living in developed countries.

Eco-feminism

Eco-feminism was propounded by the likes of Vandana Shiva, Susan Griffin and Carolyn
Merchant. It emerged in western scholarship in the 1970s as a result of realization of
connection between women, human rights and the exploitation of nature.

 Eco-feminists believe that male domination is harmful to both women and

environment earth.
 Men desire to control both women and the environment in order to have complete
power.
 An attempt to control women and the environment leads to the destruction of the
environment
 Women like nature are viewed as objects to control, manipulate and
plunder(Shiva,1999)
 Power of patriarchy and colonialism depends on the exploitation and control of
nature, animals and human beings especially women. (Plumwood, 1994).
 Eco-feminists believe that there is a deep connection between earth and women
hence the terms mother nature or mother earth (Shiva, 1999).

Solutions
 Merchant (1995) feels that women have a central role in preserving and
understanding nature. They are called to lead an ecological revolution to
save the planet. However, this can be done if women’s role in the
construction of environmental knowledge is recognised (Shiva, 1998).
 It is unfortunate that patriarchal power has made women to turn against
the environment instead of living in harmony with it.
 Women have little access and control of environmental knowledge and the
natural environments e.g. wild vegetation, plantations, wild life, resort
areas among others(Macgregor in Morse and Stocking,1995)
 Women do not participate actively in the conservation and management of
resources. For example natural forests are viewed by women as fire hood
land, wild animals as danger or game meat, physical features like

40
 mountains as sources of rocks for bricks, grinding stones or refuge places
in terms of war.
 It is also unfortunate that women’s knowledge of the environment is not
considered scientific by western scientific standards (Momsen, 2004).
 Their indigenous knowledge of farming, forests and trees is viewed as
linked to intuition or supernatural, therefore excluded despite
environmentalists movements of the late 20th
century(Njiro,1999).Women’s projects fail because they are either based
on western model or because they lack females(Fortman,1986).
 For sustainable development to be achieved, women should be involved in
the conservation of the natural environment just as they are involved in the
tapping of the resources.

Applicability
 Women in Africa are left out in development projects (Macgregor,
1991).It is for this reason that the ZNGP, (2004)has called for the
involvement of women in environmental issues and RM structures.
 Women also need to take studies that relate to environmental issues.
 The ZNGP also promotes equitable access to control and ownership of
productive resources including the natural resources.
 Dissemination of environmental information to both males and females is
crucial if our environments are to be preserved .I t can be concluded
therefore that eco-feminism unifies gender and environmental issues. The
purpose of the unity is for conservation of nature for sustainable
development. In Africa women constitute the majority and annihilate the
environment as they search for fire wood, nuts , mushroom, vegetables
,fibres, fruits and soils hence they need to understand processes of the
landscape degradation(Morse and Stocking,19950).Zimbabwe’s’ rate of
deforestation, partly caused by women has been estimated at 2% a year
with fuel deficit in 5 out of 9 provinces including Matebeleland North and
South, Midlands, Masvingo and parts of Mashonaland
East(Jackson,1995).With the current land reform and resettlement
programme, the figure is likely to be much higher.

Activity 2.7
 What are the implications of women’s lack of access to
environmental information?
 What practical strategies can be effected to ensure
participation of women in environmental and natural
resource management?

41
Cultural

Cultural feminism has origins in the feminist theory by extremists or separatists

(Haralambos and Holborn, 2004).Among these are Card Gilligars and Mary Daly.

 Cultural feminism believes in the superiority of the feminine

(Momsen, 2004).According to them, the fundamental differences
between men and women should be celebrated. Their argument is that,
women are inherently kind and gentle .If women were to rule the
world, there would be no war but peace. The women’s’ way is viewed
as the right way and that women
 Can live on their own in a society made of women. Men on the other
hand are vied negatively even their values. It is believed men value
ideas of independence, hierarchy, competition and dominating. These
lead to conflict, wars and chaos, while females value dependence,
cooperation, relationships community, sharing, trust and peace. These
also encourage
 Peaceful co-existence. Women’s’ reproduction is seen as a source of
power which men are jealous of Men want to control women’s’
reproduction as technology through the use of technology.

Applicability

 In Zimbabwe women are viewed as reproductive technology for child

bearing .They are also a source of labour and they reproduce future
labourers. This is a source of power for women and who ever controls
them controls reproduction and labour.

Activity 2.8
 What are the disadvantages of believing in the superiority of the
feminine?
 List similarities between cultural and radical theory?

42
 Multicultural Feminism

 Multicultural feminism arose as a result of dissatisfaction with global

feminism in a multicultural society. It has roots in the third world
feminists’ theories and other post modernist theories.
 Third world feminists argue that there must be a multicultural theory that
recognises all other differences within which gender is contextualised.
 Gender inequalities manifest themselves differently in different cultures.
Cultural differences like class, ethnicity, religion, age and disability shape
gender differences in different societies.
 A multicultural theory should focus on inclusion of other oppressions and
consider intersection of gender with race, colonisation and exploitation of
women in the developing world (Momsen, 2004).

Applicability

 Zimbabwe is a multicultural society made of the following ethnic groups

Venda,Ndau,Ndebele,Kalanga,Karanga,Tonga,Shangani,Sotho,Korekore,Zezu
ru and Manyika among others.
 Zimbabwe also has different religions, for example Christianity with its
different denomination. Christian Churches are grouped into Pentecostal,
missionary established , African Independent Churches. Parallel to these
is traditional religion, Islam etc. A multicultural theory should take these
differences into consideration, even solutions to women’s problems.
Women are treated differently in each religion, denomination and ethnic
group. Zimbabwe again is made of different classes, the upper class,
middle class and lower class that can be divided further into formal
workers, informal workers, and house wives.

Activity 2.9
* Choose two ethnic groups or two denominations in Zimbabwe and show how women are
subordinated differently in the chosen societies.
* What are the limitations of the multicultural feminist theory?

43
Conclusion
In this unit, both macro and micro theories have been examined in so far as they explain
inequalities between men and women as well as girls and boys. Achievements of these
theories as well as their shortcomings have been spelt out. The challenge for you is to
come up with an eclectic approach to examining gender inequalities. The next unit
focuses on the historical development of gender.

44
References

Acker, S. (1987)’Feminist theory and the study of gender education’ in International

review of education, Vol. 33 no 9.

Bazili, S. (1991) Putting women on the agenda.Johannesburg, Rowan press.

Bryson, V. (1992) Feminist political theory. Basington, The MacMillan press.

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Njiro, E.I. (1999)’Women’s empowerment and the anthropology of participatory
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46
 UNIT 3

Historical Development of Gender

by Daniel Mawere

3.1 Introduction
In Unit 2 we introduced you to theories of gender inequality. In this unit you are
introduced to the historical development of gender through four approaches. The
approaches are Women in Development, Women and Development, Gender and
Development and Third World Political Economy. We feel that these approaches are
important in tracing the historical development of gender from focus on women’s
exclusion from development activities to focusing on development as it takes on board
both women and men. The approaches also seek to explain how development affects
women and why women and men are affected by development differently. We hope the
approaches will make you appreciate the many views that have come up as societies
endeavour to grapple with issues of equality and equity between women and men in the
development of nations and societies the world over. The intention is to enable you to
critically examine gender and development as they relate to the Zimbabwean experience
in particular and the world in general.

3.2 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define and explain the concept development as it relates to gender and
development.
 Trace the historical development of gender.
 Discuss the main features of each of the four approaches to development of
gender.
 Critically examine achievements and challenges of each of the four approaches to
the development of gender.

Approaches to explaining the development of the concept Gender

3.3 The concept Development

The concept development has various sheds of meaning to different people. Generally
development is about: change for the better; continuing processes; collectivities of
people; growth and prosperity; and interrelationships. Among other theories,
Modernization and Dependency theories view development differently as is shown
below.

Modernization theories, originating from west-centric institutions, view development as

economic growth and industrialization. Industrialization therefore is a major indicator of
development. One of the most influential modernization theorists is W.W.Rostow of the
United States. His 1960 book (The Stages of Economic Growth)traces the economic
growth of countries through five stages using the analogy of aerodynamics.

47
 Stage 1Traditional Stage or Handcrafting Stage: - in which primitive societies
depend upon human and animal power for production. Primitive tools are used
and production is mainly for local consumption.
 Stage 2 Pre-take off Stage: - in which the necessary infrastructure for
development is created. Transport and communication is improved. Electricity
and light machines will be used in agriculture and industry. Modern institutions,
such as elected bodies, codification of laws, banking and transport systems take
root.
 Stage 3 Take-off Stage: - in which the economy is poised for growth, becomes
self sufficient and self reliant in many aspects. The economy enters the
international market. Population growth is checked and national income increases.
 Stage 4 Drive to Maturity: - in which the economy goes in for machine building,
space research, eradication of poverty and sophisticated machinery. Society
becomes affluent, socio-economic institutions are modernized and a high standard
of living is achieved.
 Stage 5 High Mass Consumption: - in which there is abundance of everything to
everyone. People enjoy all material comforts, and luxuries are for asking.

As these countries prepare to develop, they need assistance in the form of funds,
technology and new markets.

Dependency is the perpetuation of underdevelopment. It is historical. Dependency of

the Third World countries is related and linked to the colonial economy of the
periphery to the centre. Dependency theories therefore criticize the modernization
concept of development. These theories argue that the origins of persistent global
poverty can not be understood without reference to the entire international economic
system. They argue that underdevelopment is not a condition: it is an active process
of impoverishment linked to development. That is, some parts of the world are
underdeveloped because others are developed. They are not separate processes but
two aspects of the same process. In other words, economic growth in developed
countries created Third World poverty in its wake.

The word dependency comes from this link: some say the exploitation of various
regions for their raw materials and labour impoverished them and made them depend
on the West. Others point out that in fact it is the other way round: that the West has
been dependent on the Third World in order to grow and prosper.

All in all, modernization theory sees capitalism as a creative force, causing growth
and progress. Dependency theory sees international capitalism as the ruin of the Third
World. Modernization theory sees rich countries as helpers of poor countries;
dependency theory sees them as the main obstacles to the well-being of the poorer
countries.

These models of development are heavily male based: development planners assumed
that men are the most productive workers. Women’s productive role was ignored
because it was often not directly linked t the market or the formal economy. Brandt et

48
 al, (1980) explain why gender was not noticed in development in the past when they
say that; no political system assumed the equal status of women; production-oriented
societies tended to undervalue their contribution; statistical methods largely ignored
the contribution of women as it was concentrated in the informal sector. Fagerlind
and Saha (1989) in Bown (1999) commented that women provided more health care
than all health services combined and yet outnumber men among the world’s
illiterate. Chinery-Hesse et al (1990) in Bown (1999) commented on women’s
contribution to development thus; Women’s distinctiveness lies in the multiplicity of
their roles. Whilst men can confine themselves mainly to being producers, most
women, in addition to being heavily involved in economic production, take prime
responsibility as home managers, child bearers and careers of children, the sick and
the elderly. As a result women work more hours than men, usually with smaller
resources, fewer opportunities and lower rewards. By and large inequalities exist
between men and women. These inequalities typify gender differences and contribute
to disparities in development between them.

Development, argues anthropologist Arturo Escobar, not only ignored women, but in
fact had – and continues to have, in different cases – extremely detrimental effects on
women’s economic position. From the 1970s, the assumption of women as actors
mainly in the reproductive sphere began to be questioned. Over the decades since
distinctive approaches have emerged related to gender and development (WID, WAD
and GAD, among others). These frameworks guide development policies, research
and practice.

3.4 Approaches to explaining the development of the concept Gender

3.4.1 Women in Development (WID)

Origins
In the early 1970s, researchers on development began to focus on the division of
labour based on sex, and the impact of development and modernization strategies
on women. The concept, Women in Development (WID),came into use during the
United Nations Decade for Women (1975 to 1985). It is closely related to western
liberal feminism which emphasizes on gender equity and equal rights. The
approach viewed women as passive beneficiaries of development. In fact there is
a growing realization that women are being left out of economic development or
are not benefiting significantly from it (Moyoyeta, 2004). The approach stands for
concern with the disadvantaged position of women, and discrimination against
them. Research based on this concept recognizes that the impact of development
and social change on women differs from its impact on men. The main objective
of the WID approach, therefore, is to design actions and policies to integrate
women fully into development.

Main Features
The WID approach views women’s lack of participation as the main problem. As
pointed out earlier on, WID approach focuses on women. The exclusion of

49
 women (half of the productive resource) from the development process is viewed
as the main problem under focus. Women’s subordination, therefore, is seen in
terms of their exclusion from the market sphere, and limited access to and control
over resources.

More efficient and effective development that includes women is the main goal of
the approach. Integration of women into existing structures of development is
viewed as the solution to the problem. The approach seeks to integrate women
into economic development through legal and administrative support.

WID advances a number of strategies aimed at addressing the problem under

focus. Through WID, projects such as transfer of technology, extension services,
credit facilities, and other interventions that have a welfare orientation especially
projects on hygiene, literacy or childcare are implemented. WID also focuses on
advocacy strategies for more equal participation of women in education,
employment and other spheres of society. The other strategy is to increase
women’s ability to manage the household (family planning). All these strategies
are aimed at increasing women’s productivity and income.

The approach also examines the sexual division of labour and the differential
impact of gender in development. Furthermore it recognizes that women and
men’s experience of development and societal changes are different.

Achievements
 The WID approach has enhanced people’s understanding of women’s
development needs, particularly the need to improve statistical measures of
women’s work and to provide women with more opportunities for education and
employment (Overholt, et al. 1984). The approach has provided a checklist for
ensuring women’s status in societies, a checklist that is helpful and accessible to
development technocrats.
 Programmes informed by the WID approach address women’s practical needs by;
creating wage employment, income-generating opportunities, and improving
access to credit and to education.
 Its presence at the UN helped to push for social legislation that enhanced
women’s civil and political rights in some countries.
 It has also been successful in helping secure a prominent place for women’s
issues at the United Nations (UN).
 The UN declared 1975 to 1985, the Decade for Women. A major achievement of
the decade has been the establishment of women in development structures.
 WID has helped to mainstream gender issues in many development agencies and
policies as well as increase women’s visibility.
 WID highlights the fact that women need to be integrated into development
processes as active agents if efficient and effective development is to be achieved.
It has also encouraged research and debate on women issues.

Limitations

50
 Limitations of the approach noted later were that:
 The benefits of ‘modernization’ do not, in fact, trickle down automatically or
equally. Furthermore the approach focuses on integration of women into ongoing
development strategies. This often entails the acceptance of existing social
structures that perpetuate inequalities. The approach tends to focus heavily on the
productive aspects of women’s work, overlooking the burden of social and
reproductive functions. It should also be noted that women’s issues tend to be
increasingly relegated to marginal programmes and isolated projects (Gender! A
Partnership of Equals, 2000).
 The approach does not challenge gender relations and assumes that these will
change, as women become economic partners in development.
 WID views women as being outside the mainstream of development and yet
women are already playing a crucial part in development, for example, in the
domestic and agriculture spheres.
 By exclusively targeting women, WID creates tension, suspicion and hostility.
 The approach tends to perpetuate gender inequalities as it focuses on practical
needs to the exclusion of strategic gender needs.
 The approach calls for women’s inclusion in development but it does not call for
changes in the social, cultural and legal structures that give rise to inequalities in
society.
 Because the approach relies heavily on modernization theory, it generally
assumes that western institutions hold most of the answers and it often ignores the
possible contribution of indigenous knowledge.

Critics see the WID initiative as “add-on” approach that, instead of integrating
women into the mainstream of development, marginalizes them even further (Chiriga,
1998). For finer details on WID approaches study Table 3.1 below:

Table 3.1
Different policy approaches to Third World women: Moser (1993: pp 56-57)

51
Issues Welfare Equity Anti-Poverty

Origins Second WID ap-

Earliest approach: Original WID approach: proach:
-Residual model of so- -Failure of modernisation -toned down equity
cial welfare under co- development policy because of criticism.
lonial administration. -Influence of Boserup and -linked to redistribu-
-Modernization / First World Feminists on tion with growth and
accelerated growth Percy amendment of UN basic needs.
economic develop- decade for women
ment model.
1970s onward: still
Period Most Popu !950-1970 but still !975-1985: attempts to limited popularity
lar widely used. adopt it during the
women’s decade.
To ensure poor
Purpose To bring women into To gain equity for women women increase their
development as better in the development proc- productivity:
mothers: this is seen as ess: women seen as active women’s poverty
their most important participants in develop- seen as a problem of
role in development. ment underdevelopment,
not of subordination.

Needs of women To meet PGN in re- To meet SGN in terms of To meet PGN in pro-
met and roles rec- productive role, relat-
triple role– directly ductive role, to earn
ognized
ing particularly to food through state top-down an income, particu-
aid, malnutrition and intervention, giving politi- larly in small-scale
family planning cal and economic auton- income generating
omy by reducing inequal- projects.
ity.

Comment Women seen as pas- In identifying subordinate Poor women isolated

sive beneficiaries of position of women in as separate category
development with fo- terms of relationship to with tendency only
cus on their reproduc- men, challenging, criti- to recognize produc-
tive role; non- cized as Western femi- tive role; reluctance
challenging, therefore nism, considered threaten- of government to
widely popular espe- ing and not popular with give limited aid to
cially with govern- government. women means popu-
ment and traditional larity still at small-
NGOs. scale NGO level.

52
Issues Efficiency Empowerment

Origins .Most recent approach:

Third and now pre- -arose out of failure of eq-
dominant WID ap- uity approach
proach: -Third World women’s
- deterioration in the feminist writing and grass-
world economy roots organization
- policies of economic
stabilization and ad-
justment rely on
women’s economic
contribution to devel-
opment.
Period Most
Popu 1975 onward: accelerated
lar Post 1980s: now most during 1980s, still limited
popular approach popularity

Purpose
To empower women
To ensure develop- through greater self-
ment is more efficient reliance: women’s subordi-
and more effective: nation seen not only as
women’s economic problem of men but also of
participation seen as colonial and neo-colonial
associated with equity oppression

To reach SGN in terms of

Needs of To met PGN in con- triple role– indirectly
women met and
roles recog- text of declining social through bottom-up mobili-
nized services by relying on zation around PGN as a
all three roles of means to confront oppres-
women and elasticity sion
of women’s time

Women seen entirely Potentially challenging

Comment in terms of delivery with emphasis on Third
capacity and ability to World and women’s self-
extend working day; reliance; largely unsup-
most popular approach ported by governments and
both with governments agencies; avoidance of
and multilateral agen- Western feminism criticism
cies means slow, significant
growth of under-financed
voluntary organizations

53
 Activity 3.1
 Discuss with a friend on the limitations of the WID approach. Are the above
limitations a fair criticism of the approach?
 Assess the contribution of WID to the visibility of women in development
activities in Zimbabwe.

Women and Development (WAD)

Origins
The seeds of the WAD concept were planted during the 1950s and 1960s when about 50
countries were freed from colonialism. Women who had participated in independent
movements felt that they must join with men in building these new nations. The approach
is Marxist in content as it drew on dependency theory. WAD actually arose in the latter
part of the 1970s. Its main basis was critiquing the earlier approach of WID. Its origins
are in the argument that there should be a development approach to women that
recognizes the dangers of integrating women into a patriarchal world. The approach seeks
instead to create “women-only” projects, carefully constructed to protect women’s
interests from patriarchal domination (Rathbeger, 1990). WAD therefore is an inclusive
term meant to signify a concept and a movement whose long-range goal is well being of
society.

Main Features
The central point of the WAD approach is that women must be lifted from poverty and
contribute to and benefit from development efforts. The approach stresses the
distinctiveness of women’s knowledge, women’s work and women’s goals and
responsibilities. It argues for recognition of this distinctiveness and for the
acknowledgement of the special role that women have always played in the development
process. The work they do both inside and outside the household is crucial to the
maintenance of society. The WAD perspective gave rise to a persistent call to recognize
that women are the mainstay of agricultural production in many areas of Africa, although
their contribution has been systematically overlooked and marginalized in national and
donor development plans (Connelly et al, 2005).

The main focus of WAD is on the interaction between women and development
processes rather than purely on strategies to integrate women into development. WAD
sees both women and men as not benefiting from the global economic structures because
of disadvantages due to class and the way wealth is distributed (Moyoyeta, 2004).

Global inequalities have been viewed by WAD as the main problem facing poor
countries and their citizens. The approach contents that economic growth and the
industrialization of the west has been based upon the exploitation of nations that have
been subjected to colonial rule. WAD has been very persuasive in raising the debate that
women have a role not only in reproduction but in production as well. It focuses on

54
women’s economic roles and class decisions. For development to be meaningful for
women both these roles have to be acknowledged. In other words the approach
recognizes that women have always been part of development.

The approach focuses on the relations between developed and developing nations,
particularly their impact on the lives of women and men in developing countries. It
maintains that women’s position will improve once needed structural and institutional
reforms are installed at the local and international levels. Women therefore must have
both the legal right and access to existing means for their improvement and that of
society.

Achievements
Gains have been made through the approach in:
 Raising consciousness,
 Publicizing women’s concerns, and
 Bringing them into the policy arena.
In other words WAD significantly extends the WID critique of mainstream
development approach by bringing in a broader analysis.

Limitations
Although the WAD approach has offered an important corrective to WID’s assumption
that male dominated states can be used to alter gender inequalities, it also has a number
of weaknesses:
 Marginalization and smallness of scale have limited the transformative potential
of women-only organizations.
 The approach also sees women as a class, downplaying differences among
women, particularly along racial and ethnic lines.
 It focuses on production and income generating projects at the expense of
women’s reproduction work.
 The approach has been criticized for assuming that the position of women will
improve if and when international structures become more equitable. In doing so
it sees women’s positions as primarily within the structure of international and
class inequalities. It therefore underplays the role of patriarchy in undermining
women’s development and does not adequately address the question of social
relations between men and women and their impact on development (Moyoyeta,
2004).

