Skip to Main content

Elsevier logo

Earth Orbit

The Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse where the degree to which the orbit departs from a circle is
measured by its eccentricity (e).

From: Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences (Third Edition), 2019

Related terms:

GNSSObliquityGlobal Positioning SystemSpacecraftBDSSolar WindSolar SystemNorthern HemisphereLow

Earth OrbitOrbit Determination

View all Topics

Add to MendeleySet alert

About this page

Satellite Communications

Kenneth M. Peterson, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Third Edition), 2003

II.A.3 MEO

MEO systems operate at an altitude of approximately 10,000 km above the earth, which is an orbit that
provides a compromise between the characteristics of the GEO and LEO orbits. Compared to LEOs, the
higher altitude requires fewer satellites to provide full earth coverage and provides a much longer view
time from a point on the earth to the covering satellite. The relative velocity between a MEO satellite
and the earth is also less, so the resulting Doppler present on the space to earth communication links is
less than for LEO constellations operating at the same frequency band. Compared to GEO systems,
MEOs can operate effectively with smaller, mobile equipment and with less time delay on the
communication links. One of the disadvantages of MEO systems is that the radiation environment is
quite intense for these orbits, and hence more radiation hardening is necessary in the electronic
subsystem which in turn translates into higher cost satellites.

Most MEO constellations consist of 10 or more satellites distributed over two or three orbital planes.
They can be used to provide an array of services ranging from voice to Internet data. An example of a
MEO system is the ICO Global Communication system.
The Role of Variations of the Earth's Orbital Characteristics in Climate Change

Lucas J. Lourens, Erik Tuenter, in Climate Change, 2009

2.1 Eccentricity

The Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. The plane in which the Earth moves around the Sun is
called the Ecliptic of date, Ect (Fig. 1). The Sun is roughly located in one of its two foci. The eccentricity
(e) of the Earth's orbit is defined as:

Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 1. Astronomical configuration of the Earth. (a) Elements of the Earth's orbital parameters
(modified after [101]). (b) Position of a point (S) on the celestial sphere

(modified after [38]). See text for explanations.

(1)

where a is the ellipse semi-major axis and b the semi-minor axis. The current eccentricity is 0.0167 but in
the past hundred millions of years eccentricity has varied from about 0.0669 to almost 0.0001; that is, a
near-circular orbit [32]. For the past 15 Ma, the three most important periods in the series expansion for
eccentricity are about 405, 124 and 95 ka (Fig. 2e).
Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 2. Variations of the Earth's orbital