Activity 3.2

 Examine the role played by WAD in highlighting the contribution of women to

development. What shortcomings are evident in this approach?

55
Gender and Development (GAD)
Origins
The GAD approach emerged in the early 1980s. GAD originated from the experiences
and analysis of Western socialist feminists interested in development issues. It overlaps
with WAD but the socialist feminists in this approach combine lessons from the
limitations of both WID and WAD. It also emerges from the grass-roots organizational
experiences and writings of Third World feminists. It is born out of frustration with the
lack of progress of WID policy, in changing women’s lives and in influencing the
broader development agenda. Its objective therefore, is to remove disparities in social,
economic and political equality between women and men in development.

Main Features
 The GAD approach argues that women’s status in society is deeply affected by
their material conditions of life and their position in the national, regional, and
global economies.
 GAD also recognizes that women are deeply affected by the nature of patriarchal
power in their societies at the national, community, and household levels.
Moreover, women’s material conditions and patriarchal authority are both defined
and maintained by the accepted norms and values that define women’s and men’s
roles and duties in a particular society (Sen and Grown 1987 in Connelly et al,
2005).
 GAD focuses not just on women but also on the social relations between women
and men, be it in the workplace or in other settings. It therefore seeks to address
issues of access and control over resources and power. Gender relations are seen
as the key determinant of women’s position in society, not as immutable
reflections of the natural order but as socially constructed patterns of behaviour-
the social construction of gender-which can be changed if this is desired. The
GAD approach focuses on the interconnection of gender, class, colonial history,
culture, and position in the international economic order (Moser, 1993).
 The approach sees the gender division of labour as the root cause of inequality,
especially since it undervalues the work done by women in the household. It
recognizes women as agents of development, not merely as passive recipients of
development assistance. The need for women to organize themselves and
participate in political processes is stressed. Current social, economic and political
structures are questioned by the approach. It promotes interventions and
affirmative action programmes that integrate women into ongoing development
efforts (Gender Mainstreaming, 2005).
 Given that women are usually in a disadvantaged position in the work place as
compared to men, promotion of gender equality implies explicit attention to
women’s needs, interests and perspectives. The objective then is the advantage of
the status of women in society, with gender equality as the ultimate goal (Gender!
A Partnership of Equals, 2000).
 GAD looks at the impact of development on both women and men. It seeks to
ensure that both women and men participate in and benefit from development and

56
 so emphasizes equality of benefit and control. It recognizes that women may be
involved in development, but not necessarily benefit from it (Moyoyeta, 2004).
 The GAD approach also plays particular attention to the oppression of women in
the family or the ‘private sphere’ of women’s lives. As a result we have seen
projects develop addressing issues such as domestic violence and violence against
women.
 GAD brought about a gender perspective, thereby bringing under scrutiny the
whole gamut of difference in power, legal rights, roles, constraints, opportunities
and needs of women compared to men. The argument being that to bring women
into the center stage of development, the existing gender relations need to be re-
examined and wherever needed to be restructured (Mainstreaming Gender Equity,
2005).

Achievements
 The biggest contribution of GAD is the inclusion of men into the approach.
 It does not exclusively emphasize the solidarity of women.
 The approach acknowledges that women spend a lot of time; - bearing, raising
children, cooking, washing, and fetching water, caring for the sick and elderly,
attending to the fields and small stock.
 It also observes that women have no control over their fertility and over
productive resources.
 The GAD approach has also helped us to understand that the gender division of
labour gives triple roles (reproductive, productive and community) to women in
society.
 It goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also that
the social and mental well being of a person is important.
 Arising from the GAD analysis is the need for women to organize themselves into
a more effective political voice in order to strengthen their legal right and increase
the number of women in decision making.
The approach therefore: liberates, empowers, and promotes partnership and
equitable distribution of resources and benefits. It transforms unequal
relationships; challenges and changes gender insensitive traditions, institutions,
policies and structures. Above all it also humanizes. WID and GAD approaches
are summarized in Table 3.2 below:

Table 3.2 Comparison of WID and GAD

Women in Development Gender and Development (GAD)

(WID)
The An approach which views An approach to people centered
Approach women’s lack of participation development

57
 as the problem.
The Focus Women Relations between women and men
The The exclusion of women (half
Inequitable relations (between women
Problem of the productive resource)
and men, rich and poor) that prevents
from the development process
equitable development and women’s
full participation
The Goal More efficient, effective Equitable, sustainable development
development with men and women sharing decisions
making and power
The Solution Integrate women into existing Empower the disadvantaged and
structures women
The Women only projects Identify/address practical needs
strategies determined by women and men to
Women’s components improve their condition

Integrated projects At the same time address strategic

gender needs of women and men
Increase women’s productivity
Address strategic needs of the poor
Increase women’s income through people centered development

Increase women’s ability to

manage the household
Source: Connelly etal, (2005)

Activity 3.3

 What is the difference between Practical Gender Needs (PGN) and Strategic
Gender Needs (SGN)?
 Which approaches stress the need to meet PGN and SGN needs if development has
to take on board both women and men?
 Gender and Development approach focuses on the socially constructed basis of
differences between men and women and emphasizes the need to challenge existing
gender roles and relations. To what extent is this statement a true characterization
of GAD?

Third World Political Economy Approach

Origins
Proponents of this approach are Third World Feminist Writers.
Main Features
 It is a critique of the three approaches discussed above.
 It locates the oppressive social systems within the traditional patriarchy systems,
colonial, neo-colonial, and the globalization processes which impact on women
and men differently.

58
  The approach blames the earlier approaches for focusing on white and middle
class women and generalizing explanations for the subordinate positions of all
women.
 Historical context is ignored – women have had different experiences at different
periods in history. The approach analyses and traces the situation of women from
pre-capitalist, capitalist/colonial and post- colonial periods.
 Though patriarchy is central, it does not explain changes and diversity in gender
neutrality.
 Questions of race, class, and ethnicity should not be ignored.
 Experiences of western women are different from those of third world women.
The approach looks at globalization of economy and its impact on men and
women. Third World women are exploited; as Third world women, as the African
race, as working class, and within each class.
 Not all men are able to oppress all women.
 Young women are the most oppressed and exploited, for example, daughter-in-
law (muroora) versus Mother-in-law (Vamwene) and Daughter-in-law versus her
husband’s sister/ aunt (Vatete). Elderly women and aunts use patriarchal values to
oppress other women. The lowest class or ethnic group is the most exploited.
 Advent of capitalism and colonialism worsened the problems of third world
women. Women had double burdens, for example, subsistence agriculture,
childbearing, work outside the home, among other burdens.
 Money became the medium of exchange but women were not party of the money
economy. Women produced food and became totally dependent on men for cash
goods, for example, school fees, farming implements, furniture and loans among
others.
 Peasant economy marginalized women and made them powerless.
 Traditional structures were modified to fit into the capitalist system.
 Before independence in third world countries, the state reproduced gender, class
and race. After independence it reproduced class and gender. Women produced
and continue to produce for use value. The proponents of the approach see third
world women as producers whilst western women are consumers.
 Due to the diversities indicated above, women cannot speak with one voice even
in post –modernism because of race and class.
 The neo-colonial period has not improved women’s position, as they have no
access to technology and technological know-how. Third world women are
therefore alienated from technology and knowledge.
 Cultural constraints in the family further subordinate women.
 Capitalism and patriarchy therefore combine to exploit third world women.

Limitations
 The approach does not focus much on cultural constraints.
 Focus is mainly on capitalism and post-modernism.
 It does not explain subordinate position of women before the advent of capitalism.
 The approach ignores sexuality and reproduction (biology).
 It does not go deeper into the root causes of subordination of women.

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 Activity 3.4
 In what ways do you think the Third World Political Economy approach is a

critique of WID, WAD and GAD approaches?

 Does the approach, in your own opinion, sufficiently address the situation of
women and men in the developing world?

Conclusion
In this unit we have shown how focus initially was on women only as evidenced by the
WID and WAD approaches. The WID approach hoped to bring women into development
through providing them with opportunities for employment or engaging them in
incomegenerating projects. This would, as it were, remove them from the private sphere
into the public sphere. The WAD approach was arguing for publicizing women’s
concerns, and
bringing them into the policy arena. Criticisms of these approaches resulted in the Gender
and Development approach with its focus being mainly on the inequality in relations
between men and women. It goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well
being but also that the social and mental well being of a person is important. The GAD
approach goes beyond seeing development as mainly economic well being but also that
the social and mental well being of a person is important. It should also be noted that the
biggest contribution of GAD is the inclusion of men into the approach. The Third World
Economic Approach comes in as a critique of the first three approaches which tended to
focus on women in the developed world without articulating the concerns of women in
the third world. The approach brings in the part played by some women in perpetuating
gender inequality when these women connive with patriarchy to exploit, subordinate and
oppress young women in the third world.

References

Chiriga, J.S. (1998) Perspectives on the Beijing Policy Process in SADC in Southern
Africa in Transition: A Gendered Perspective. Harare; Sapes Books.

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Connelly, M.P., Murray, L.T., Macdonald, M. and Parpart, J.L. Feminism and
Development: Theoretical Perspectives. International Development Research Centre.
Accessed online 2005.

Gender! A Partnership of Equals, (2000) International Labour Office

Moser, C.O.N. (1993) Gender Planning and Development – Theory, Practice and
Training. London; Routledge.

Moyoyeta, L. (2004) Women, Gender and Development. Lusaka; Women for Change.

Overholt, C., Anderson, M., Cloud, K., and Austin, J., Eds. (1984). Gender roles in
development. West Hartford, Kumarian Press.

Rathgeber, E. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: trends in research and practice. Journal of
Developing Areas, 24 (4), 489-502.

Rostow,W.W. (1960) The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto.

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

UNIT 4

GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS AND TOOLS

by Nogget Matope

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4.0 Introduction

Gender analysis provides a basis for robust analysis of the differences between women
and men’s lives and this removes the possibility of analysis being based on incorrect
assumptions and stereotypes. In this unit we present a discussion on what is gender
analysis, why do gender analysis and the tools for gender analysis. The tools we will look
at are the Harvard Analytical framework, Moser Gender Planning framework and
Women Empowerment framework. Our approach in this unit will impress upon you to
adopt an appropriate and effective interpretation of gender issues from a gender
perspective as you tackle the various activities in the unit and continually relate the issues
to your own experiences in education, the workplace and the community.

4.1Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of the term gender analysis and explain its purpose
 Define and describe some gender analysis tools
 Use and apply different gender analysis tools to conduct a gender analysis to
various case studies and situations.

4.2What is Gender Analysis?

Gender analysis:
 Examines the differences in women’s and men’s lives, including those which lead
to social and economic inequity for women and applies this understanding to
policy development and service delivery. (gender/framework: 2006).
 Is concerned with the underlying causes of these inequities.
 Aims to achieve positive change for women and men.
 Is a tool to better understand the realities of women and men, boys and girls
whose lives are impacted by planned development.
 Is used to understand the culture, expressed in construction of gender identities
and inequities.
 Aims to uncover dynamics of gender differences across a variety of issues.
 Includes gender issues with respect to social relations, activities, access and
control over resources, services, institutions of decision –making and network of
power and authority.
 Identifies specifically how public policy affects women and men differently.
 It also brings to the fore these differences and to the attention of those who can
make a difference.
 It also provides an understanding of gender relations which include experiences of
women as distinct from men’s, how women are contributors and producers to the
community under review and ways in which women are subordinate to men
(http//www.snvword.org/cds/rgGEND 2006).

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  Aims to achieve equity rather than equality. Recognizes that women’s and men’s
lives, experiences, needs, issues and priorities are different. These vary according
to various factors such as marital status, ethnicity, income levels, and age among
others. This entails adopting different strategies to achieve equitable outcomes for
women and men and different groups of
women(gdrc.org.gender/framework:2006)

4. 3 Why do gender analysis?

* Information is essential for mainstreaming of gender at all levels from
formulation of national legislation and policy to planning and monitoring of
specific interventions.
* Gender based analysis should be a common thread woven from beginning to
end throughout entire policy not merely an additional heading or section in
briefing notes.
* It gives information on who performs what activities and at what levels-
household, community or national.
* It is important to correct unfairness- who owns what resources, who uses what
resources for what? Who has ultimate control of resources at different levels.
* To determine the different ways in which women and men do or do not benefit
from particular livelihoods interventions.
* Both qualitative and quantitative gender analytical research can be used to raise
awareness of gender issues, to inform policy makers, to provide material for
gender training and to monitor the differential impact of policy, project and
budget commitments on women and men.
* To highlight different responsibilities of women and men that might constrain
their participation in a project.

Activity 4.1 Gender based analysis

 Identify an issue that affects you as student at a university.
 What is the issue?
 Who says it is an issue?
 Why has it become an issue?
 How does your personal or professional background affect understanding of the
issue?
 How are the root causes perpetuated?
 What factors are influencing this issue?
 Does this issue require policy analysis or development?

You have successfully carried out gender based analysis by answering the above
questions which are often asked to identify or define policy issues. Your responses to the
above will assist you to identify different needs of women and men, their ability to
understand different stakeholders’ capacity to participate in any given intervention. It will
also assist you to identify major environmental factors (culture, religion, politics) which

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have critical influence and maybe responsible for maintaining the system of gender
differentiation and equity.

Activity 4.2
 Compare your responses to activity 4.1 with fellow student/s.
 How different or similar are your responses?
 What does that tell you about the needs/issues of women and of
men?(dependent on age, ethnicity, disability, marital status, sexual orientation
and whether they have dependents)

4.6Tools for gender analysis

Several development workers have come up with strategies of carrying out gender
analysis in development work or interventions. There are a number of gender analysis
tools available but this unit will focus only on three namely the Harvard Analytical
Framework, the Gender and Development (Moser) approach and the Women
Empowerment approach (Longwe). . However, other approaches such as the ABC of
Gender Analysis Framework (FAWE), Socio Economic and Gender Analysis (SEAGA),
Social Relations and Life Cycle approaches will not be looked at in this particular unit.

The Harvard Analytical Framework

The Harvard Analytical Framework also referred to as Gender Roles Framework or

Gender analysis framework was developed by the Harvard Institute for International
Development in 1985 in collaboration with the WID office of USAID. This approach is
based on the WID efficiency approach.( Remember you looked at his approach in the
preceding unit).

It is one of the earliest gender analysis and planning frameworks. The framework is a
useful data gathering tool that charts and organizes information and can be adapted to
many situations.

Features

The framework is originally outlined in Overholt, Anderson, Cloud and Austin

(1984).The framework consist of a matrix for collecting data at the micro (community
and household) level. It has four interrelated components which are explained as follows:

Tool 1: the Activity Profile

The activity profile answers the question ‘who does what’ and identifies all relevant
productive and reproductive tasks. For example a daily activity profile analyses different
roles and responsibilities of women and men based on description of their daily tasks
according to gender and age. You may also specify the percentage of time allocated to
each activity, whether it is carried out seasonally or daily and the location of the activity.
The following activity will assist you to use the activity profile in the table below:

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 Activity 4.3
 Choose a household in a particular location.
 List the main activities of the female and male members of the family.
 Draw up a 24 hour chart time schedule for the activities you have identified
allocating a specific amount of time to each activity.
Guiding questions for discussion:
 What is the significance of who does what in your household profile?
 How do perceptions of women and men differ towards each other’s activities,
roles and responsibilities?
 How do the schedules and workloads of women and men differ in a typical
rural household? How do they differ in an urban setting?

Example of Harvard tool: The activity profile(adapted from March et al 1999)

Activities Female Male Time

Women, girls Men, boys
Productive
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3
Activity 4
Reproductive
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3
Activity 4
Community linked role
Activity 1
Activity 2
Activity 3
Activity 4

Tool 2: Access and Control – Resources and Benefits

The access and control profile allows for detailed listing of the resources available to
people to carry out the tasks identified in the activity profile. It identifies whether it is
women or men who have access to resources, who control their use and who controls the
benefits that arise from their use (household or community level). March et al (1999:34)
say
“…access simply means that you are able to use a resource, but this says nothing
about whether you have control over it”.
For example, women may have access to land but little influence or control over which
issues to do with the land are discussed. The person who controls a resource is the one
ultimately able to make decisions about its use and whether it can be sold. For example,
in rural patriarchal Zimbabwe the land is controlled by the males and most women only

65
have access to it. Access to income does not always lead to increased control of assets
within the household, or to greater say in decision making in the household or wider
society. Below is a table showing access and control of resources and benefits by women
and men.

Example of Harvard tool 2: access & control profile

Control Control Access Access

women men women Men
Resources
Land/ property (include all
significant types of assets)
Employment (formal
&informal)l
Money & credit

Skills & technology (access to

&control over acquired skills
&technical facilities)
Education & training
Benefits

Activity 4.4
 Use the abovetable and place a tick or a cross if women and men have control
and access in the indicated resources.
 What does it tell you about access and control of resources?
 Who benefits more in terms of access and control of resources? Why?

Tool 3: influencing Factors

The influencing factors allow you to chart the differences in the gender division of labor,
access and control as listed in tools 1 and 2. By identifying constraints you will be able to
look for opportunities which will facilitate a more equal sharing of resources and more
involvement of women in development, projects and programs. It also helps to identify
past and present influences and can give an indication of future trends. The identification
of external constraints and opportunities assist you to anticipate what inputs you would
need to make the intervention successful. The following table identifies some of the
influencing factors, possible constraints and opportunities:

Table 4. Influencing factors

Influencing factors Constraints Opportunities

Cultural Early marriage, Lobbying women’s

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 polygamy, poverty groups, legal
parameters
Educational Institutional Legal interventions
structures, poverty, and acts, sponsorship
stereotypes, lack of and aid from agencies,
mobility and access, government priorities
discrimination
Economic Lack of political will, Financial assistance,
lack of funding, world external funding,
recession political will
Environmental Institutional Lobbying women’s
structures, legal groups, external
parameters, lack of funding
mobility, community
norms
Religious beliefs Stereotypes, Change in mindset
discrimination
Other

Tool 4:The Project Cycle Analysis

The project cycle is the fourth tool of the analysis framework. This consists of a series of
questions which are designed to assist you to examine a project proposal or an area of
intervention from a gender perspective, using gender disaggregated data and capturing
the different effects of social change on women and men (March et al, 1999). A number
of key questions are asked at each stage of the project cycle: identification, design,
implementation and evaluation.

Uses of the framework

 It is best suited for project planning rather than program or policy planning.
 As a gender –neutral entry point when raising gender issues with constituents
resistant to considering gender relations and power dynamics.
 For baseline data collection.
 In conjunction with Moser’s framework drawn on the idea of strategic gender
needs.

Strengths of the Harvard framework

 It is practical and hands on.
 Once data have been collected, it gives a clear picture of who does what, when
and with what resources. It makes women’s role and work visible.
 It distinguishes between access and control over resources.
 It can easily be adapted to a variety of situations and settings.
 It is relatively non-threatening as it relies on facts only.

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Potential Limitations
 It does not delineate power relations or decision making processes. It offers little
guidance on changing existing gender inequalities. It tends to result in gender-
neutral or gender specific interventions, rather than those that can transform
existing gender relations.
 It tends to oversimplify, based on the tick the boxes approach to data collection
and ignores complexities in the community which includes networks and
kinships. You only need to look at the dynamics of the Shona kinship ties.
 It is basically top- down planning tool and excludes women and men own analysis
of their situation
 It ignores underlying inequalities such as class, ethnicity and race, encouraging an
erroneous view of women and men as homogeneous categories.
 It emphasizes separation of activities and resources based on age, sex ignoring
connections and cooperative relations across these categories.
 The profile yields a somewhat static view of the community, makes no reference
to changes over time in gender relations.(adapted from Training Workshop and
trainers in Women, Gender and Development, June 9-21, 19996)
 It can encourage a simplistic yes/no approach by asking whether or not women
have access and control to resources. However, women’s experiences are a more
complex reality, for example, a women’s may have access to some village land,
and have partial control in that they can decide what crops to grow and how. It
may be left to elders to decide which plot to give the women. Looking simply at
access and control can also hide the bargaining processes which take place in
accessing the pieces of land (March et al 1999).

Activity 4.5
 Use the picture code of Mr. and Mrs. Moyo to carry out gender analysis using
the Harvard Analytical Framework
 Answer the questions on the picture code.

Moser’s Gender Planning Framework (the GAD approach)

Origins
This approach challenged traditional assumptions towards development work which
encouraged treating women’s issues as separate concerns, GAD approach argued for an
integrated gender- planning perspective. It was developed in the early 1980’s at
University of London, UK by Caroline Moser with Caren Levy. Moser (1993: 87)
distinguishes gender planning from traditional planning methods and says,
First, (gender planning) is both political and technical in nature. Second, it
assumes conflict in the planning process. Third, it characterizes planning debate

According to Moser, women as a group have their own particular needs that differ from
those of men as a whole. These needs are determined by the gender roles they perform.
GAD brought women to deliberate on women’s issues and allows for discussion by both
men and women about their relations and calls for transformation of relationships and

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structure which promote gender inequity. As a result it makes visible differences due to
class, race, age, ethnicity, disability and sexual orientation.

Features
The framework has three concepts:
 Women’ s triple role
 Practical and strategic gender needs
 Categories of WID/GAD policy approaches.

Moser tool 1: Gender Roles Identification

This tool includes making visible the gender visible the gender division of labor. It can be
carried out by mapping all the activities of women and men in the household over a 24
hour period. A triple role for low income women is identified by Moser, productive,
reproductive and community management roles:

Reproductive work
These are activities and tasks that involve the care for the household and community.
These include the care and education of children, fuel and water collection, food
processing and preparation, healthcare, housing and housekeeping. For most low income
or rural communities these activities are labor intensive, time consuming and is usually
the responsibility of girls and women.

Productive work
These are activities and tasks which involve the production of goods and services for
consumption or for sale on the market for example, crop and livestock production, formal
employment, self employment and marketing. Women and men can be engaged in
productive but their functions and responsibilities differ in most cases (March et al 1999).
Women carry visible and less valued than that of men.

Community management roles

These are activities and tasks that involve the collective organization of services and
social events for example ceremonies, community development activities, church
services, funerals, local political activities and resources used by everyone such as water,
heath care and education. Most of this work is carried out on a voluntary basis and is an
important aspect for the community’s spiritual and cultural development. Both women
and men engage in community activities, though a gender division of labor prevails here.
Moser divides community into work into two different categories namely, unpaid and
monetary rewards for work done.

For the community roles and activities women are unpaid and such work is carried out
during women’s ‘free time’ (March, 1999). On the other hand, men’s involvement in
such activities like politics brings in monetary rewards and benefits through improved
status and power. “Moser’s framework recognizes that women perform reproductive,
community management activities alongside productive, it makes visible work that tends
to be invisible” (March, 1999:57). It is therefore necessary to use the triple role analysis
in a planning framework as any development intervention in one area of work will affect

69
activities performed in the other two areas. For example, women’s reproductive workload
can prevent them from participating in development projects or if they do participate they
may spend less time on other tasks.

Moser tool 2: gender needs assessment

Moser distinguishes two types of gender needs practical gender needs and strategic
gender interests. Women and men can easily identify these as they often relate to living
conditions. Women may identify safe drinking water, food, healthcare, cash income as
immediate interests/ needs that they must meet. These needs are not specifically women’s
needs but the whole family’s needs, yet often women identify them as theirs because it is
their responsibility to families’ needs. Addressing practical gender needs improve
women’s lives but do not challenge the prevailing forms of subordination.

For Moser strategic gender interests are the needs that would enable women to transform
the existing imbalances of power between women and men. A strategic gender interest
begins with the assumption that women are subordinate to men as a consequence of
social and institutional discrimination against women. Addressing women’s strategic
position has to do with dismantling the whole spectrum of which women’s subordination
is rooted. Strategic gender needs vary in particular contexts and dismantling these may
entail delving into such issues as legal rights, discrimination, demanding equality in
political, cultural and economic spheres, domestic violence and equal pay. According to
March et al (1999:58) “meeting strategic gender needs helps women to achieve greater
equality and challenges their subordinate position, including their role in society”.

Moser tool 3: disaggregating control of resources and decision making within the
household

This tool asks the questions: who controls what? Who decides what? How? The Harvard
access and control profile enables you to note who is likely to benefit from
implementation of a project. The Moser framework looks at who has access and control
over resources (political, social, economic etc) although most women have access to the
fields as mentioned earlier, they do not have control over produce and income. Several
other factors are responsible for shaping and changing gender relations.

Moser tool 4: balancing of roles

This relates to how women manage the balance between their productive, reproductive
and community tasks. It asks whether planned intervention will increase a woman’s
workload in one role with consequences for her other roles.

Moser tool 5: WID/GAD policy matrix.

The WID/GAD policy matrix provides a framework for identifying or evaluating the
approaches that have been (or can) be used to address the triple role, and the practical and
strategic gender needs of women in programs projects. This therefore examines
interventions in light of WID/GAD approaches.
This examines interventions in light of WID/ GAD approaches.

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Moser tool 6: involving women and gender aware organizations and planners in
planning.
The aim of this tool is to ensure that practical and strategic gender needs are identified by
women ensuring that ‘real needs’ as opposed to perceived needs are incorporated into the
planning process.

Uses of the framework

 For planning at all levels from policies to projects.
 In conjunction with Harvard framework
 Training in gender issues to raise awareness of women’s subordination.

Strengths
 It moves beyond technical elements of planning
 It is easily applicable and accessible.
 It makes all the work visible and valuable to planners through concept of
triple roles.
 Distinguish between types of gender needs: those that relate to women’s
daily lives but maintain existing gender relations (practical gender needs)
and those potentially transform existing gender subordination ( strategic
gender needs).
 It challenges inequality and alerts to the possibility that not all
development projects to do with women do this.
 Moser framework helps you to think through the main policy assumptions
which are driving a particular project (Moser, 1993, March, 1999).

Limitations
 It does not mention other forms of inequality such as class, race or
ethnicity and does not examine change over time as variable. It is
static like the Harvard framework.
 Idea of gender roles obscures the notion of gender relationships
and can give a false impression of natural order and
equity.(http/www.gdrc.org/gender framework)
 Like Harvard, Moser framework emphasizes what women and men
do and resources available to them rather than focus on their
relationships, connectedness and not separateness.
 For some people the division between strategic and practical is
artificial as they argue that there is a continuum. Others argue that
all practical interventions affect women’s power and status even
when this is not factored into the planning process or recognized
by those involved in the project (Longwe, 1994).
 It is criticized for focusing on women’s strategic gender needs at
the expense of men who need to be taken on board.

Activity 4.6
Study the picture code of ‘the lie of the land’

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  Using the Moser framework, identify the needs of women and men in your
community.
 Identify the differences between the needs of women and men and categorize
them under practical and strategic needs.
 Discuss why do women do the women in the picture code say ‘ no we do not
work’ and show how the community can be sensitized to appreciate the
roles of women.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT FRAMEWORK

Sara Longwe and Robert Clarke in 1994, in Zambia developed women empowerment
framework as a response to the development workers perceived inability to understand
the issues and concerns of women in the Third World. Longwe argues that most of the
development work has concentrated on ensuring equality between women and men in
various sectors like education and employment. This has tended to leave women out of
the development process. For Longwe, “development means enabling people to take
charge of their own lives, and escape from poverty…” (March, 1999:92). The male
domination of government is preserved by women to serve male interests, where women
are given most of the work and men collect the rewards. Where men have vested interests
to continue to subordinate women its folly to expect them to realize the value of gender
equality and give women an equal share of the cake.

Features

The framework identifies five hierarchical levels in the empowering process. The extent
to which these are evident in any area of social or economic life determines the level of
women’s empowerment. Gender and development workers use the framework to analyse
development organizations’ degree of commitment to empowerment and equality of
women as they address/ look at the various ‘levels of equality’ addressed by a particular
intervention. The levels illustrate how discussion of inequality at one level leads into
discussion of inequality at other levels. The levels are interconnected illustrating that
empowerment is found in the movement from one level to another. The process of
empowerment maybe better understood in terms of the following five levels of ‘women
empowerment’ framework.

Welfare

Welfare is the lowest level and looks at women’s material welfare relative to men. At this
level one looks at whether omen have access to resources like food, income, medical

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care. If an intervention is confined to this level we are talking about women being given
these benefits rather than producing / acquiring such benefits for themselves. This is
zero level as most of the interventions focus on meeting the basic needs without the
wherewithal for enlightenment and empowering process.

Access

Access has been defined as ‘women’s access to factors of production on an equal footing
with male counterparts: equal access to land, labor, credit, training, marketing facilities,
public service and benefits (March, 1995). For example female farmers may improve
their production and general welfare by increased access to water, land, market, skills and
information. Women maybe ‘given’ information by higher authorities or increase their
own access. If it is the latter, then there is beginning of conscientisation, of recognizing
and analyzing their own problems and taking action to solve them. For Longwe, equality
of access can be obtained by applying the principle of equality of opportunity which calls
for reforms in laws and administrative practices to rid of all forms of discrimination.

Conscientisation

Conscientisation is the next level where there is conscious understanding of the

difference between sex and gender and an awareness that gender roles are cultural and
can be changed. Empowerment means sensitizing to beliefs of traditional division of
labor as God given and recognizing that women’s subordination is not part of natural
order of things but is imposed by discrimination. According to Paulo Freire
conscientisation calls for women becoming subjects and not objects of their own lives
coupled with the belief or brief that sexual division of labor should be fair and agreeable
to both, not overtly or covertly entail the domination of one sex by another. It is here we
see the potential and strategies of improved information as enabling process of
consciousness driven by women’ own need to understand underlying causes of their
problems and to identify strategies for action.

Participation /Mobilisation

Longwe defines this as women’s equal participation in decision making process, policy
making, planning and administration (March, 1995). Mobilization complements
conscientisation as women come together for recognition and analyzing problems,
identification of strategies to overcome discriminatory practices and collective action to
remove these practices. They may connect with larger women’s groups to learn about
their successes of women in similar situations.. At this level leadership is important in the
mobilization process. It is not a scenario where tokenism is at play but full involvement
and representation of the women constituency. Reflect on some of the projects in
Zimbabwe where it has been lauded that women are full participants- how have the
women’s participation been shortchanged?

Control/ Empowerment

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This calls for women’s control over the decision making process through conscientisation
and moblilization to achieve equality of control over the factors of production and
distribution of benefits. Equality of control means a balance of control between women
and men so that neither side dominates. Women have taken action so that there is gender
equality in decision making over access to resources- women have direct access to
resources no longer wait indefinitely to be given resources at men’s discretion for
example, a widow’s struggle to retain her property after husband’s death.

Women empowerment tool2: level of recognition of women’s issues

According to Longwe women’ issues are all issues concerned with women’s equality in
any social or economic role and involving any of the levels. An issue becomes a women’s
issue when it looks at the relationship between women and men rather than simply
women traditional and subordinate sex- stereotyped gender roles. Women empowerment
must be the concern of both women and men and the degree which a project is defined as
potentially empowering women is defined by the extent to which it addresses women’s
issues.

Longwe postulates three different levels of recognition of women’s issues in project

design:
 Negative level: at this level, the project objectives make no
mention of women’s issues. In some instances, women are
more likely than not left worse off than before by such a
project.
 Neutral level: project objectives recognize women’s issues,
but concerns remain that the project intervention does not
leave women worse off than before.
 Positive level: project objectives are positively concerned
with women’s issues and with improving the position of
women relative to men.

Uses of the framework

It is used or planning, monitoring and evaluation, allowing users to question whether

their interventions have transformatory potential.

Strengths of the framework

It shows that development interventions as containing both practical and strategic
elements.
It places emphasis on empowerment
It is useful to identify the gap between rhetoric and reality in interventions. It permits an
assessment of where women already have equality, and what still remains to be done.

Limitations
It is static and takes no account of how situations change over time.

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It does not include other forms of inequality.
It does not examine the institutions and organizations involved.
It does not examine the macro-environment.
It looks at the relationship between women and men only in terms of equality- rather than
at the complicated system of rights, claims and responsibilities which exist between them.

Activity 4.6
Read this case study and answer the questions that follow:

An engineering firm is given a contract to build a bridge in a small community and a new
road leading to a larger town kilometers away. This community is part of a group of
communities linked together by a network of markets. Women are the vendors and
buyers in these markets. They travel by foot with their wares on their heads and babies on
their backs, from market to market. the terrain is dangerous and precarious. Bridges are
often washed away during heavy rains.
The engineers from the firm are told that they must discuss the project with the
community to make sure it fulfills their needs. The engineers are also encouraged to
employ local people and train them in various skills. The firm meets with local officials
and, much negotiation, they agree on the number of people to be trained in the
construction of the bridge and bridge maintenance skills. The engineers and local
officials are especially proud that they have selected two young women to be included in
the training. The training is held and the bridge is finally built. It is connected to the new
road leading to the far away town.
Soon, however, it is noticed that most women are not using the new road. They are still
taking the dangerous footpath to cross the ravine and go to the market. Also, the women
trained in bridge maintenance seem after some months to lose interest in working on the
project.

Questions guiding the discussion

 Use the Women Empowerment Framework to conduct gender analysis of the
situation in the case study.
 Make assumptions /educated guesses if necessary. List things that might have
gone wrong with this project.
 Based on your analysis, make recommendations on how to revise the project for
more positive, gender- equitable outcomes.

Conclusion

In this unit we have looked at what is gender analysis and why we carry out gender
analysis. We have looked at three of the tools and frameworks for gender analysis. The
activities and tasks we have tackled have helped us to understand the gender differences
and inequalities that permeate most of the societies in which we live and how these
differences impact on women’s and men’s lives differently. Gender based analysis has
also helped us to analyse the division of labor between women, access and control over

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resources and benefits as well as the different but significant needs and interests of
women and men among other issues. Gender analysis provides information which is
qualitative and quantitative on gender relations, creates understanding and awareness of
existing gender issues at the level of development workers, community researchers and
planners. The following unit on gender issues will further assist you in understanding the
implications of different issues on women and men.

References

Kabeer , N. (1994)Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought,

Verso. London

Kabira, W. M. & Smyth, I and Mukhopadhyay, M. (1999)A Guide to Gender Analysis

Frameworks. Oxfam.

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Molyneux, M. (1981) Women’s Emancipation Under Socialism a Model for the Third
World. IDS Discussion paper DP157 Sussex Institute of Development Studies

Moser, C. (1993) Gender Planning and Development:: Theory, Practice and Training.
Routledge. London

http: www.gdrc.org/gender/framework/ (11/29/2006)

ILO/ SEAPAT’s Online Gender Learning and Information module (12/1/2006)

UNIT FIVE

GENDER ISSUES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA.

By Tenson Tawanda Mugodzwa

Introduction

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This unit focuses on culture, religion and poverty as inter related concepts in the social
construction of gender inequality. Each concept is defined, followed by an exploration
of how the concept plays a role in creating gender inequality.

Objectives

By the end of the unit you should be able to:

 Define and explain the concepts culture, religion and poverty
 Show the extent to which each of the concepts creates gender inequality
 Suggest intervention strategies that could be instituted to mitigate gender
inequalities caused by the three gender issues.

Culture and Gender Inequality

Culture may be defined as the beliefs, values, behaviour, and material objects shared by a
particular group (Macionis, 1989). In its broadest sense, culture may be viewed as
everything that is socially learned and shared by a group of people in society.

Religion and Gender Inequality

In this section we look at religion and how it perpetuates gender inequality. From the
onset, we need to point out that religion as a concept is not only complex, but very
controversial. This is because of the nature of the subject itself and the current isms and
schisms emanating from the current trends in the heated debate about religion. We also
need to appreciate that the world in general and countries in SADC in particular, are
made of different societies with diverse societies, beliefs and religions.

ACTIVITY 5.1
1. What is your religion? What influenced you to believe in this religion?
2. What other religions do you know?
3. If there is one God, why do we have different religions
4. Why do people believe in different religions?

From the task above, we can note that the debate on religion is indeed controversial. In
real practice, it is enormously difficult to separate religion from culture as the two are
intertwined social institutions serving the same purpose in society, that of indoctrination,
mental colonization, and the creation of a docile, passive and loyal member of a given
society (Rodney, 1981)

In modern day Zimbabwe, it is difficult to discuss the issue of religion without making
reference to Christianity. This is because Zimbabwe is made up of people of diverse
background with different cultural beliefs, and the majority of them is Christians or claim
to be Christians in one way or another. This makes the discussion very controversial, for

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both the reader and the writer are bound to be regarded as blasphemous, for people are
going to ask ‘’ who are we to undo what God the Almighty has put in place. ‘We need to
also acknowledge that it is written in the Bible that ‘’the fear of God[and what He has put
in place ] is the beginning of wisdom.’’[Proverbs 1;7].It is against this background that
the discussion shall largely draw examples from the Christian perspective, although not
ignoring the traditional perspective and its controversies perse.

Haralambos and Holborn [1995] noted that, in the Bible, Original Sin in the Garden of
Eden was woman’s. She tasted the forbidden fruit [alone, we assume], tempted Adam [in
his great God-given wisdom, we assume], and has been paying for it ever since. In
Genesis 3; 16 the Lord said, ‘’ I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in
sorrow thou shalt bring forth children [alone, we assume], and thy desire shall be to thy
husband, and he shall rule over thee’’.Such is the way females are subordinated through
religion in most Zimbabwean societies and the world over.

ACTIVITY 5.9.
Explain, giving examples how the above quotation leads to the subordination of
females by males in the church, the family and the society in general. What can
be done to liberate women from this dominant position in society?

From the activity above, you may have noticed that the quotation is a ‘mythological
justification for the subordinate position of women in society’ [Haralambos and Holborn,
2004; 92]. Most people might see the ‘reality’ it contains of their relationship with their
spouse[s] as an accurate description of their status, that is;

1. Females are child-bearers[child-bearing machines, child-breeders, or are they?]

2 Females are mothers and housewives
3 Females do the cooking, cleaning, sewing, and washing[domestic/household chores]
4 Females take care of males and are subordinate to male authority
5 Females are largely excluded from high-status occupations and from positions of
power.

The above generalizations about females have applied, and continue to be applied to most
known societies. Research in Zimbabwe and the world over has revealed that there is not,
and never has been, a society in which females do not have an inferior status to that of
males. From the discussion, it is evident that religion is one social institution, which
leads to women inferiority and the general subordination of females.

ACTIVITY 5
1. Which sex makes up the majority of church- goers? What could be the reason?
2. Who occupies positions of leadership in most churches between males or females?
3. What measurers may be put in place to ensure that females also participate in
decision-making in churches?

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RELIGION AND THE SOCIAL REPRODUCTION OF INEQUALITY

The role of religion as a pacifier to social injustices has been hotly debated. For example,
the gap between the so-called developed and underdeveloped countries has increased by
at least twenty times over the last 150 years [Rodney, 1981]. To explain this disparity,
one bourgeois economist deliberately ignored the historical context and made everything
appear God-given about the situation and put forward the following Biblical explanation;

‘ For unto everyone that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance [when others
are starving], but from him that hath not shall be taken away even that which
hath[Mathew 25;29, cited in Rodney;1981;29].
The above illustrates one way in which religion may be used to reproduce and justify
social inequality. From the discussion, it may be observed that religion, like any other
social institution, serves the interests of those in power and must be seen as a mechanism
to maintain order, harmony, stability and the status quo. This scenario is clearly portrayed
in Rodney’s [1981] assertion that the church’s role is primarily to preserve discrimination
and social inequality by stressing humility, docility and acceptance. Rodney [1981]
argues that during the days of slavery, the church was brought in on condition that it
would not excite African slaves with doctrines of equality before God. In those days
slaves were taught to sing ‘All things were bright and beautiful, and that the slave master
was to be accepted as God’s work just like the slave living in a miserable hovel and
working 20 hours a day under the whip. Similarly, in colonial Africa churches could be
relied upon to preach turning the other cheek in the face of exploitation, and they drove
home the message that everything would be right in the next world, what Lenin implied
when he commented that ‘religion is the opium of the poor.’ All this is evidence that
religion may be used to maintain social inequality.

Commenting on the status of females during the height of colonial rule in Africa, Rodney
[1981] noted that, what happened to African women under colonialism is that the social,
religious, and political privileges and rights disappeared, while the economic exploitation
continued and was often intensified. It was intensified because the division of labour
according to sex was frequently disrupted. Traditionally, African men did the heavy
labour of felling trees, clearing land, etc. When they were required to leave their farms to
seek employment, women remained over-burdened with every task necessary for the
survival of themselves,the children and even the man as far as foodstuffs were
concerned. Since men entered the money sector more easily and in large numbers than
women, women’s work became greatly inferior to that of men with the new value system
of colonialism: men’s work was ‘modern’ and women’s work ‘traditional’ and
‘ Backward’ (Rodney, 1981).

The above discussion has tried to put religion in the gender analysis perspective. Next
let’s try to explore how religion serves to maintain and perpetuate gender inequality. First
the definition of religion shall be given.

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What is religion?
Like the family, the religious institution is exceedingly complex. Chalfant and Labeff
(1988) view religion as a social institution concerned with the ultimate meaning of life
with the answers to questions that are unanswerable by natural means, such as death,
illness tragedy, or the feeling of powerlessness. In other words religious beliefs and
practices provide seem to answers and consolation when we encounter experiences we do
not recognize and questions we cannot answer. You can imagine the prayers we have
made (of course in privacy) before a dreaded examination or job interview or upon the
death of a loved one.

Religion and Gender Inequality

Macionis (1989), Chalfant and Labeff (1988) have all observed that religion plays a
significant part in the perpetuation of gender inequality. Christianity in particular has
been a major force in the support of the traditional female roles. It has been noted that the
Old and New Testament both reveal support for the traditional, subservient role of
women (Rodney 1981). In the Old Testament, for example women are frequently defined
as the property of males (Driver cited in Chalfant and Labeff 1988). One of the Ten
Commandments forbids coveting the wife of a neighbour in the same way that it forbids
coveting the other property of a neighbour.In this particular case, women are viewed as
the private property of men.

ACTIVITY 5.11
1. Why do men marry?
11. Why do women get married?
111. Are married people ‘properties’ of their spouses? Explain giving reasons.

The subordinate position of women in society is evident in passages from many of the
sacred writings of major world religious. Macionis (1989) observed that the Koran- the
sacred text of Islam- asserts that males are to have social dominance over women.

“Men are in charge of women…hence good women are obedient ….As for those
rebelliousness you fear, admonish them, banish them from your bed, and scourage them
(Kaufman, cited in Macionis, 1989: 432).

Christianity, which is the dominant religion in Zimbabwe, also supports patriarchy.

Although Mary the mother of Jesus is highly revered within Christianity, the New
Testament contains the following passages.

“A man…is the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man. For man was
not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for woman, but

81
woman for man ( 1 Corinthians 11: 7-9) This clearly illustrates that religion portrays
females as not only subordinate to males but rather as sex objects meant whose sole
purpose is to satiate the appetite and pleasure of males. Females therefore are view

ed as second class citizens, not only to be dominated by males, but to please them as
well.. This is further evidenced by the following passage:

‘As in all churches of the saints, the women should keep silence in the churches. For they
are not permitted to speak, but should be subordinate, as even the law says. If there is
anything they desire to know let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a
woman to speak in church.’(1 Corinthians 14:33-35).

It can be noted from the above passage that the public sphere is for males, while females
are destined for the private sphere, and religious sympathizers are quick to subtly justify
patriarchy by arguing that God’s word should not be questioned. Such thinking
subsequently maintains the status-quo as females are confined to their traditional
feminine roles. This is further elaborated in the following passage:

‘Wives, be subject to your husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the
wife as Christ is the head of the church…as the church is subject to Christ, so let wives
also be subject in everything to their husbands’ (Ephesians 5: 22-24).

It is evident from the ongoing discussion that religion is an integral social institution in
the construction and perpetuation of gender stereotypes and inequalities. This is revealed
in the following passage:
‘A capable wife who can find? She is far more precious than jewels. The heart of her
husband trusts in her… She does him good, and not harm, all the days of her life… and
works with willing hands… She brings food… she rises while it is still night and provide
food for her household’ (Proverbs 31:10-15).

The above passage clearly illustrates females’ subordinate position and the reproductive
roles they undertake in the home and the wider society. .Maybe this explains why females
at whatever age wake up earlier than their male counterparts, especially in the
Zimbabwean context. By the time males and other children wake up , they are certain to
find their bathing water warm and their food ready on the table. And to justify that the
public sphere is for males, consider the following passage:

‘Her husband is known in the city gates, taking his seat among the elders of the land’
(Proverbs 31:23).

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Such is the situation in most Zimbabwean families house holds w here the females are
confined to their traditional reproductive roles in the private sphere, and males are under
perpetual societal pressure to participate in the public sphere

CONCLUSION

This part of the unit has attempted to highlight the role played by religion in not only
constructing but maintaining gender inequality.

GENDER AND THE WORK PLACE

INTRODUCTION

Sex stratification has had mostly negative effects for women, the work world remains
designed for men and tends to benefit men (LaBeff, 1988).Henceforth, in this section we
look at gender inequality at the workplace. Although women have moved into the paid
labour force in large numbers in Zimbabwe, they continueto experience a wide range of
discriminatory practices.
Activity 5.

(1) Enumerate the various ways in which women are discriminated against at the
work place in your country.
(2) Suggest some long-lasting solutions to these discriminatory practices

From the activity above, you may have realized that in spiteof the major strides made to
bring about gender harmony at the work place in Zimbabwe, women still experience
various prejudices. These range from income inequality to employers unwillingness to
hire them or unable to believe that they are capable. Women continue to shoulder the
overload of performing demanding jobs on top of being wives and mothers. They
continue to struggle to provide adequate economic support as single parents, and they
face sexual harassment on the job.

Of these problems, the issue of income inequality has received greater attention. Because
women predominate in low-paying clerical and service jobs and men in the higher-paying
positions in business and professions, men continue to earn much more than women.
Even within the same occupation, the average salary of women is always lower than the
average salary for men(Macionis,1989).

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ACTIVITY 5.21
 Identify factors responsible for the income disparity between males and females
in Zimbabwe.
 For each identified factor, suggest a possible remedy.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INCOME DISPARITY BETWEEN

MALES AND FEMALES

From the activity, it maybe observed that several factors are responsible for the income
disparity between the two sexes. As you may have established, males and females tend to
hold different occupations, and this fact strongly benefits men. Most women work in
low-paying , dead-end service jobs ,such as waitressing and clerical positions. Men on
the other hand , dominate high-paying managerial jobs such as Company Secretary,
Executive, or Director. Less than one-forth of all professional, managerial, and technical
jobs are held by women, and most of these are in school-teaching (Richardson,1981).

Women in traditionally masculine professionals are often referred to in terms of their

gender: for example, lady lawyer, female physician- just as men in traditionally feminine
jobs are referred to in terms of their gender-E.G.: male nurse. It has also been noted that
women are rarely found in higher –paying blue-collar jobs such as carpentry, masonry,
and other crafts. The majority of women in Zimbabwe are employed in traditionally
feminine occupations such as secretary(not Permanent Secretary),
nurse,receptionist,typist,and office orderly.The salaries for such jobs are pathetically low
in Zimbabwe and are far much lower than masculine jobs of doctor, dentist, and
professor.etc. A critical analysis of the situation reveals that even in the same occupation,
women on average do not make as much as men.

ACTIVITY 5.23
 What reasons could be used to explain the above situation?

 Suggest some solutions to alleviate the identified factors?

One major reason to this scenario is that male workers have somewhat better educational
qualifications than their female counterparts. In short, the higher the educational
qualifications, the closer women come to making as much as men. But despite this
observation, the gap still remains in every occupational field.

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Activity 5.24

(1) Suggest reasons to explain this gap.

(2) Also put forward solutions to each identified reason.

As you may have observed, this income gap may be partially explained by several
factors. First, women tend to be newer entrants into fields such as law, medicine and
lecturing, and have yet to reach positions of seniority and better pay. Second, some
women work on an intermittent basis, shaping their jobs or careers to fit with their
husbands’ jobs and with bearing and rearing children. Some women drop out of the
labour force while their children are young: when they go back to work, they will have
lost several months or years that would have gone towards advancement and have lost
seniority to others younger than them. Third, men are more likely than women to have
jobs that permit overtime and part- time work, which further increases their income.

Finally, the issue of discrimination on the part of employers and institutions cannot be
over- looked. Women may be discriminated against in the hiring phase by being offered
lower –level jobs than equally qualified men are offered. Moreover, women maybe
passed over for promotion a number of times in favour of men who may better suit the
traditional image of the business or occupation. Employers may feel that women are less
able and therefore are not willing to pay them higher salaries. Although laws have been
passed to make such forms of discrimination illegal, those laws are often not rigorously
enforced. In most cases, the women involved must take the time and spend money for a
lawsuit before a company is forced to change informal practices of sex discrimination.

As women move into traditionally masculine jobs, they also face potential resentment for
upsetting the status-quo, or for contradicting accepted notions regarding gender role
stereotypes. In the ZRP\ZNA EG; men may react to women entering patrol with
resentment and hostility. The man may fear that they are in more physical danger when
working with a female partner or when a female partner responds as a back-up to a crisis
situation. Martin (1980) found that women police/ army officers are pressured into
feeling a sense of inferiority by a variety of verbal and non-verbal cues, including phrases
used to describe them, joking, gossip, traditional gender role etiquette, and sexual
harassment. Such negative male reactions act as barriers to full acceptance and co-
operation, and are perhaps the most serious problems faced by female officers in
particular and female workers in general.

Conclusion
The experience of women in the paid labour force is but one instance of our society’s
overall devaluation of women. Schur(1984) suggests that women experience systematic
inferiorisation in society,which then becomes self-fulfilling and self-perpetuating.
However, despite the obstacles created by sex stereotypes at the work place, women have

85
made considerable gains in the Zimbabwean society. Of late we have seen the first
woman in the Zimbabwean Presidium, the first women officer cadets , the first women
Vice Chancellors, Permanent Secretaries, ministers,etc, but still, more needs to be done to
see w omen in decision- making positions in companies, organizations and professions.

5.5.0 GENDER AND HIV/AIDS

5.5.1 INTRODUCTION

AIDS/HIV has , in a period of just one and a half decades, reached unprecedented crisis
levels in Zimbabwe. It is estimated that up to 25% of people aged between 15 and 49
years are infected with HIV in Zimbabwe(GOZ,1999). This section therefore examines
the issue of HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe with particular reference to women and children , as
they are the most vulnerable in the Zimbabwean society due to a number of reasons some
of which are the subject of this discussion.
Gender analysis suggests that slightly more males than females are infected with
HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe(UNICEF,1994). However , the current situation shows that
women and girls are disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS in
Zimbabwe(UNICEF,2003). According to UNIAIDS(2004), nearly 50% of the 38 million
people living with HIV /AIDS globally are females. On average, there are 13 women
living with HIV/AIDS for every 10 men(UNICEF,1994), and the gap continues to grow.
In most countries, women are being infected with HIV/AIDS at earlier ages than men.
Recent studies show that there are on average 36 young women living with HIV/AIDS
for every 10 young men(UNAIDS,2004).

.
Activity 5.25
(1)What makes women more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection in your country?
(11) What measures may be put in place to alleviate the problem?

5.5.2. WHY WOMEN ARE MORE VULNERABLE HIV/AIDS

5.5.2.1 Biological vulnerability

According to UNICEF (1994), women can far more easily become infected through
penetrative sex than men, and vaginal and/or anal sex is much more risky than other
modes. To explain this situation, Gender linksand the AIDS Law Project (2004) came up
with the following reasons;

 The vagina and anus have larger areas of exposed and sensitive skin
 The virus can survive for longer in the vagina and the anus than on the surface of
the penis

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  There is a higher viral load of HIV/AIDS in the semen than there is in the fluids
of the vagina or anus
 The vaginal and anal walls are much more likely to be ruptured during vaginal or
anal sex, especially if the sex is violent or coercive or when a woman is very
young and the cervix is not yet fully developed. Cuts, scrapes, and bruises allow
easy access for the HIV/AIDS VIRUS into the blood stream.
5.2.2.2 Socio-Economic Status
In Zimbabwe, AIDS appears to be present among the professional elite and could result
in severe disruption in administrative and economic activities. At the same time , as a
virus that thrives on poverty ( UNICEF,1994 ), HIV/AIDS is likely to advance to its
terminal stage fastest among the most disadvantaged economic groups who have a poor
nutritional status and little access to social services such as health and education . With
fewer opportunities in the formal and informal sectors, more and more women may resort
to selling sex for an income, putting them at greater risk of infection. This situation is
particularly rampant among female university students in Zimbabwe.

ACTIVITY 5.18
(1)Who is more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS male or female students in Zimbabwean
universities?
(11) What could be done to reduce their vulnerability?

UNAIDS(2004) FOUND OUT THAT;

 Women may be unable to negotiate safer sex or the use of condoms. Marriage
does not protect women from HIV/AIDS infection because more than four-fifth s
of new infections in women result from their husbands or primary partners.
 Women in Zimbabwe are mostly economically dependent on their husbands’ or
partners and fear rejection and/or violence if they insist on condom use
 Poverty undermines women’s opportunities to seek the knowledge , power or time
to be concerned about safer sex
 Women are expected to bear children to demonstrate their fertility and fulfill their
roles as mothers
 Because women are traditionally perceived as care-givers the ‘burden’ of care that
the HIV/AIDS epidemic has created more frequently falls to women than men
 Women and young girls may use sex as a commodity in exchange of goods ,
services , money, accommodation or even status. This situation is rampant in
Zimbabwean universities and tertiary colleges , more often than not with older
men.

ACTIVITY 5.19

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What measures may be adopted by the Zimbabwean Government to curb
the rise of HIV/AIDS infection in general, and among female students in
tertiary colleges?

CONCLUSION

The issue of HIV/AIDS vis-a- vis gender equality needs serious consideration from all
stake- holders and the Government if gender equality is to be a reality rather than an
elusive myth in Zimbabwe. This calls for focused attention on developmental policies
and processes with a ‘human face’ if we are to achieve the objectives of the Zimbabwe
National Gender Policy and curb the increasing rise of HIV/AIDS infection .

POVERTY AND GENDER

INTRODUCTION

This part of the unit looks at poverty in relation to gender issues in Zimbabwe. We begin
by looking at the various dimensions of poverty.

WHAT IS POVERTY?

Defining poverty is not an easy task. With the constantly changing features of the modern
economy as well as the conceptions of what is necessary and what is not in modern life,
it is difficult to establish who is considered poor.

Although poverty always signifies deprivation(Brym,1995), the concept is commonly

used in two different ways, relative poverty and absolute poverty. According to
Haralambos and Holborn (2004), relative poverty refers to a state of deprivation of social
resources in relation to some standard of greater privilege.
ACTIVITY 5.12

(1) In Zimbabwe, is there equal access to social resources such as land, capital and
technology?
(2) What can be done to ensure that equal access to resources is achieved?
(3) Do men and women access resources equally in Zimbabwe?
(4) What measures may be implemented to achieve equal access to resources
between the two sexes in Zimbabwe?

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From the exercise above it may be noted that there are disparities in accessing social
resources in Zimbabwe based on race, ethnicity, social class and gender. This implies
deprivation of vital resources useful for social mobility. A much more serious matter is
absolute poverty, which means a state of deprivation of social resources that is life-
threatening (Haralambos and Holborn,2004). Being in a state of absolute poverty is not a
matter of comparing oneself with others, rather, it means that survival itself is in doubt.
Judging by the current Zimbabwean situation, most families , both urban and rural fall
into this category of poverty, where they survive on either two meals, or worse still on
one , that is ,if it is there at all.

ACTIVITY 5.13

(1) What constitutes poverty in Zimbabwe?

(2) How can levels of poverty be reduced in Zimbabwe

POVERTY AND GENDER

Poverty does not affect males and females equally. Consequently, growing attention has
been directed towards the ferminisation of poverty which means ‘ a trend by which
females represent an increasing proportion of the poor (Macionis,1989:273).

ACTIVITY 5.14.

(1) Is the above quotation a true reflection of the situation in Zimbabwe?

(2) What could be the possible reasons for this situation?
(3) Suggest possible solutions to alleviate the situation.

From the activity above, we may notice that the majority of poor Zimbabweans are
females. The problem of poverty is most serious for women who are the heads of house
holds (UNICEF,1994). They often have the financial burden of raising children, and if
working, the majority typically hold low-paying jobs. This leaves them vulnerable to
prostitution as they struggle to make ends meet.

ACTIVITY 5.15

(1) What are the major causes of prostitution in Zimbabwe/

(2) Who is more vulnerable to prostitution in Zimbabwe ,males or females?
(3) What could be the possible reasons for this?

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Zimbabwe has experienced serious macro-economies instability with limited foreign
exchange, rising inflation and negative growth since 2000 (UNICEF 2003). This scenario
has led to increased poverty among many Zimbabwean households increasing poverty
continues to seriously undermine the country’s ability to ensure adequate access to
quality basic services that include health and education. This has resulted in the increased
vulnerability of children and females as they find themselves excluded fro growth and
development. Consequently because of poverty, some females married or not, find
themselves as small houses as they struggle for survival. The most hard hit are children of
the poor particularly the girl child. These depend on the resource allocation decisions of
adults who often cannot properly feed and clothe themselves in the current Zimbabwean
context. According to UNICEF 2003, children of unmarried mothers especially
unmarried adolescent mothers may be particularly disadvantaged because of their
mothers’ immaturity, poor social position and educational deficiencies. Poor children
especially girls are disadvantaged by the lack of continuity as they often assume the adult
roles of caring for younger siblings and working including engaging in child labour and
commercial sex thereby exposing themselves to HIV/AIDS.

The Impact of Poverty

Poverty has had negative effects on the Zimbabwean society, with a profound impact on
women who must see that their families are fed. The inflationary pressures and high cost
of basic commodities has torn many families apart. Stunting chronic under- nutrition has
been on the increase. A deficiency and anaemia have remained a perennial problem with
about 31% of women of child-bearing age affected (UNICEF, 2003). The rise in hospital
and medical fees has affected access to health-seeking status for children and women in
Zimbabwe. The effects of HIV/AIDS and the related demands on the health sector have
compounded the situation.
The effects of poor or inadequate access to quality basic social services are wide-ranging.
Indications are that school enrolment and retention of teachers and medical experts have
declined over the last couple of years, particularly because of the increase in poverty and
effects of fees and other related costs. Such a situation makes the poor females vulnerable
to abuse.

CONCLUSION

Unequal access to socio-economic resources is a major cause of poverty in Zimbabwe.

Inequality has continued to be severe particularly in relation to income, access to credit,
land and other vital productive assets (UNICEF, 2003).Equally significant as a cause of
poverty has been the HIV/AIDS pandemic. HIV/AIDS has undermined most families’
ability to secure stable incomes and expand their asset bases. The relationship between
poverty and HIV/AIDS is controversial and debatable, but poverty causes people,
especially young women to engage in sexual activities to alleviate their financial

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problems. Poverty remains a serious impediment to gender equity and equality, and it
remains the greatest challenge the Government and stake holders need to address if
equality between the two sexes is to be achieved in Zimbabwe.

References

Brym, R. ed.(1995) New Society: Sociology of the twenty first century.Toronto: Harcourt
Brace Canada

Chalfant H.P. and LaBeff E.E. (1988)Understanding People and Social Life:
Introduction to Sociology. St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Company.

Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M [1995]Sociology: Themes and Perspectives

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[Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. ( 2004) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives

Macionis, J.J. (1989) Sociology: Second Edition Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Rodney, W. ( 1981) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle L’Ouverture

Publications

Schur, E. (1984) Labeling women deviant: gender, stigma and social control.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

UNAIDS (2004). 2004 Report on the global AIDS epidemic. Geneva: UNAIDS

UNICEF,(1994) The State of the World’s Children 1994. UNICEF: Paris.

UNICEF 2003)The State of the World’s Children 2003 UNICEF: Paris.

UNIT 6 : GENDER ISSUES IN EDUCATION IN ZIMBABWE

Tenson Tawanda Mugodzwa

Discussion Questions

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1. Critically examine “the part played by schooling in the socialization of young girls
and thus in determining their occupational choices and eventual level of
achievements” (Mahoney: 1985:11)

- Particular attention should be given to aspects of the hidden curriculum, e.g.

the portrayal of women in textbooks, the classroom/school
climate/environment, curricular vis-à-vis teacher attitudes and expectations,
and career choice.

2. Schools are partriarchal institutions, which have served, and continue to save to
perpetuate women’s subordinate position in society” (Lemmer; 1993;7) . Critically
assess the validity of this statement.
3. Assess the role played by the hidden curriculum in the creation and perpetuation of
gender stereotypes and gender inequality, in Zimbabwe educational institutions.

6.o ITNRODUCTION

 In all societies and at all times the education of girls and women has been
considered less important and has assumed a different form from the education of
boys and men (Gilbert and Taylor, 1994).
 Social scientists have of late begun to reappraise the role played by the school in
determining the status and life outcomes of women.
 It has now become pertinent to analyse the way in which educational practices
and processes shape women’s social and educational inequality. This involves
examining the process of education and activities in schools rather than the
outcome of that education. In this unit, we look at gender issues in education in
Zimbabwe ,focusing on how females are discriminated in the various subtle ways
in the school system.

6.1 OBJECTIVES

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BY THE END OF THIS UNIT, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

 Explain giving examples, the various ways in which the girl child is
discriminated against in the school system.
 Discuss the role played by the hidden curriculum in the social reproduction
of gender inequality in Zimbabwe.
 Examine the part played by schooling in socializing the girl child and thus
determine her occupational choices and eventual achievement.
 Suggest some recommendations towards a gender responsive environment in
schools in Zimbabwe


6.2 The school as an agent of socialization

 The school is seen as a formal agent of gender role socialization (Dekker and
Lemmer,1993). Gender role socialization refers to the means whereby social
expectations regarding gender – appropriate characteristics are conveyed to the
child. These expectations are usually based on stereotyped beliefs. Gilbert and
Taylor (1994) conclude that gender role socialization has a dual significance for
children ;

i. It provides them with a model for present behaviour , and

ii. It prepares them for adult life.

 Gilbert and Taylor (1994) also noted that differential gender role socialization for
boys and girls occurs largely through the processes of formal schooling and the
effects thereof are best discerned in,;

i. unequal educational outcomes e.g. the different patterns of achievement

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 ii. aspiration and self evaluation shown by males and females.

ACTIVITY 6.1
What reasons may be used to explain the usually unequal educational outcomes between
boys and girls in Zimbabwe? Suggest solutions to alleviate the unequal outcomes.

The Curriculum

The school transmits culture to its learners in the form of knowledge and skills which
together with aims of the school and education system as a whole, are detailed in the
official curriculum.

 The school curriculum operates on two levels,

i. intentional and official and

ii. unintentional and unexamined, which is called the hidden
curriculum.

 While it is possible that the transmission of culture which takes place in schools
via the curriculum can improve the life chances of the disadvantaged, it can also
perpetuate existing class, racial and gender divisions in society (Haralambos and
Holborn, 2004). In this respect the hidden curriculum is recognized as a potent
agent in communicating gender appropriate behaviour

Toys

Toys are an important means of informal learning, particularly during the pre-primary
phase of schooling. Research findings show that “masculine toys were found to be more

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varied, complex, active and social and encouraged spatial, mathematical and scientific
skills whereas feminine toys were simpler, and focused on passive and solitary activity”
(Lemmer; 1993;10). Kelly (1981:1981) and Samuel (1981) similarly found that toys
which orientate a child to mathematics and science are marketed virtually exclusively for
boys.

Learning and Resource materials

A major source of unintentional teaching and learning about gender roles takes place
through educational materials and media. According to Gilbert and Taylor (1991)
textbooks present limited portrayals of women and girls and although attempts have since
been made to reverse this trend, more recently published school textbooks are still narrow
in their representation of gender roles.

Textbooks

Preschool and primary school textbooks especially basic reading books, provide children
with models against which they measure their own parents and also provide models of
acceptable behaviour. Mostly males are portrayed in a variety of occupations whereas
female occupations are confined either to FANTASY ROLES, such as witch and
princess, or to a narrow list of traditional female roles, such as housewife, mother and
nurse. A more recent publishing date does not necessarily signify an end to gender
stereotyping.

- Secondary school textbooks have also been criticized for their unbalanced
portrayal of women. The main charge against history books is that women,
their social history and their achievements are conspicuous by their absence
(Lemmer, 1987).

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 - Although Mathematics and Science are traditionally considered to be
impersonal and even neutral subjects, analyses of textbooks used in schools
have shown a qualitative and quantitative difference in their portrayal of men
and women. Women are associated with stereotyped occupations,
illustrations favour males, books frequently refer to the students exclusively as
“he” and texts suggest that Science and Mathematics represent a male
preserve (Killy, 1981). Moreover, according to Bazler and Simonis (1992),
editions of science texts published in the 1980s show no significant
improvement in the portrayal of women.

Teachers

Teacher attitudes, teacher expectations and the positions occupied by male and female
teachers within the school hierarchy are important components of the hidden curriculum
and contribute to the way in which children perceive themselves.

Teacher Expectations

Teacher expectations of pupils’ performance and abilities can operate as a self fulfilling
prophecy within the classroom, i.e. there is a tendency for the performance of the pupil to
conform with the expectations prescribed by the teacher.

 Unspoken assumptions about gender roles and the attitudes towards women
maintained by teachers have a potent influence on the gender role socialization of

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 male and female pupils. Research suggests that in spite of the professed
egalitarian ideals of some teachers, educators often act according to sub-conscious
prejudices in the classroom (Stanworth, 1983). Consider the following aspects as
illustration;

Behaviour

Teachers generally consider girls to be appreciative, calm, cooperative and sensitive but
less independent, creative and autonomous than boys in the classroom. Pupils who do
not measure up to the teacher’s gender expectations are considered deviant. Teachers
also cherish implicit expectations about the social roles that males and females should
play both in the classroom and in adult life e.g. teachers expect girls to enter subordinate
occupations and to have their careers disrupted by marriage and they communicate these
expectations to pupils.

Achievements

Teachers believe boys to be more logical and quicker to grasp concepts; girls to be neater
and more precise at written work. This is clearly illustrated by Spender’s (1982) study in
which teachers on five occasions and in three countries were issued report cards which
sometimes featured the name of a boy and sometimes featured the name of a boy and
sometimes the name of a girl. Teachers were asked to make recommendations about the
future of the children on the basis of identical information on the reports. In all cases
teacher expectations of boys wee more varied, challenging and prestigious and more
financially rewarding.

Teacher - Pupil interaction

It has been noted that teachers treat children according to expected gender roles in the
classroom e.g.

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  Talk – teachers spend about two thirds more time talking to boys, who are in turn
allowed about two thirds of pupil talk (Spender, 1982). Boys receive significantly
more assistance from teachers as a result of this increased verbal communication.
 Waiting – teachers encourage girls to seek attention by conventional methods e.g.
raising of hands whereas boys are more likely to make verbal requests which
usually result in more immediate to response. Teachers ignore girls for longer,
periods of time, boys obtain attention by rowdy a social behaviour, girls are
addressed collectively, boys by individual names (Mahoney, 1982).
 Identity – Teachers tend to know more personal detail about the boys they teach
than about the girls. Girls are an anonymous group, “faceless bunch” about when
little personal detail is known (Stanworth; 1983:45)
 Reward and Punishment – children’s self esteem is not only shaped by the
quantity of teacher attention they get but also by the quality of that attention.
Rewards and punishment meted out within the classroom differ for boys and girls
and thus also reinforce gender role expectations. Boys are regarded as aggressive
unruly but essentially intelligent and are given more attention in the form of
rewards and even punishment. Boys’ failures are seen as the result of a lack of
effort rather than lack of skill (Safilios – Rothschild, 1982). Girls are more often
rewarded for conforming behaviour and are encouraged to be compliant but not
autonomous.

Effects of biased interaction

The overall effect of biased interaction in the classroom is that girls experience the
inferior status afforded to them within the intimate sphere of the classroom daily. It can
be concluded that this does not constitute the kind of climate in which confidence and a
sense of personal worth is inspired. Sadker and Sadker concluded that day to day life in
classrooms has remained fundamentally unchanged with boys receiving overall

99
preferential treatment during formal education, despite the implementation of various
equity programmes.

Teachers as Models

Measor and Sikes (1992) have observed that teachers provide important role models for
children, in this regard, concern has been expressed by educators about the under-
representation of women in positions of leadership in the education system and the
identification of male and female teachers with specific age groups.

 Most school teachers worldwide are female, with the greatest concentration of
women in pre-primary and primary school teaching. In contrast, women are
under represented in headships and other positions of leadership. This reinforces
the perception that women teach and men control. The employment of women
teachers is accompanied by overt and covert discrimination in terms of promotion
and tenure practices. Global patterns also show that women teachers tend to be
under represented in certain subjects such as Mathematics and Science and
concentrated in stereotyped women’s fields, i.e. the care of young children and
teaching so called girls’ subjects such as Home Economics, Languages and the
Humanities.
 Occupational choices are made from primary school onwards and the school
assists directly and indirectly in this process. Literature on the pattern of job
selection and career choice of adolescent girls suggests that the majority indeed
“drift into a career or job” (Dobie, 1993:149) with parents and teachers taking a
far more passive role when advising girls than when advising boys. The career
choice of girls is further complicated by issues concerning the formation of the
personal, social and sexual identity which reaches a crucial phase during
adolescence.

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References

Gordon, R. (1995) Can Sex of Girls’ Academic Under Achievement: The

Influence of Teachers’ Attitudes and Expectations on the
Academic Performance of Secondary School Girls, in
Occassional Paper Number 8, ZJER, UZ, Harare

Gordon, R (1994) National Policies for the Education of Girls and Women in
Zimbabwe in Sutherland, M. R. and Bardoux, C. (Ed) Feminines et
Education Politiques Nationales et Variation International,
University of Laval, LABRAPS, Quebec

101
Williams, T (1975) Social Inequalities, Teacher Expectations and Sub Fulfilling
Prophecies; in Journal of Education Research and Perspectives,
Volume 2 No. 1 University of Western Australia

Gordon, R and Chimedza (1995) Access and Equity

The Rationale

Education is a basic human right. The 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child re-affirmed the right of every child to education irrespective of colour, race,
creed, sex, ability, disability and socio economic status (Gordon and Chimedza (1995).

 Unfortunately groups such as these are often denied both the right of access to
education, and equal treatment in educational institutions, which leads to unequal
educational outcomes and life chances for these groups.
 Article 3 of the World Declaration of Human Rights is concerned with
universalizing access to, and promoting equity in education emphasizing that

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 Education For All means ensuring that particular attention is directed to the
education of the under served (Gordon and Chimedza, 1995).
 As well as being a basic human right, education is a necessary condition for the
upward social mobility of disadvantaged members of society. Knowledge gained
through education is a means by which they can improve the quality of their lives.
 Equity of access to education and equal treatment in the school are essential
conditions for all forms of social equity (Gordon, 1994).
 Equal educational opportunities for all maximizes the possibility of equal
educational outcomes, and thus equal opportunities for all members of society to
secure employment.
 Equality of educational opportunity is necessary if women, are to become self
sufficient producers of wealth, charity, the goodwill of individuals, organizations
and the state.

National Policies For The Education of Girls and Women in Zimbabwe

 Its not possible to isolate national policies for the education of girls and women in
Zimbabwe, from socio economic policies and the economic, legal and political
statuses of women. Educational policies both prior to and since independence
have been an integral part of overall government policies, all operating within the
context of a patriarchal society.
 Since independence the stated policy of the government has been based on the
policy of the rising party, ZANU (PF). Of the fundamental human rights and
freedoms recognized by ZANU (PF), one is gender specific, i.e. the right of
women to equality which men “in all spheres of political, economic, cultural and
family life. Men and women will enjoy equal pay for equal work”. (ZANU (PF)
Manifesto, 2015).
 Education is seen as a human right and necessity and an important instrument for
the achievement of equity.

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Girls and Education since Independence

 Despite the tremendous increases in educational provision countrywide and the

introduction of non gee paying primary education, fewer girls than boys attend
primary school (Gordon, 1994) and worse still only 41% of secondary school
pupils are girls (Gordon, 1994).

Constraints to the Education of Girls

The issue of sexual equality of educational opportunity has of late received some
attention in Zimbabwe. In particular, emphasis to schooling for girls, and more recently,
upon the higher drop out rates for girls.

 Little attention has however been given to what happens to girls in the schools,
i.e. the treatment experienced by girls within the schools. Equality of educational
opportunity involves not only equal access to schooling, but also equal treatment
of boys and girls within the school itself (Gordon, 1995).

1. To what extent and in what ways do teacher attitudes and expectations affect
the academic and social self concepts of girls, and thus their aspirations and
academic motivation?
2. How do teachers explain the poor performance of girls?
3. Do they perceive themselves and the school as contributing to the problem?

Equality of Educational Opportunity

 At Independence in 1980 the government embarked on a programme of

educational reconstruction and expansion in an effort to make access to education

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 a reality for all Zimbabwean children. Equality of educational opportunity for all
was a stated aim of the government and education was perceived not only as a
human right but also as an important means by which deponents and the redress
of social inequalities inherited from the colonial period could be attained.
 Yet the girl child remains disadvantaged in the Zimbabwean education system.
 Dropout rates in every cohort in Zimbabwe since 1980, as elsewhere in the sub
region (Duncan, 1989; Hyde, 1991), have been higher for girls than for boys
(Gordon, 1995). The drop out rate for girls increased particularly in the upper
levels of primary and secondary school.
 In Zimbabwean secondary schools the ratio of male to female pupils is 3:1
(Gordon, 1995).
 It has also been noted that girls perform more poorly than boys in all public
examinations up to form IV. The under achievement of girls is a critical factor for
their further education and training and employment opportunities.
 Girls in Zimbabwe, as elsewhere in the world, particularly under achieve in
mathematics and science. As a result girls and women are under represented in
the sciences at ‘A’ level and in tertiary education.
 Arguments that schools are failing to provide the equality of opportunity that is
part of their mandate could be the basis for explaining the disadvantaged position
of girls in education.
 Schools are actually accused of perpetuating social inequalities from one
generation to another (Bowles, 1972). One particular component to this argument
is the notion that teachers engage in subtle forms of discrimination within
classrooms, and thereby, set in motion self-fulfilling prophesies.
 Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) examined in depth the alleged processes of the
self-fulfilling prophecy. They found that teachers get just what they expect from
students in the way of performance in schools. If teachers expect post
performance from certain children, these children will perform poorly in school.
 The linkage of this argument to the broader issues of opportunity and the
maintenance of social un equalities across generations is fairly straightforward.
Social class and sex differences in achievement, self esteem, aspirations and so

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 on, are explained in terms of the relative degree of fit between the child and the
school.

How do girls (primary and secondary) socialization fit into the school culture and the
education system as a whole?

Unit 6
Redressing Gender Imbalances
By Daniel Mawere, Winfrida Matsa and Efritha Chauraya

6.0 Introduction
In this unit we are looking at ‘redressing of gender imbalances’. Let us start by getting
the meaning of the word “redress”. What do you think is meant by this word: redressing?
You are correct!To redress is to put right a wrong or an injustice. An imbalance is a lack
of evenness; therefore a gender imbalance is a lack of evenness in treatment of males and
females. Redressing gender imbalances therefore looks at ways in which treatment of
males and females can be created, so that equality between the two sexes is achieved.
This equality does not mean that women and men are going to be the same in the sense of
the word ‘sameness’. It is equality in the sense that their enjoyment of rights,
opportunities and life chances are not governed or limited by whether they we born
female or male. There are many ways in which gender imbalances can be redressed. In
this unit we are going to look at the following key ways: enactment of gender responsive
policies and laws; creation of gender responsive environments, carrying out gender
research and gender analysis; education and empowerment programmes as well as
engagements of gender projects. Following is a brief exposition of each of these ways.

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6.1 Objectives

By the end of this module you should be able to:

 6.1.1 Identify and explain gender responsive policies and laws.

 6.1.2 Highlight the interrelationship between physical, social and academic

environments in creation of gender responsive environments.

 6.1.3 Assess the extent to which gender research and gender analysis contribute to
redressing gender imbalances.

 Examine the extent to which education and empowerment programmes contribute

to redressing gender imbalances.

 Evaluate the role of gender projects in bringing about a gender equal society.

Enactment of gender responsive policies

Kabeer (1992) quoted in March, Smyth and Mukhopadhyay (1999:20-21) makes a gender
classification of policies as follows:
 Gender blind policies which recognize no distinction between the sexes. Such
policies make assumptions, which lead to a bias in favour of existing gender
relations. In view of this therefore such policies tend to exclude women.

 Gender-aware policies recognize that both women and men are development
actors. How ever the nature of women’s involvement is determined by gender
relations which make their involvement different and unequal. As a result women
may have different needs, interests and priorities which may conflict with those of
men at times. Within gender- aware policies, Kabeer further distinguishes
between gender-neutral, gender-specific and gender redistributive policies.

* Gender-neutral policies use the knowledge of gender differences in a

given society to overcome bias in development interventions, in order to
ensure that interventions target and benefit both sexes effectively to meet
their practical needs. Gender-neutral policies work within the existing
gender division of resources and responsibilities.

* Gender-specific policies use the knowledge of gender differences in a

given context to respond to the practical needs of women or men; they
work within the existing gender division of resources and responsibilities.

* Gender-redistributive policies are intended to transform existing

distributions of power and resources to create a more balanced relationship

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 between women and men, touching on strategic gender interests. They
may target both sexes, or women or men separately.

In the context of Zimbabwe, a National Gender Policy (NGP) was introduced to show the
country’s commitment to promote gender equality and equity. The policy provides
guidelines and institutional framework to engender all sectoral policies, programmes,
projects and activities at all levels of society and economy.

Affirmative Action Policies are made to allow females to enter or qualify for certain jobs
or education opportunities with lower qualifications. Affirmative Action means positive
steps taken to increase the representation of women and minorities in areas of
employment, education and business from which they have been historically excluded.
Affirmative Action involves preferential selection on the basis of race, gender or
ethnicity. An example is when a university guides the recruitment procedures by stating
that at least 50% of the admitted students should be female. Another Affirmative Action
Policy is the Midlands State University Bridging Programme for girls aspiring to embark
on Mathematics and Science related degree programmes.

Activity 6.1
1. Make a survey of gender specific policies that have been introduced in
your country.
2. Give explanations to each of the policies and discuss the extent to which
each of the policies attempt to redress gender imbalances in your country.

Gender imbalances and legal redress:

This section is linked to UNIT 8 especially section 8.5. Here we are looking at how the
law can help to redress gender imbalances. We are turning to the law for removal of
barriers that put men and women in differential positions. The law is also being looked at
using the gender lens to see if it has biases that lead to differential treatment of men and
women. The major aim of doing this is to enable women and men to exercise and enjoy
their rights to the full.
The legal redress of gender imbalances involves the following:
 Enactment of gender equality act.

 Gender audit and review of all legislation to make it gender sensitive and
responsive.

 Gender training for state administrators and law enforcing agents

 Legal literacy.

 Legal education and sensitization.

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  Community gender and human rights training.

For a successful legal redress of gender imbalances there is need for a thorough gender
analysis of the law and of the issues concerned. This analysis will show where the
problem lies. The problem may be on the implementation and meaning of the law,
knowledge of the law among other issues. When these factors are addressed it is hoped
that the law will be doing its best to promote gender equality. This analysis will also
enable us to group laws as either progressive or retrogressive.
Retrogressive Laws are against gender equality. They do not promote equal treatment of
men and women before the law. At times they even worsen the condition of the
disadvantaged sex in a particular context. For more information on retrogressive laws see
unit 8 (8.2 and 8.3).
Progressive Laws promote gender equality. They promote the rights of all sexes,
regardless of race colour, sex, or belief.

Activity 6. 2
 How is legal education and sensitization done in your community?

 To what extent are these programmes changing gender relations in your

community?

 Make a gender analysisof progressive and retrogressive laws obtaining in your

country.

Creation of gender responsive environments

Gender responsive environments respect human rights and ensure that issues of gender
equality and equity are promoted. A gender responsive environment is one in which both
males and females are empowered to achieve their highest possible potential. The Forum
for African Women Educationists has referred to these environments as Centres of
Excellence (COE). The focus in creating gender responsive environments is on physical,
academic and social environments in the context of the school.
 The Physical Environment refers to the infrastructure , for example, in a school
setting, this includes , school buildings, fences, toilets, hostels, health facilities,
library, laboratories, amenities for sports, water, electricity and sanitation.
Adequate, secure and gender appropriate infrastructure is emphasized. This is
achievable when parents, the community, students and teachers mobilize adequate
resources.

 The Academic Environment refers to:

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 * Students who are empowered, good academic performance, bursaries
for needy students, access to carrier guidance and students who are well
grounded in democratic practice.
* Teachers who are gender responsive, empowered, innovative and
creative, adhering to the teachers’ code of conduct and ethics.
* Adequate and gender responsive teaching and learning materials.
* School Management which is gender responsive and championing the
transformation of gender responsiveness.

* The Social Environment refers to teacher- student, student-student, teacher-

teacher, boy-girl, girl-boy, boy-boy, girl-girl, school management-teacher
relationships which should be gender responsive.

Activity 6.3
 Suggest how you can make your institution an environment in which both males
and females are empowered to achieve their highest possible potential?
 What challenges, do you think, are likely to be faced in striving to achieve this
goal?

Gender Analysis

We looked at gender analysis in unit 4 where we learnt that gender analysis examines the
relationships between women and men. It examines their roles, their access to and control
of resources and the constraints they face relative to each other. As a strategy to redress
gender imbalances, gender analysis should be integrated in carrying out needs assessment
or situational analysis to ensure that gender-based injustices and inequalities are not
exacerbated by likelihood interventions. Gender analysis starts with the smallest unit, that
is, the household to understand how each family member participates, what role they play
and what they need in order to improve their well being, for example, one could ask what
factors affect access to services. Who obtains resources? Who decides on the use of
resources? Through gender analysis we get an insight into cultural understanding of the
different roles of men and women. For example a widow or single mother as ‘head of
household’ has serious implications in terms of access and control to goods and services.
The analysis of relations and roles can help us to identify vulnerabilities, potentials for
backlash and also solutions to critical issues in a bid to promote greater equality and
justice in gender relations.

Gender Research

Gender Research is another way of redressing gender imbalance, intended to empower

students with skills and knowledge of investigating gender related problems, issues and
concerns in society. Gender responsive research probes into the gender dimension of
constraints at all levels of the educational process (policy, community, household, school
and classroom levels). Gender research explores problems that are researchable such as:

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Causes of poor performance, school drop out, classroom participation, teachers, attitudes
and skills in handling gender related issues and problems in the classroom. The
knowledge so gained will enable students to use gender responsive research as a strategy
to solve gender related problems they come across in their own endeavours. In addition it
will enable them to recommend strategies that will address the constraints which hinder
girls and some boys from enrolling, performing, staying and transiting to higher levels of
learning.

Activity 6.4
 Carry out a mini-gender research on any one of the following areas:
a) Causes of poor performance amongst female students in your
institution.
b) High school drop out rate among girls/boys
c) Low class participation among boys/girls.
d) Teacher/Lecturer attitudes and skills in handling gender related
issues and problems in the classroom/lecture room.
 From your findings make recommendations to solve the gender related problem
you have researched on.

Education and Empowerment programmes

Education and empowerment programmes go a long way into redressing gender

imbalances. Most obstacles in girls’ social and academic development are rooted in the
culture of silence that is instilled in girls’ socialization process. Hence these
disempowered girls see those obstacles as God given and they can not be challenged.
However, boys also need to be empowered in order to accept gender equality and be able
to cope with empowered girls. In most circumstances, it is taken for granted that boys are
born empowered but the truth is the opposite. For a detailed understanding of how
education and empowerment programmes bring about gender balance we refer you to
Unit 7.

Engagements of gender projects

Gender projects are support programmes for the disadvantaged males and females. They
normally offer economic support in the form of special tuition, legal support as well as
socio-political support. How ever they may also be in the form of general support, for
example, food schemes. These projects normally target groups rather than individuals, as
beneficiaries, note they are of interest to gender because, through benefitting say all
orphans, they will be benefitting say the girl child orphan who has been the object of
discrimination historically. With most care-taker families, in times of shortages and a
choice is made on who between the girl child and the boy child to pull out of school,
research has shown that it is the girl child who normally enters the school last and is the
first to leave school. In other cultures, girls feed after boys have fed. In this way the
education of and general welfare of girls and women has always been compromised.

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These projects therefore protect human rights and promote equality through provision of
assistance to the vulnerable groups. Following are a few examples of gender projects:
 The Zimbabwe Basic Assistance Module(BEAM) which offers financial support
to orphans;

 The Zimbabwe legal Foundation which offers free legal support to males and
females who do not have the capacity to hire a lawyer to represent them in times
of need;

 The Musasa Project Centre which offers free socio-political support to the males
and females through offering gender education, gender empowerment and free
counseling services to affected males and females especially when it concerns
domestic violence and other forms of gender based violence.

 Men’s Forum for Gender (MFG) (Padare) which is a gender organisation formed
by a group of men to campaign against Domestic Violence. In Zimbabwe it is
known as Padare. It has challenged fellow men to contribute towards national
development by getting involved in gender issues. The group, the first of its kind
in Zimbabwe and perhaps in the sub-region has embarked on activities to promote
gender sensitive attitudes and behaviour. The organization is concerned with the
problem of gender inequality as a moral and political challenge. Society is viewed
as continuing to promote a culture and attitudes based on domination and
exploitation of women by men. These need to be constructed. Source: Lopi, B.
(1998) for SARDC in Beyond Inequalities : Women in Zimbabwe ZWRCN.

 Other gender projects include; Forum for Gender, Zimbabwe National Platform
for Action, Zimbabwe Women Resource Centre and Network, National Aids
Council, Women Leadership and Governance Institute, SHAPE Zimbabwe,
Women of Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA), Young Women Christian Organisation
(YWCO), Young Men Christian Organisation and Girl-Child Network, among
others.

Activity 6.5

 What gender related projects are being carried out in your country?

 To what extent do these projects help in redressing gender balances in your

country?

Conclusion

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Redressing gender imbalances should be conceptualized as a process and not an end in
itself. Although efforts are being made to address the issue, resistance, negative attitudes,
poor funding, inadequate resources, misconceptions of gender issues and many other
factors hamper progress. If the intention is to achieve gender equity and equality, then
there is need to seriously consider alternative ways of solving the problem. All
stakeholders and interested parties should continuously review their approaches to the
problem.

References

March, C., Smyth, I. and Mukhopadhyay, M. (1999). A Guide T o Gender Analysis

Frameworks. Oxford, Oxfam.

Beyond Inequalities: Women in Zimbabwe

Forum for African Women Educationalists (2005). Introduction to Gender Studies: A

Teaching Module for Student Teachers. Gweru. Midlands State University.

Lopi, B. (1998) for SARDC in Beyond Inequalities: Women in Zimbabwe ZWRCN.

Zimbabwe National Gender Policy (2004) Government Printers, Harare

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 UNIT 7
Gender Empowerment
By
Manuku Mukoni and Charles Chikunda

7.0 Introduction
In Unit 6 we learnt about gender issues that act as constraints to gender equality. In this
unit we will explore in detail the concept of gender empowerment which is one of the
strategies that can be used to redress the imbalances caused by these issues. For details
see Unit 8. In this unit focus will be on the various types of empowerment, models of
empowerment as well as strategies of empowerment.

7.1 Unit Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to
 Define empowerment as it applies to men and women
 Identify the various types of empowerment
 Describe the models/ frameworks of empowerment

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  Examine the various approaches to collective empowerment
 Recognize an empowered man and an empowered woman.

7.2 Understanding Power

To understand the term empowerment we need to analyze the idea of ‘Power’ which is
the root of the term empowerment. For this purpose we need to understand the various
forms in which power is interpreted, because power means different things to different
people. Therefore it is important for us to explore the perceptions of power

Albert (1985 :12) define power as the capability of human beings to organize or
manipulate their environment ( including other human beings, their thoughts, motivation,
needs and desires as well as their creations and artefacts) for human end. Adair and Howl
(1989:20) define power as the ability to do what one chooses. Power is the ability to
make others do what we want regardless of their own wishes or interests ( Weber in
Czuba 2003 : 2) Traditional social sciences emphasize power as influence and control
often treating power as a commodity or a structure divorced from human action (Lipps,
1991). Conceived in this way power can be viewed as unchangeable or unchanging.

If we look at Albert (1985), Adair and Howl (1989) as well as Weber’s definition of
power. -They give us a key word beyond this limitation by recognizing that power exists
within the context of relationship between people or things. They show that power does
not exist in isolation nor is it inherent in an individual. By implication this shows us that
since power is created in relationships then power and power relationships can change
making empowerment as a process of change possible. A brief activity makes the
importance of this discussion clear

Activity 7.1
1. List three words that immediately come to your mind when you hear the word
power?
2. Have you ever felt powerful? Was it at someone’s expense? Was it with someone
else?
3. How can you tell you have power?
4. What are the characteristics of lack of power?
5. How is power exercised, maintained, perpetuated and distributed?

For most people words that come to mind when we think about power often revolve
around control and domination. Focusing on these aspects of power limit our ability to
understand and define empowerment while to other people power is a zero sum it is
something you get at the expense of others. Such an understanding of power cuts most of
us off from power. A zero sum conception of power means that power will remain in the
hands of the powerful unless they give it up, for example men will not voluntarily
relinquish that patriarchal power which gives them privilege over women and which give
them less work than women but a larger share of the rewards. Although this is certainly

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one way that power is experienced, it neglects the way power is experienced in most
interactions, power can be understood as operating in a number of different ways.

7.2.1 Forms of Power

There are various forms of power. Do activity 7.2 below to brainstorm on forms of power

Activity 7.2
1. What do you understand by
(a) Economic power
(b) Political power
(c) Social power
(d) Inter-person

The activity above on power and the definition of power by Weber (1946), Albert (1985),
Adair and Howl (1989) in section 7.2, shows that power exists within the context of a
relationship between people or things. Hence we have various forms of power as
discussed below:
Power over- this form of power involves an either/ or relationship of domination /
subordination.
 This is whereby an individual or a group in authority uses their power to
make decision and control others
 .It is when one uses power to get another person or group of people to do
what they do not want.
 This form of power is based on socially sanctioned threats of violence
and intimidation
 It requires constant vigilance to remain and it invites active and passive
resistance.
 .In this case power is finite the more power one has the less the others
have
 .It is coercive
 E.g. most man has power over woman. If a woman makes more money
or attaints a position of power, violence can result.

Power with –relates to the collective strength of people working together. Some
researchers and practitioners call this aspect of power ‘relational power’ (Loppe and
Du Bois 1994) “generative power ‘’ (Korten, 1987), “Integrative power ‘’ (Kreisberg
.1992)
 This is the type of power that is characterized by collaboration, sharing
and mutuality (Kreisberg, 1992)
 It involves people organizing with a common purpose or common
understanding to achieve collective goals
 It is by coming together and sharing each other mutual support that we
are in a position to challenge the zero type of power.
 It acknowledges the fact that power multiples with individual talents
and knowledge

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  It is the form of power that lies behind the common sayings such as
‘united we stand divided we fall’ ‘one for all and all for one’’
 This form of power means that gaining power actually strengthens the
power of others rather than diminishing it such as occurs with
domination power.

Power to – This form of power relates to having decision making authority, power to
solve problems and being creative and enabling
 It refers to the potential in every human being to take action in their own life and
the world
 It is based on authority and mutual support and, it opens possibilities for joint
action
 It refers to potentially transformative power which is in every person which
enables him/ her to take control of his / her life.

Power within- refers to self confidence, self awareness and assertiveness

 It relates to how an individual can recognize through analyzing own experience,
how power operates in one’s life and gain the confidence to act, to influence and
change this (Williams et al 1994)
 It refers to creative, spiritual and emotional strength that resides within each
person
 It comes from self esteem, self acceptance, self knowledge and self respect.
 It stems from the belief that ‘I am a human being and I am worthy’

Activity 7.3
1. What form of power do you think the following people have
(a) Conservative bosses
(b) Abusive husbands
(c) Men over women
2 What is the source of their power?

Kreisberg (1992: 57) suggests that power defined as the capacity to implement is broad
enough to allow power to mean domination, authority influence and shared power or
power with. It is this definition of power as it occurs in relationship that gives us the
possibility of empowerment. Empowerment therefore involves the redistribution of
power and this power cannot be given it has to be taken (Longwe, 2001, Kabeer in March
et al 1997)
7.3 Understanding empowerment
Empowerment is a construct shared by many disciplines and arenas: community
development psychology, education, economics and studies of social movements and
organizations among other. As a multidimensional concept it had wide variations and
how it is understood varies among these perspectives. To demystify the concept we need
to understand the term broadly:-
 Empowerment refers to the creation and expansion of one’s knowledge, skills,
decision making and other power bases giving them the capacity and capability to

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 exercise influence and leadership on their own ( Zimbabwe National Gender
policy 2004: 12)
 Empowerment is a process whereby individuals who are marginalized
individually or collectively become aware of how power structures, processes and
relations operate in their lives and gain the confidence and strength to challenge
the resulting gender inequalities ( Hannan ,2003)
McWhirter (1991) in Eade (1999) defines empowerment as a process by which people
organization or groups who are powerless.
(a) Become aware of the power dynamics at work in their life contexts and
them
(b) Develop the skills and capacity for gaining some reasonable control over
their lives.
(c) Exercise this control without infringing upon the rights of others and
(d) Support the empowerment of others.
From these broad definitions of empowerment we can deduce that empowerment is
essentially a process which covers the following basic aspects:
 Actions involved in confronting and changing unequal power relations
 Acquiring the capacity (psychological readiness, social analysis, organizational
skills) and need to take action.
 It has both individual and collective dimensions.

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 Table: 1 What is empowerment then?
-In brief empowerment is about
 Bringing people who are outside the decision making process into it
 Individuals being able to maximize the opportunities available to them
without or despite constraints of structure and state
 Access to intangible decision making process
 Having power to exercise control over all aspects of your life, being in a
position to determine or decide their own destiny.
 Having freedom of conscience, expression, independent judgment and self
reliance
 Being able to maximize the opportunities available to one without
constraints
 Having the right to make choices
 Having education, information, authority and power in decision making on
issues affecting one and others.
 Undoing negative social constructions so that one can come to see self as
having the capacity and the right to act and influence decisions.
 Acting collectively in order to change or control
 Challenging the basic assumption about power, helping achieving and
succeeding

An activity on empowerment below will help elucidate the concept of empowerment

further

Activity 7.4
Which statements below define empowerment?
1. Being able to engage in decisions on budget allocations
2. Women’s improved socio- economic status
3. Women’s improved levels of literacy or education
4. Taking account of gender differentials
5. Being consulted during the preparation of the poverty reduction support project
6. Giving a fair hearing to a women in a public meeting comprising of men and
women
7. Elimination of discriminatory legislation
8. Equality in the gender division of labor
9. Women’s increased ownership of capital
10. Formation of unions for immigrant workers which allow them to negotiate working
conditions with employees
11. A battered woman is freed from the threat of violence and becomes able to make
decisions about her life

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Statement 2, 3,4,7,8 and 9 above may contribute to the process of empowerment or may
result from the process of empowerment they cannot define what is empowerment for
example women’s increased levels of literacy or education provided by an intervention
does not address the underlying patterns of discrimination which generally prevent
woman from obtaining education and which generally maintains their subordination and
oppression. The forms of power in section 7.2.1 revealed that power must be understood
as working at different levels including institutional household and individual, thus
giving rise to three dimension of empowerment as illustrated below.

7.4 The three dimensions of empowerment

Empowerment has three dimensions as shown below

Close relations
Personal

Collective

Adapted from Rowlands, 1997

7.4.1 Personal empowerment

 Is where empowerment is about developing a sense of self and individual
confidence and capacity, undoing the effects of internalized oppression
 It is based on the assumptions that

(i) People have inherent ability and power to evolve and progress
(ii) True power cannot be best owned but it comes from within
 It involves developing confidence in oneself, self esteem and a sense of agency
 It is all about realising the potential in oneself to perform and increase output
 It is being an individual who can interact with own surrounding and obtain results
 It is all about undoing the effects of internalized oppression and subordination

It leads to positive self concept, high self esteem, confidence, and self- development,
decision making ability to interact outside the home, breaking criticism and developing
communication skills

Sources of personal disempowerment

 Lack of exposure and encouragement
 Dependency an external motivation

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  Self put downs, negative inner dialogue
 Lack of confidence
 Failure to take criticism
 Procrastination
 Not choosing one’s battles

Steps to self personal empowerment

 Build self confidence
 Attitudinal tune up – think of the positive do not always put yourself down
 Develop communication skills – seek to understand and be understood. Increase
the ability to formulate and express opinions
 Teach and practice forgiveness, however begin with forgiving yourself for all the
mistakes you have done
 Allow yourself and others to say ‘NO’
 Break the criticism pattern, focus only on the criticism that builds you up
 Understand the situation and get the power through other systems
 Acquiring certain skills that you lack so that you become more efficient
 Increase your ability to interact outside the home
 Participate in and influence areas of activity

Table 2 key elements in personal empowerment

__ in brief, the key elements to personal empowerment includes
 Self awareness (who are you?)
 Making decisions about issues that affect you, being in control
 Ability to share power as opposed to wielding power over others
 Personal development
 Independence
 Developing a positive self image
 Having self esteem and confidence

7.4.2 Close Relationship

This type of empowerment entails the ability to negotiate and influence the nature of a
relationship and decisions made within it. For example husband/ wife relationship,
parents / child and boyfriend/ girlfriend etc – individuals work together to achieve a more
positive impact.

7.4.3 Collective Empowerment

Individuals’ abilities to negotiate communicate and defend their rights

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It builds on individual empowerment. To achieve collective empowerment individuals
must have personal empowerment individual should be able to work together to achieve
greater impact in locality or surrounding than what one person could have achieved for
example pressure groups such as trade unions, workers committees, Affirmative Action
Group (AAG) in Zimbabwe, Women and Gender (WAG) in Zimbabwe It involves
groups because it is through involvement in groups that people most often begin to
develop their awareness. Thus empowerment occurs in a chain.

7.5 Chain of Empowerment

Empowerment occurs at various levels such as individual, group and community ,hence
to achieve group or community empowerment, empowerment should start at the personal
level since without empowerment at personal level it is very hard for individuals to be
active collectively. Because to have a sense of empowerment in relation to other people is
associated with and to a large extent, dependent upon self confidence, self esteem and
sense of agency. It also depends on the individual’s ability to negotiate, communicate and
defend his or her rights.

Personal Empowerment Relational

empowerment

empowerment
Collective

7.6 Understanding Gender Empowerment

Society instills a culture of silence in women during the socialization process hence these
disempowered woman see these obstacles as God given and they cannot be challenged.
Empowerment programmes hence think only women need to be empowered to challenge
these internalized views. However men need also need to be empowered in order to
accept gender equality and be able to cope with empowered women. In most situations it
is taken for granted that men are born empowered hence they are always deprived
opportunities to acquire gender responsive empowerment skills

7.6.1 Sources of disempowerment of women

 Culture, social and physical conditions in which women live and the gender role
to which they are expected to conform.
 Myths, proverbs, stories , stereotypes and language
 Economic – most women do not have access and control over resources
 Political- few woman participate in decision making yet it is within the public
space that decision that affect them are made.

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  Elements of oppression under which women live both as female and as poor
people
 Culture of machismo, alcohol consumption and other vices and the among culture
of violence
 Legislation e.g. in Zimbabwe customary law is given precedence in some areas

6.2 Effects of lack of empowerment

Women
 Not speaking out
 Being harassed including
sexual harassment
 Risk of being HIV infected
 Lack of self confidence
 Low self esteem
 Negative self concept
 Dependent
 Passive
 Shy
 Inferiority
 Confusion
 Unwanted pregnancy
Men
 Uses force instead of negotiating
 Shout out instead of speaking out or
communicating
 Being sexual harassed by other men/
older women
 Become violent and aggressive
 Failure to share their problems and
feelings
 Harassing women
 Risk of being infected with HIV
 Dependent
 Low self esteem ( inferiority)
 Dominance / superiority
 Confusion
 Alcoholism
 Clumsiness’
 Alienation/isolation

From the effects of lack of empowerment in man and women discussed above. It
becomes clear that both man and women need empowerment hence we talk of gender
empowerment.

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 Table 3 What is gender empowerment then?
 Is the process of enabling women and men to take an equal place and to
participate equally in the development process
 It entails recognizing one’s strength and exploding sexist misconception,
challenging socialization ideas that breed the feeling of inferiority and
superiority attitudes among women and men respectively
 It is a process through which men and women increase their capacity to shape
their own lives and environment
 It also calls for the transformation of the structures and practices in the
institutes to those that does not reinforce or perpetuate gender discrimination
and social inequality
 It is an evolvement in men and women’s self awareness, stratus and efficiency
in social interaction giving them increased opportunity to control their lives
 It gives men and women the power
1. To make decision
2. Have their voices heard
3. Put things on the agenda
4. Negotiate on something that is not negotiable
5. Challenge past customs

7.6.3 Understanding women’s empowerment

Women’s empowerment is enabling women to take an equal place with men and to
participate equally in the development process in order to achieve control over the factors
of production on an equal basis with men (Longwe, 2001)

* Women Empowerment means

 Having control or gaining further control
 Being able to define and create from a women’s perspective
 Being able to influence social choices and decisions affecting the whole society
 Being recognized and accepted as equal citizens
 Being able to make a contribution at all levels of society and not just in the home
 It is having one’s contribution recognized and valued
 Having a say and being listened to
Thus empowerment for women brings to the process of empowerment an existing
experience and history, as women bring to the process of empowerment societal values
stereotype, myths and beliefs which for a long time have made women accept inferiority.

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Women empowerment involves the undoing of internalized oppression and the rejection
of the definition of femininity

7.6.4 Understanding men’s empowerment

Men’s empowerment is the ability to understand and accept gender equality. It is the
liberation of men from false value systems and ideologies of oppression leading to a
situation where men become wholly regardless of gender and use their fullest potential to
construct a more human society for all.

From the above definition of gender empowerment and our previous discussions it s
evident that the idea of power is at the core of
empowerment.(Hannan,2003,Williams,1994,Kabeer,2003)
According to Czuba (2003) the possibility of empowerment depends on two things first
empowerment requires that power can change. If power cannot change. If it is inherent in
positions or people then empowerment is not possible nor is empowerment conceivable
in any meaningful way. In other words if power can change then empowerment is
possible. Secondly the concept of empowerment depends upon the idea that power can
expand. Thus empowerment is more than simply opening up access to decision making it
must also include the process that lead people to perceive themselves as able and entitled
to occupy that decision making space and so overlaps with the categories of ‘power to’
and ‘power within’

Empowerment therefore comes from within. It involves individuals themselves setting

the agenda and managing the pace of change. Outsiders such as development cooperation
agencies non governmental agencies can only play an important facilitating role through
use of established frameworks or models.(Kabeer,2003)

7.7 Model / Framework of Empowerment

A framework is a system of ideas or conceptual structures that help us see the social
world, understand it, explain it and change it (Wallace and March 1991)
When applied to empowerment an empowerment framework or model therefore is a
systematic way of examining how the empowerment process can be achieved in this
section the Sarah Longwe empowerment framework and the Tuseme model of
empowerment will be discussed

7.7.1 Sarah Longwe empowerment framework

It is also known as the women empowerment framework. Though a feminist model it can
be applied to empowerment. For details see unit 4
The framework is used as an empowerment model as well as a gender analysis
framework see unit 4. It comprises of two tools
1. women’s empowerment tool 1: levels of equality
2. women’s empowerment tool 2: levels of recognition

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This framework / model is based on the notion of five different levels of equality. as
discussed in unit 4 The extent to which these are present in any area of social or
economic life determine the level of empowerment as illustrated in the diagram below

Control
Participation
Conscientisation Increased equality increased
Access
empowerment
Welfare

These levels of equality are hierarchal. If a development intervention focuses on the

higher levels, there is greater likelihood that women and men’s empowerment will be
increased by the intervention than if a project focuses on lower levels If the intervention
concentrator only on welfare, it is unlikely that women and men will find it empowering.
For example equal participation in decision making process about certain resources is
more important in achieving women and men’s empowerment than equal access to
resources. We need to note that although the levels, of empowerment are hierarchal, they
are not really a linear progression as discussed in unit 4 but rather circular.

The Empowerment Cycle

Welfare

Control

Empowerment
Access

Mobilization

Conscientisation

Adapted from Longwe (2001)

The achievement of women’s increased control leads into better access to resources and
therefore improves socio- economic status. The process of empowerment is also self
propelling and self reinforcing that is issues at one level provides a better basis for
success at other levels. It is therefore a synergic process The levels of the framework are

126
therefore not intended to be interpreted as steps in a linear sequence but rather as
interrelated elements in a cycle or spiral of self reinforcing process Do activity 7.5 below
to enhance your understanding of this model

Activity 7 .5
Recent attempts by women activists to pass legislation on granting married women a
large share of their husband’s household property in Uganda has met with open
objection from president Museveni, and woman activists threatened for the first time to
lobby women against voting for the president in the next election. Women activists
argued that if women did gain these rights this would not only significantly promote
their own opportunities for action, it would also limit men’s opportunities to acquire
several wives and to exercise control over them.
How would Ugandan women use the Sara Longwe empowerment framework to solve
this problem?

7.7.2 Tuseme Model of empowerment

‘Tuseme’ is a Swahili word that means let us speak out
Origins
The model was initiated in Tanzania in 1996 by FAWE to empower boys and girls

Applicability
The model can be used in an academic institution to empower boys and girls so that they
can overcome problems that hinder their academic and social development

The Tuseme model of empowerment is carried out in nine stages. It involves the entire
school community (teachers, workers and students) as participants in the activities of the
difference stages (FAWE, 2004)

Stage 1 Preliminaries
Facilitators discuss with the school authority about the intention to carry out a
Tuseme process. They inform the school community about the intention and dates
This is done to ensure that the school authority and community are ready for process
Stage 2: Familiarization
The purpose of this stage is to have a better understanding of the working
environment and to get preliminary information on the subject matter. To achieve this
facilitators introduce Tuseme to the relevant authorities in order to familiarize with
the social set up of the school community- these are major groups that constitute the
school community, relationship with the neighborhood.
The physical set up of the school- boundaries, library, facilities, Sports ground to
determine whether they are adequate or not.
The academic performance of the school in general and the cohort groups in
particular.

Stage 3: Data Collection

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 This is done to get information on the issue of concern that impedes social and
academic development of boys and girls.Participant are divided into small research
teams and assigned to carry out interviews with a certain number of community
members about issues related to the goals and objectives of Tuseme, its strengths and
constraints. The teams are asked to submit their findings in writing.

Stage 4 Data Analysis

This is done to get a deeper understanding of issues as well as to acquire skills in
analyzing issues. It is also done to get a better understanding of the community’s
potential in solving some of the issues. Data analysis process is undertaken as
follows.
1 List all the findings
2 Cluster / group the findings leaving out the findings / issues that are not related to
the topic.
3 Verify the authenticity of the findings
4 Prioritize the finding in the order of urgency
5 Classify the findings according to their similarities and differences (clustering and
collapsing)
6 Find out root causes of the findings
7 Find possible solutions to the problem
8 Identify responsible people or parties to help solve different problems.

Stage 5 Theatre Creation

Discuss in groups which issues from the data analysis you want to include in your
performance. Select forms of arts which you are competent and comfortable to use.
Create you performance in such a way that it can provoke discussion. Prepare a Joker
(one, who leads the post performance discussion). Organize the performances for the
stage presentation. Ensure that costumes, pups and scenery are designed and are
available
NB all cohort members should participate in theatre creation

Stage 6 Performance
Discuss with the participants and the school administration about the possible day and
time to do the performance .Make sure that the entire community is invited to the
performance

Stage 7 Post Performance Discussions

Make sure the Joker involves all stakeholders in the discussion
Joker should avoid answering but challenging the audience to answer the questions.
The joker should make sure that all issues are discussed thoroughly

Stage 8 Action Plan

Carry out this exercise either immediately after the performance or the following day.

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 It usually involves the Tuseme cohort group although it is also possible to do it with
the entire school community. Whatever the case the action plan should be endorsed
by the school administration for it to be effected. The exercise is done on a chart
which indicates the following.
1. The problem
2. Root causes
3. Solution
4. Activities
5. Time frame
6. Responsible person /part
7. Resources / budget
8. Indicator

Stage 9 Creation of Tuseme Club

These are a functioning student based management system formed in the school
They are established in order to encourage students to speak out as a way of
empowering them. Elections should be held to nominate office, bearers. They provide
a forum for students to discuss their academic and social problems critically. The
main functions of the Tuseme club is to.
 Help each other in academic matters through group discussion, debates, individual
consultations and sharing learning material
 Link students ( Tuseme club members) with teachers and the school
administration
 Reinforce discipline amongst club members
 Speak out about day to day problems arising in the schools
 Provide peer support, guidance and counseling.
 Access role models
 Share experience with students from other school
 Produce material for use in the Tuseme club e.g. newsletters , magazines
 Design annual action plans at the school level
 Use theatre for development as a tool for research, empowerment and
participatory planning
 Develop leadership qualities among Tuseme students

Strengths of the Model

 It uses theatre for development approach, an approach that makes sure that as
many stakeholders as possible are involved as central participants in the process
 It always guarantees democratic and active participation of all the stakeholders at
the school
 Provides life skills through out its implementation that empower girls and boys at
the individual level e.g. it provides skills for speaking out, assertiveness,
leadership, decision making and so on

Limitations of the model

 Only applicable to a learning / academic environment

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Let’s do activity 7.6 below to enhance our understanding of this model

Activity 7.6
1. What do you consider to be the school’s
(a) Academic Environment?
(b) Physical Environment?
(c) Social Environment/

2. In what ways does the above environment hinder the social and academic
development of boys and girls?
3. Conduct a Tuseme process in your institute to identify the academic, physical
and social constraints that impede your academic and social development in
the institute

The physical environment generally refers to the infrastructure of the school which
includes such things as building, the compound of the school, toilets, water, power
supply boarding facilities, first aid and medical facilities, amenities for games and
sports, laboratory and library. Research has demonstrated that inadequate or poor
physical facilities adversely affect the quality of education. It has also been proven
that in such environments the girl child always comes off the worse because of the
tendency has been that the poorer the physical facilities the less gender responsive
they are. The special needs of the girl child especially at puberty tend to get ignored

Academic environment refers to the curriculum content and its relevance, the teachers
and their attitudes, the school management system, teaching methodologies and
approaches, teacher/ student interaction, the students and their attitudes, the teaching
and learning material. The teaching environment if not gender responsive can lead to
poor academic performance and output

The social environment refers mainly to the community and cultural surroundings of
the school. It normally includes parents and other relatives of the girls, the district
commissioner, village leader the chiefs and assistant chiefs, local religious leaders,
local educational leaders, other stakeholders as well as other residents of the area near
and around the school, Research has shown that cultural practices such as the female
genital cutting, early marriages, improper attitudes and the economic status of the
community are factors that influence girls enrolment and retention in school. On a
more global scale, the country’s gender polices’ are an important part of the social
environment

7.8 General strategies of empowerment

According to Homelink (1994: 33) empowerment can be the outcome of an
intentional strategy which is either initiated externally by empowerment agents or

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 solicited by disempowerment people. Whilst its acknowledges that empowerment is a
personal thing since true power cannot be bestowed it should be noted that some
people can act as agents of empowerment by providing access to a new body of ideas
and information that can not only change a person’s consciousness and self image
but also motivates one to act. Empowerment by external agents will therefore
involve:
* Awareness-raising
* Building of self confidence
* Expansion of choices
* Involvement in decision making
* Increased access and control(Hannan, 2003)

Thus in the long term empowerment will result in :

 Changing consciousness and attitudes
 Identification of areas needing change.
 Developing strategies and actions to be taken
 Monitoring these actions and outcomes

To achieve all these outcomes the following strategies of empowerment can be employed
see also unit 9

 Education- It helps to expand human capability such as being able to read and
write and gain knowledge and skills
 Networking See unit 4
 Participation See unit 4
 Mobilization -This involves coming together as a group and demand space as well
as change. e.g. women’s support groups in Zimbabwe for details see unit 4
 Capacity building see unit 9
 Sensitization see unit 9
 Public awareness campaigns see unit 9
 Legal instruments See unit 8 and 9
 Aid related projects e.g. income generating projects see unit 9
 Policies See unit 9
 Affirmative action to increase participation See unit 9

7.9 manifestations of empowered women and men

7.9.1 Making the modern women

The ‘ disempowered ‘women ‘ Empowerment “The empowered women’’

process
The rational mind
 without a plan  organized
 Ignorant  knowledgeable
 Emotional  analytical

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  Fatalistic  vision for the future
 Caught up in own emotions  able to solve problems
 Does what she has always done  innovative
 Dreamer  realistic
 The autonomous self
 Insecure  self confident
 Self effacing  self aware
 Relies on others  autonomous
 Externally driven  self determined
 Recipient of decisions  decision maker
 Lack of shame  sense of dignity
 Dependent  independent
 Childish  responsible
 Can’t stand up for herself  assertive
 Does not know what to say  strong negotiating skills
 Low self esteem  high self esteem
 Only looks pretty in public  involved with public life
 The disciplined self
 No control over own body  plan’s family size
 Accept drinking / drinks herself  objects to alcoholism
 Dirty  hygienic / clean
 Bad mother / wife  good mother / wife
 Victim of diseases  healthy family
 Control over time and space
future orientate
 Static  mobile
 Lazy  hardworking
 Squanders resources/ consumes  investor
 No particular effort to educate  sends children to school
children
 Doesn’t know how to talk  articulate
 Universalism
 Stuck in traditional peer group
 Doesn’t vote  group member
 Doesn’t feel entitled to anything  involved with public life
 Transactions medicated by  aware of her rights
personal ties  transact successfully using
 Passive money
 active

Adapted from Fiedrich and Jellema, 2003

7.9. 2 Making the Modern Man

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 “Disempowered man” Empowerment “Empowered man”
 Uses force / he is process  Does not use force but
aggressive and violent negotiates.
 shout instead of  communicates instead
speaking out of shouting out
 dependent  independent
 alienation / isolation  group member
 dominance/ superiority  accept gender equality
 low self- esteem  high self esteem

Men display these qualities in addition to the qualities displayed by women.

7.11 Conclusion
This unit focused on gender empowerment trying to answer the following questions: what
is gender empowerment? How can we recognize it? Evaluate it? It also showed that
gender empowerment is a bottom up process and cannot be bestowed from the top down.
Although the outside professional can facilitate empowerment, he or she cannot expect to
control the out comes of authentic empowerment

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 References
Adair, M and Howell, S, (1989) The subjectiveside of power, in healing the wounds. The
promise of ecofeminism .New Society Publication Philadelphia

Albert, D.H (1985) People Power – applying non-violence theory New Society
publishers, Philadelphia

Czuba, C.E (2003) Empowerment: what is it @ http: / www. Cczuba

@carn/cag.uconn.edu accessed 19/09/09

Eade, D (Ed) (1999) Development with women Oxfam publication Great Britain

FAWE 2004 Tuseme “speak out Tanzania best practices in girls’ education Africa
Nairobi

Fiedrich, M and Jellema, A (2003) Literacy gender and social agency: Adventures in
empowerment action aid London

Hannan.(2003)Trans

Homelink, C.J (1994) Trends in world communication on disempowerment and self

empowerment Southbound Third World network, Penang, Malaysia

Korten D.E (1987) Community Management kumarian press West Hartford, C.T

Kreisberg, S (1992) Transforming Power Domination, Empowerment and Education

New York State University Press Albany NY

Lipps, H (1991) Women, Men and Power, Mayfield Mountain View, CA

Longwe, S (2001) Gender, Equality and woman empowerment @

http:/www.quets.kwinnoforum.se/measuring/ Namibia report .htm accessed 31/07/09

Loppe, FM and Du –Bois P.M (1994) The Quickening of America: Rebuilding our
nation remaking our lives jossey- Bass, and Publisher.San Francisco

Wallace T and March C (1991) Changing Perceptions: Writings on Gender and

Development Oxfam Ireland.

Willam, S (1994) Oxfam Gender training manual Oxfam (UK and Ireland)

Zimbabwe National Gender Policy (2000)

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 Unit 8

Gender Law and Human Rights

By Nyevero Maruzani and DoreenMazambani

CONTENTS
8.0 Introduction
8:1Objectives
8.2 Understanding Gender and the Law
8.3 How the law institutionalizes gender inequality
8.4 Progressive and retrogressive legislation
8.5 Gender analysis of laws
8.6 Legal redress of gender imbalances
8.7 Gender and human rights
8.8 Linking gender and human rights
8.9 Conclusion

8.0 Introduction

In the previous units an attempt has been made to define the term gender. Various
concepts have been looked at in an attempt to clarify the fact that gender is a social
construct. From that foundation, this chapter seeks to unveil how the law acts both as a
legitimiser and regulator of asymmetrical gender relations. The critical role that the law
plays in maintaining sexual stratification and shaping the inferior social and economic
position of women in society will be discussed. It is also the aim of this chapter to show
how the law reflects and shapes fundamental social values. Considering that gender is a
variable that operates in a social context the interrelationship of gender and human rights
will also be discussed

8.1Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Highlight the interrelationship between gender, law and human rights

 Highlight progressive and retrogressive laws on gender issues
 Highlight the interrelationship between gender and human rights
 Assess knowledge of gender ,law and human rights through tasks

8.2 Understanding Gender and the Law

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The law reflects and shapes fundamental social values as postulated by legal sociologists
Nadder and Todd:
Law has many functions. It serves to educate to punish and to protect private and public
interests, to maintain the status quo, to maintain class systems and to cut across them, to
integrate and to disintegrate societies, all these things in different places at different times
with different weightings (1978:1)

This evidences the fact that there are legal contradictions at work in society and that the
law is not a finished product of historical social processes. Thus the law can be both an
instrument of social change and an obstacle to it.

What is the law?

It is importantthat you understand what we mean by the term “law”. For this reason you
need to be clear in your mind about the various divisions within the body of the law. An
understanding of these divisions of the law will enable you to correctly classify the
wrongful act thereby enabling the parties concerned to determine their rights.

The law according to David and Colin (2002) may be defined as a rule of human conduct,
imposed upon and enforced among the members of a given state. Rules or laws are
therefore drawn up to ensure that members of a society ,that is you and me ,may live
and work together in an orderly and peaceable manner.

ACTIVITY 8. 1

 Do you think that the laws in your society are making men and women work
together in a peace able and orderly manner?
 Do these laws protect one sex at the expense of the other sex?
 Is the punishment for law breaking satisfactory? Why do you say so?

The law is the official rule that people must obey. It refers to the collection of rules
imposed by authority. Laws have often been described as gender neutral and others as
gender specific. Gender neutral laws are those that apply equally to everybody regardless
of one is a man or woman. Most laws generally fall into this category. At least on paper
such laws apply equally to everyone without discrimination even though in reality their
effect on men and women maybe different. Although most countries today have laws
which give equal rights to men and women the fact is that such laws tend to affect men
and women differently because of the different roles and paths in life that each follow.
This is often referred to as the difference between law in the book and law in reality.

Gender specific laws on the other hand are laws that apply specifically to either men or
women. This is mainly because men and women are different biologically so there
maybe instances where women require special laws when the reality of their biological

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differences is taken into account. Laws on breast feeding and maternity leave are gender
specific in that they apply to women because they are the ones directly affected by
pregnancy and childbirth. In pursuit of gender equality especially in the caring of
children paternity leave has been introduced to allow fathers to take time off to look after
their newly born children.

The law as given by Reynolds and Russell (1981) can be divided into two major
categories that is the public and the private law as follows:

Public-law – deals with relationships between the state and individuals e.g.
criminal law, administrative law and constitutional law.

Private Law: deals with relationships between individuals amongst

themselves e.g. law of delict, law of contract, law of property, law
of succession, law of obligations and family law.

Procedural Law: deals with how the rules governing state and individual
relationships are administered and enforced e.g. criminal
procedure, civil procedure and law of evidence. This type of law
falls under public and private laws(Reynolds and Russsel 1981:39)

Public/private dichotomy
The public sphere (work and politics) and private dichotomy (domestic life home and
family is deeply ingrained in the law. Regardless of the operative legal system or cultural
context laws concerning the public area e.g labour law have been modernized and
brought in line with more enlightened thinking while family and personal matters in the
private sphere have for the most part left untouched by the state e.g Section 23 of the
Constitution of Zimbabwe which permits discrimination in issues of customary family
and personal law.

ACTIVITY 8. 2
State any public law and the procedural law that is used in trying to
bring peace between the two parties concerned.

Applying the concept of gender to the law means that we must seek to understand how
each law affects men and women differently. If a law is gender neutral it does not mean
that it affects men and women in a similar way. A gender analysis of the law requires
that we appreciate sameness as well as differences between men and women. In any
society laws we also need laws that recognize the differences between men and women.

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A gender analysis of the law is also important because simply changing the law does not
mean the end of discrimination. Often even after a law is changed there is need to
understand the different factors that prevent that law from being effective. There are
many reasons why the law may not be effective. Administratively those who apply the
law may not be doing the best they can to make sure that it works effectively. Equally
important is that society’s attitudes and beliefs may also prevent the law from being
effective. If we understand what these attitudes are, then we can work effectively towards
changing them.

8.3 How the law institutionalizes gender inequality

Four mechanisms are key to this process:
 Unjust formal law that are discriminatory and limit the
scope of women.
 Prejudicial enforcement of laws favourable to women by
administrative and state enforcement agents such as police,
courts and prisons.
 Lacunae/gaps in the law. In some instances women’s
inferior status results prejudicial social practices not
changed by the law.
 Remoteness of the law. There is general ignorance of the
law despite the prescription of awareness which makes
ignorance of the law not a defense ignorance of the law and
law making processes especially by women who tend to be
unaware of their status of the rights they posses, of the
effect laws have on than, or the role they might play in
changing the law.

Societies regulate the acquisition and control of land, jobs credit and other goods and
services through their legal systems and adjudicative processes. Women’s subordination
based on unequal gender relations is manifest in the law in several key areas particularly
labour law, criminal law and civil law which governs legal capacity, rights and
obligations in marriage, guardianship, inheritance income, land rights and participation in
public affairs.

Laws reinforce women’s oppression by legitimizing hierarchical gender relations,

proprietary relations of men over women unequal division of labour and power over the
allocation of resources.

8.4 Progressive and retrogressive legislation

Examples of retrogressive legislation

a) Constitution of Zimbabwe Section 23
b) Companies Act Section 171(3) (b)

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 c) Communal Lands Act and land reform programme
d) Customary marriages Act
e) Guardianship of minors Act
f) Land Acquisition Act
g) Mining Act

Constitution of Zimbabwe Section 23

Section 23 of the constitution of Zimbabwe is the non-discrimination clause. It makes

discrimination on the grounds of among other things race, colour, creed, tribe, and
religion, sex impermissible. This section was amended in 1996 by Amendment 14 to add
‘gender’ as another impermissible basis for discrimination. This same section excludes
discrimination in matters relating to ‘adoption, marriage, divorce, and devolution of
property on death or other matters of personal law’. What this means is that while the
constitution purports to protect women against gender-based discrimination, it excludes
from constitutional regulation, family, personal and customary law yet these are the areas
of law in which gender discrimination is mostly entrenched.

Section 173(1) (b) Companies Act

The section reads:

Disqualification for appointment as director:
(1) (a) a minor or any other person under legal disability
(!) (b) provided that a woman married in community of property may be director if her
husband gives his written consent and that consent is lodged with the Registrar of
Companies.

What this means is that only a woman requires the husband’s consent for her to become a
director but the woman’s consent is not required for the husband to become a director.
This stems from the issue of power where the husband as head of family and home
decision-maker should sanction any actions of other members of the household including
the wife especially where such actions can result in legal and financial liability to the
matrimonial estate.

Communal Lands Act (1982)

In communal areas land should be apportioned in accordance with the customs and
practices of the people of the area in consultation with traditional leaders and the district
administrator.

There is no enabling legal framework to ensure equality in the redistribution of land.

Colonial land tenure arrangements that discriminated against women have been
perpetuated in the present day through the Communal Lands Act. Under this law, women
in communal areas, where most rural Zimbabweans live, are still expected to depend on
men for land, denying them land tenure rights. Even though section 16 of the
Constitution of Zimbabwe stipulates that every citizen has an equal right to ownership of

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property, another constitutional provision, section 23 has permitted discrimination against
women under customary law. Given the fact that customary law places heavy emphasis
on land rights being enjoyed by the head of the household who in the context of
Zimbabwean customary law is generally considered to be male, women’s land rights are
not adequately protected. The fact that women lack access to and control over land
makes them unable to acquire credit, marketing facilities and excludes them from
decision making powers over agricultural production activities and benefits.

Land reform programme

In October 2000, the Government of Zimbabwe undertook to allocate at least 20% of all
land identified for resettlement to women. It was discrimination in itself to allocate only
20% to women when they make up 52% of the population. Despite this, by August 2002
when the President announced that the fast Track Land Reform Programme had been
officially completed, the land quota for women had not been put into law and the number
of females allocated land was very low countrywide. According to the 2003 Utete land
Audit Report, female-headed households who benefited under model A1 (peasant
farmers) constituted only 18% of the total number of household while female
beneficiaries under the Model A2 (commercial farmers) constituted only 12%.

Guardianship of Minors Act

Guardianship involves having the capacity to make decisions on behalf of a minor in both
contractual and judicial matters and pertaining to the child’s welfare. This law makes the
father of a child born in wedlock (in marriage) the natural guardian so entitled to make
decisions pertaining to the child’s welfare and his consent is required un juridical acts
like acquisition of birth certificates, passports and performance of surgical processes.
There is no joint guardianship with the mother.

This emanates from the social norm that children belong to the father whose name they
take after. The woman is just a medium reproduction of that which does not belong to
her.

For children born out of wedlock (out of marriage) the mother of the child is the sole
guardian. The father does not have any rights towards the child except for purposes of
maintenance if the mother so wishes to claim it.

Mining Act

The Act does not permit women from working underground in mines it seems to be based
on the notion of women’s fragility and irrationality hence the need to prevent harm to
themselves and others since mining is considered a hazardous occupation.

Examples of progressive legislation

a) Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97

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 b) Deeds Registries Amendment Act
c) Income tax Amendment Act
d) Labour Relations Amendment Act
e) Matrimonial causes Act
f) Minimum Wages Regulations
g) Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence
Bill
h) Sexual Discrimination Removal Act

Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97

The amendment now allows women to inherit from their husbands, although there is still
discrimination in polygamous marriages where senior wife gets a bigger portion in spite
of contributions by junior wives.
The Act also:
- Abolished concept of male heirship and male beneficiary in own personal
capacity and replaced it executorship where an executor usually surviving spouse
is tasked by the court to oversee distribution of estate and benefits from estate
together with other beneficiaries including surviving children both male and
female.
- Surviving spouse (male or female) and children (male and female) now prime
beneficiaries of deceased estate.

Magaya V Magaya

This case involved inheritance rights. The Supreme Court of Zimbabwe made a
landmark decision that gave precedence to customary law over the constitution. The
ruling that women cannot be considered equal to men before the law in issues of
inheritance because of African cultural norms and the nature of African society was in
itself discrimination on the basis of sex.

A female eldest child was denied the right to inherit in preference of a younger brother.
The judge in the lower court held that:
“The claimant is a lady and therefore cannot be appointed heir to her father’s estate when
there is a man…”

The judiciary backed up its decision by referring to Section 23 of the constitution of

Zimbabwe. The Constitution prohibits discrimination in Article 23(1) but in Article
23(3) recognizes exceptions to this general prohibition against discrimination in issues
relating to among others adoption, marriage, divorce, burial, devotion of property on
death or other matters of personal law as well as the application of African customary
law. Essentially, by making this judgement, the Supreme Court elevated customary law

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beyond constitutional scrutiny Outcry after the decision led to Amendment 6/97 as
discussed above.

Deeds Registries Act

Women can now register immovable property in their own name (applies to urban and
rural commercial land where title deeds are obtainable.

Equal Pay Regulations (1980)

s
The Regulations provide for equal pay for work of equal value.

Income Tax Amendment Act

The Income Tax Act was amended in favour of women, in 1990. Prior to the
amendment; married women’s income was taxed as part of the husband’s income. Now
spouses are taxed separately. This resulted in women ending up with little money,
because allowances such as children’s allowances were credited to men.

Labour Relations Amendment Act (2004)

- Non-discrimination in the workplace on the basis of sex or gender in recruitment,

promotion, training, retrenchment and other benefits.
- 98 days fully paid maternity leave for both public and private sector employed
women
- Prohibition of sexual harassment

Legal Age of Majority Act (LAMA) (1982)

In 1982, the Legal Age of Majority Act conferred on all persons of both sexes full legal
capacity on reaching 18 years of age.
- Section 3 thereof bestowed majority status on African women who were
previously considered perpetual minors upon attainment of the age of 18.
- Bestowed legal capacity on African women who previously lacked it so women
can now perform legal and juristic acts such as entering into contracts without the
assistance of male guardians and control over their sexuality. Women of 18 years
or above, not their guardians cannot sue for seduction damages.
- Reduced age of majority from 21-18 for both males and females.

Chihowa V Mangwende SC 84/87

The then Chief Justice held:

The legislature by enacting LAMA made women who in African law and custom
were perpetual minors majors and therefore equal to men who are majors.

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Concern has been raised over the Act’s failure to pronounce the legality or otherwise of
the payment of lobola. Some women believe that their oppression is rooted in this system
and recommend that it be made illegal. However there are dissenting voices on the issue.

Maintenance Act

Provides for maintenance claims for spouse and children or for children born out of
wedlock against spouse of child’s parent who is obliged to materially support dependents
and has been failing to fulfill the obligation and is financially capable of doing so.

Matrimonial Causes Act (1985)

The Act allows for equitable distribution of property between spouses on divorce in a
registered marriage. The Act empowered the courts to override customary law and to
effect a more equitable re-distribution of matrimonial property upon dissolution of a
marriage. The law takes into account a woman’s economic or domestic contribution to
the well being of her family and thus ensures equitable distribution of matrimonial
property between the spouses. Unfortunately the Act does not apply to unregistered
customary marriages, which are legally not recognized as valid marriages except for
purposed of African law and custom relating to the status, guardianship, custody and
rights of succession in the children.

Minimum Wages (1980)

Minimum wages for various unskilled occupations the majority of whom are women
were set. Seasonal workers (tobacco, tea and cotton pickers) were categorized as
permanent for purposes of pension benefits.

Sexual Offences Act (2001)

- Provides protection from sexual abuse to all children not only the girl child as was
previously the case.
- Both men and women are deemed capable of performing sexual offences
including rape.
- Protection of women from non-consensual sexual intercourse within marriage
(marital rape protection)
- Spousal liability for willful transmission of HIV

Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic Violence Bill

- Seeks to eliminate violence be it physical, verbal or economic in relationships of a

domestic nature e.g. husband/wife boyfriend/girlfriend, child/parent etc
- Both males and females can be perpetrators or victims of domestic violence

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 - Social, religious and cultural practices such as virginity testing, chiramu (in-law
flirtation), kuzvarira (pledging) chimutsamapfihwa (substitute wifing) etc are
outlawed as constituting domestic violence.

Matrimonial Causes Act (1985)

- Recognises a married woman’s right to matrimonial property upon divorce.

- Introduced equitable distribution of matrimonial property upon divorce, which
takes into consideration domestic work input.

8.5 Gender Analysis of Laws

Case law is a body of available writings explaining the verdict in a case(Oran,1983: 5). It
is most created by judges in their rulings when they write their decisions and give the
reasoning behind them as well as citing precedents in other cases and statutes that had a
bearing on their decisions case law is often referred to as common-law in many regions
of the world. Oran(1983) also referred to it as judge made law. The term judge made
law is derived form the fact that while legislation is technically passed in most countries
by a legislative branch, courts are able to exercise moderate amount of quasi-legislative
power through the use of precedent case-law. Case law allows courts to transform
decisions that may have taken a great deal of time and energy to arrive at into a de-facto
law, making future cases much easier to decide.

Curzon(2002) concurs with Oran(1983) on the view that statutory or statute law is written
law set down by a legislative body. Statutes are enacted in response to a perceived need
to clarify the function of government, improve civil order, to codify existing law or for an
individual or company to obtain special treatment. Statute law refers to the law that has
been created by parliament in the form of legislation. It can also be described as an act of
parliament.

ACTIVITY 8. 3
 What is the advantage of doing gender analysis of laws?
 Who benefits from that analysis?

With the given explanations of case and statutory law we are going to look at the gender
analysis of certain laws. The idea of gender analysis will not be discussed here as it has
been looked at in detail in a previous chapter.

Examples of gender dimensions in Zimbabwe’s Law

Table 8.1
Law Gender Analysis
S23 of the Constitution The constitution grants equal right to everyone and
of Zimbabwe protection from discrimination on the grounds of race,
tribe, place of origin, political opinions, color, creed or

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 gender. However, its protection of customary law in
matters such as adoption, marriage, divorce, burial,
devolution of property, on death or other matters of
personal including rights relating to communal land
impact on men and women differently since customary
laws in these areas tends to disadvantage women. The
constitutional provisions relating to non discrimination
can be said to be worded in a gender neutral manner but
they impact on men and women in a very gender specific
way.
The Legal Age of The legal age of majority Act is a gender-neutral piece of
Majority Act (Now part legislation in that it gives equal rights to everyone at the
of the general laws age of 18. however, it impacts more on women because of
Amendment Act how society has tended to regard their status as being
Chapter 8:07) inferior. Matrimonial causes Act contains guidelines on
distribution of property on divorce. It is largely gender
neutral but also contains some provisions, which can be
looked at from a gender specific viewpoint. Of
importance is the recognition amongst other things f
contributions made to the family by looking after the
home, and caring for the family as well as any other
domestic duties. It is mainly, though not exclusively,
women who are involved in this kind of work and
therefore stand to benefit more from a direct recognition
of housework.
The Labour Relations It contains some gender specific provisions particularly
Act those relating to maternity leave and breastfeeding rights.
The Deceased Persons It is a gender-neutral piece of legislation, which allows a
Family Maintenance Act person who was being maintained by the deceased to
claim support from the estate. It also protects the estate
from property grabbers. In reality when we look at the
effects of this Act, it is again quite clear that because of
the social realities that exist on the ground it tends to have
a different meaning for men and women.
Administration of Puts emphasis on the surviving spouse(s) and children as
Estates Amendment Act the primary beneficiaries of the estate. It can be descried
as being both gender neutral and gender specific at the
same time. It is gender specific in that it treats the
distribution of the estate of a polygamous man differently
from the death of one of his spouses. While widows can
expect to share 1/3 from the estate of each of his wives
should they die before him.
Infanticide Act Allows the court to examine the special circumstances of
women who kill their babies. Since it is women who give
birth, the Act is largely gender specific although it also
contains some provisions relating to the father of the child.

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Customary Marriages This is an example of a law that is seemingly gender
Act neutral but favours men. It allows polygamy as a practice
for men only in that they can take on more than one wife.

8.6 Way Forward – legal redress of gender imbalances

- Enactment of Gender equality Act
- Gender audit and review of all legislation to make it gender sensitive and responsive
- Gender training for state administrators and law enforcement agents
- Legal literacy
- Legal education or sensitization
- Community gender and human rights training

8.7 Gender and Human Rights

What are Human rights?

Human rights refer to basic rights or legal claims to which all humans are entitled by
virtue of them being human(English and Stapleton,1997:7). Professor Jack Donnely in
Chiweshe et al (2003) define human rights as the rights that one has simply because one
is human. He goes on to say:

Human rights, because they rest on nothing more than being

human are universal, equal and inalienable. They are held up
by all beings universally. One either is or is not human
and thus has or does not have rights equally.And can no more lose
these rights than one can stop being a human being .No matter
how inhumane the treatment one may suffer. One is entitled to
human rights and is empowered by them(page 9)

To put it in simpler terms, human rights can be given as those freedoms or claims that
every human being is automatically entitled to, just because you are born a human being
Examples of rights and freedoms which are often classified as human rights include right
to life and to liberty, freedom of expression and equality before the law, economic, social
and cultural rights, the right to participate in culture, right to food, right to work and the
right to education. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They
are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood. Human rights are rights which people are entitled to simply because they
are human beings regardless of their nationality, race, ethnicity, gender or religion.
These are rights that every human being automatically qualities for at birth. No personal
factors can lead one being denied these rights. Central to the concept of human rights is
the protection of human dignity.

The gendered nature of human Rights

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The promotion of gender equality remains one of the greatest challenges of our times,
globally and locally. At a global level there are many international human rights
instruments that on the face of it grant equal rights to men and women. Some of the major
instruments include the Universal Declaration of human rights as well as the Covenant on
Social and Economic rights.

From a gender perspective it is also important to understand how the different human
rights instruments deal or do not deal with issues of gender.

Human rights have often been spoken of in terms of different generation of rights
depending on what they deal with.

- First generation of rights Civil and political rights

- Second generation of rights Social economic and cultural rights
- Third generation of rights Collective/solidarity or group rights

The analysis below discusses briefly some of the criticisms that have been made against
each of this generation of rights in terms of how they deal with the gender issues.

First Generation of Rights: Civil and Political Rights

The major criticism against this generation of rights is that they are mainly founded on
the experiences of men in public as opposed to highlighting the experiences of both men
and women. Women tend to experience violations of their rights in the private sphere. In
other words, what has come to concern us under this generation of rights has largely
excluded the experiences of women as illustrated more fully in the examples below.

For example, the right to life which is a granted to all in Article 6 of the Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, is criticized for being interpreted in a manner which treats the
threat to the right to life as coming from state actors only. The global interpretation is
criticized for excluding important spheres that also threaten the right to life for women
when compared to men such as:
- Abortion
- Infanticide (eg killing of girl children in cultures that favour male children)
- Malnutrition (e.g from feeding men first in some cultures)
- Less access to health care compared to men (death from pregnancy and lack of
access to health care)
- Violence against women, which can result in death

Freedom from torture is also criticized for being interpreted in a manner which assumes
that most torture takes place at the hands of public officials when for most women when
compared to men the greatest level of torture takes place in the home, the private sphere
as opposed to the public sphere.

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The interpretation of the right to liberty and security of the person is also criticized for
being interpreted in manner which addresses actions of the state only and does not
address violations to liberty and security of the person that result from sexual violence
against women.

The right to privacy, another major civil political right is also criticized from a gender
view point for protecting the home and the family as private sites when they can be very
dangerous places for women because of the violence which often takes place inside them.

Second Generation Rights: Social Economic and Cultural

Rights

The criticism of social and economic rights is that like civil and political rights, they have
tended to be interpreted in a manner, which takes men’s experiences more into account
compared to the experiences of women. For example, Article 7 of the Covenant talks of
the right to work, equal remuneration of workers, favourable working conditions, equal
opportunities for promotion and so on. The bulk of women, when compared to men are
confined to work in the private sphere, yet the article is more concerned with work in the
public sphere.

Cultural and religious rights which are also guaranteed by this covenant are areas that
often present problems for women.

Another criticism is that state parties are regarded as central in achieving social and
economic rights when for most women, their rights are often negotiated through
individual men or groups of men.

Third Generation Rights: Collective or group rights

The right to development and the right to self-determination constitute some of the major
collective or group rights. They tend to emphasize the rights of groups and collectives as
opposed to the rights of individuals. From a gender perspective, these rights are regarded
as problematic for several reasons.

The right to development for instance has often been interpreted to suit male economic
needs. An example is land distribution that has tended to favour men at the expense of
women.

The right to self-determination has also often been interpreted in a manner that masks the
oppression of women. Women are often neglected in nationalists’ movements.

The major criticism from a gender perspective of third generation rights is that they have
generally addressed male interests in political life rather than taking care of the interests
of both men and women.

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 Summary of criticism of mainstream human rights from a gender perspective

The process through which the rights were formulated did not include women and
therefore it is largely the experiences of what human rights are.

The priority given to civil and political rights marginalizes social and economic
rights.

Many issues of concern to women such as underdevelopment, illiteracy, gender

segregation, lack of reproductive choice, have either not been defined as human
rights in main stream instruments or are not binding in terms of enforcement.

Governments, in the name of culture often justify violations of human rights.

Women as compared to men are also seriously underrepresented in human rights

bodies.

ACTIVITY8. 4
 What is your definition of human rights?
 What are the characteristics of human rights?
 In Zimbabwe how do laws impact on human rights?

Are Women’s Rights Human Rights?

One may wonder why this section asks about the rights of women only. You may be very
correct to wonder that way, may be you see the need for an address of the rights of
women or you are thinking otherwise but after reading this section I am sure together
you and i can justify our standpoints.

Women’s rights are human rights. Why? Women are human beings! Women’s equal
dignity and human rights as full human beings are enshrined in the basic instruments of
today’s international community. From the Charter of the United Nations endorsement
of the equal rights of men and women (1945) to the universal declaration of human rights
(1948) and the subsequent international treaties and declarations.

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The rights of women are central to our democratic society. These declarations and
treaties and even the Vienna Declaration of (1993) and the Declaration of Beijing (1995)
stand in sharp contrast to the daily realities for millions of women, of the 1.3 billion
people living in poverty 70% are women, the majority of the world’s refugees are
women, female illiteracy. Women and girls are treated as commodities in cross boarder
prostitution rackets and in the pornography industry. Millions of girls are still subject to
genital mutilations while women in every country are regular victims of domestic
violence, in many countries women lack access to reproductive health care and everyday
women are targeted in armed conflict. Women’s economic, social and cultural rights
continue to be neglected. There can be no peace, security or sustainable economic
development in societies which deny human rights including the human rights of women.
Fighting for women rights is a positive struggle, which recognizes the quality of women’s
contribution in every aspect of the community, in politics, industry commerce, education,
academic, agriculture and home. Women’s rights are human rights and the United
Nations High Commissioner for human rights is committed to work in partnership with
UN agencies and programmes, governments, regional organisations, academic
institutions, the NGO community and women throughout the world to promote and
protect women’s rights and to translate these rights to a better quality of the life for all.
Hillary Clinton at the fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing China presented a
speech in which he strongly pronounced that women’s rights are human rights. Consider
an important quote, which says:

The human rights of women and the girl child are an inalienable, integral and
indivisible part of the universal human rights. The fall and equal participation of
women in political, civil economic, social and cultural life at the national regional
and international levels and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on the
grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community (Vienna
Declaration and Platform of Action Part 1 Paragraph 18).

S
I am sure our discussion on the issue of women ‘s rights as human rights has been
justifiedAs you can see women are denied their rights due too a number of reasons
.These reasons may be big or small,economic,cultural and many others ,the point
remains; some rights are granted or denied due to one’s sex .The next section highlights
this aspect.

8:8 Linking Gender and Human Rights

Analysis of content and nature of human rights as well as measures to ensure their
enjoyment should be informed by gender based considerations. There are many
processes at the domestic and international levels through which the content of human
rights is clarified and their implementations occurs. The systematic integration of gender

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factors into these processes, into measures for implementation and into domestic and
international monitoring is a global challenge.

In the enjoyment of rights women face constraints and vulnerabilities which differ from
those that affect men and which are of significant relevance to the enjoyment of these
rights. This variable mean that women maybe affected by violations of rights in ways
that are different from men. Women are disappropriately affected by poverty and social
marginalization. They suffer systematic and unsystematic discrimination which results in
deep patterns of inequality and disadvantage. The overall level of development and of
resources available to countries, women’s literacy levels and women’s access to
information and to legal remedies also have an impact on women’s enjoyment of their
rights. The gender based division of labour with women being primarily responsible for
reproductive work and work related the family and men for productive work, also
contributes to the perpetration of gender inequalities.

Many women experience multiple barriers in gaining access to rights such as

employment, housing, land, food and social security. These barriers include the
disproportionate burden of reproductive and care-giving work performed by women, the
sexual division of labour and segregated employment practices, discriminatory traditional
and cultural laws and practices, unequal representation by women in political and other
decision making structures at all levels and the widespread violence perpetuated against
women. Women’s social position, marital status class or membership in particular
vulnerable groups such as refugees or migrant women rural or urban poor women are
often linked to discrimination.

When laws, customs, traditional roles family responsibilities or attitudes and stereotypes
provide women with fewer opportunities or place them at a disadvantage as they seek to
access opportunities remedial measures are needed to eliminate such disadvantages to
prevent them from recurring. When policies are designed in the context of respect for
promotion and protection of human rights then unequal outcomes for women in the
economic and social spheres oblige governments to design procedures in a way that
reduces inequality.

Human Rights Instruments and Gender

Over the last decade the concept of gender has increasingly informed policy
programming and treaty interpretation both within and outside the UN system. The
principle of equal rights of women and men was recognized in the UN Charter and is
contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and all subsequent international
human rights instruments. The need for women’s participation in all spheres of society
both in the public and private domains and the recognition of inequality and
discrimination in the private domain led to the creation of specific standards for the
protection of women’s rights.

In (1979) the United Nations adopted the convention on the Elimination of all forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). CEDAW establishes women’s right to non-

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discrimination on the basis of sex and affirms equality in international law. It provides
that women and men are entitled to equal enjoyment and exercise of human rights and
fundamental freedoms in civil, cultural, economic, political and social fields. The (1993)
Vienna Conference of Human Rights the (1994) Cairo Conference on Population and
Development and the (1995) Beijing Women’s World Conference recognized the need to
build on these principles to assert women’s rights. These global conferences promoted
the review of policies and programmes from the perspective of their impact on women
and men that is the re-evaluation of policies and programmes from a gender perspective.
This has led to gender mainstreaming (discussed in Unit 1), which aimed at correcting
disparities in different policy sectors and ensuring their enjoyment of civil, cultural,
economic political and social rights. Gender mainstreaming also requires action to
identify areas where gender constitute a risk factor for violation or abuse of human rights
for example gender based violence. All in all gender mainstreaming is an organizational
imperative so as to reinforce the principle of non-discrimination on the basis of sex for
the achievement of gender equality and the enjoyment of human rights.

Major human rights instruments which have been adopted within the UN framework
include the following:

 ICCPR—The International Covenant On Civil and Political Rights (1966)

 ICESCR---The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(1966)

 ICERD-----The International Convention on the Elimination Of All Forms Of

Racial Discrimination1965

 CEDAW--------The Convention on the Elimination of All Form Of

Discrimination Against Women(1979)

 CRC-----The Convention On The Rights of The Child(1989)

 CAT-----The Convention Against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading

Treatment or Punishment (1984)(Chiweshe et al 2003:12)

Implementation of human rights instruments on gender

equality
The Women’s Convention: A Search for Gender equality?

Because of the limitations of the major human rights instruments in addressing gender
issues, women successfully lobbied for a major international human rights instrument
dealing with women’ issues. It came into force on the 3rd of September 1981. Its
approach is to seek to improve the lives of women by making them equal with men.

Among its provisions, the Women’s Convention calls for the ending of discrimination
against women through constitutional and legal reforms. It also seeks for women’s

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equality in political and civil life. It also calls for equality in marriage and family life and
specifically addresses the rights of rural women.

The African Charter on Human and People’s rights

Regional Instruments are an important frame of reference for human rights in addition to
international instruments. In our case the Africa Charter on Human and People’s Rights
plays as a crucial role in defining human rights from an African viewpoint. While the
Charter is largely gender neutral in its approach it contains some Articles that speak
directly to women. For example, Article 18 requires states to eliminate discrimination
against women and ensure the protection of women and children as required by
international instruments.

From a gender analysis viewpoint, the African Charter talks of preserving positive
African cultural values. Cultural values that are preserved should not be the ones that
seek to oppress women. Within the African context talk of cultural values raises
important questions about practices such as lobola, female circumcision and widow
inheritance, to mention a few.

The Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of Women

Because of the limitations of the African Charter as a largely gender neutral document in
bringing gender equality particularly for women, the heads of state adopted an additional
instrument in 2002 called the Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of women.
Like the CEDAW, it seeks to address key areas where women need to be uplifted. It
singles out practices that need to be done away with if women and men are to achieve
equality, such as circumcision and widow inheritance and polygamous marriages.

While it is a progressive instrument the problem is that it can only come into force when
at least 16 African countries have adopted it at the country level. So far only four
countries have.

The SADC Declaration on gender and development

Another instrument which is of use in understanding gender issues is the SADC

Declaration on Gender and Development. It was adopted by the heads of state of the
Southern African Development Community in 1997. It is informed by the understanding
of gender equality as a fundamental human right and more significantly by the
appreciation of the role of gender equality in the sustainable development of the SADC
region. It also acknowledges the significant point that most SADC member countries
have ratified CEDAW or are in the process of doing so. As such, the SADC Declaration,
as is the case with the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights, has to be in line
with the letter and the spirit of CEDAW. Also emphasized are the gains to be made from
closer cooperation and collective action on gender issues within the region. Areas
identified as needing particular attention are the gender disparities in decision-making,
power sharing access and control over reproductive resources, education, health and legal

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rights. Especially noteworthy is the undertaking to repeal and reform all laws, amend
constitutions and change social practices that continue to subject women to
discrimination.

National Efforts

Zimbabwe is party to the major international human rights such as the Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, the Covenant on Social and Economic Rights the Convention on the
Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women. It is also a party to the
African Charter on Human and People’s rights. However, it has not yet adopted the
Protocol to the African Charter on the rights of women. While a lot of progress has been
made at the country level in terms of changing laws and adopting new ones that seek to
equalize the rights of men and women, the biggest challenge in Zimbabwe remains in the
implementation of these laws both administratively and at societal level.

A significant limitation from a gender viewpoint is that our Constitution as the highest
law of the land still contains provisions, which tend to protect customary law from the
non-discriminatory provisions. The constitution as the highest law of the land needs to
be an instrument that fosters equality without fear or favour.

8:9 Conclusion
From the foregoing it is evident that Zimbabwean society is relatively unequal in terms of
gender. This inequality between men and women is negatively impacting on income
distribution, political participation, power relations, access to, control and ownership of
economic and productive resources leading to impediment of human development efforts
aimed at addressing issues of equity, social justice and human rights. Various pieces of
legislation are in place to maintain the status quo. It can also be concluded that despite
the fact that 52% of the Zimbabwean population are women, men continue to have a
higher human development index as compared to females in terms of political
participation, decision-making and education. However, the government is making
strides in attempting to promote gender equality in both the public and private sphere but
section 23 of the constitution seems to be a provision carved on stone and has remained
etched in the supreme law of the land.

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Armstrong A., (1998), Culture and Choice Lessons from Survivors of Gender Violence in
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And The Media (2003)Human Rights Trust Of Southern Africa Harare

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Nader L & Todd H.F (Jr) The Disputing Process-Law in Ten Societies, New York,
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Reynolds,D.A. and Russel J.A.—Officers of the ministry of justice(1983) An

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Southern African Research and Documentation Centre & Zimbabwe Women Resource
Centre and Network (1998) Beyond Inequalities: Women in Zimbabwe, Harare, Southern
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Schuler, M., ed, (1992) Freedom From Violence: Women’s Strategies From Around The
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Tsanga, A.S. (2003), Taking Law to the People: Gender Law Reform and Community
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Listoflegislations cited
Matrimonial Causes Act

Minimum wages Act

Mining Act

Prevention of Domestic violence and Protection of victims of Domestic violence

Bill

Sexual Offences Act

Prevention of Domestic Violence and Protection of Victims of Domestic

Violence Bill

Administration of Estates Amendment 6/97

Communal Lands Act and land reform programme

Companies Act Section 171(3) (b)

Constitution of Zimbabwe section 23

Customary marriages Act

Guardianship of minors Act

Intepretation Act

Labour Relations Amendment Act

Land Acquisition Act

Legal Age of Majority Act

Case law cited

Chihowa v Mangwende SC 84/87

Magaya v Magaya SC 101/99

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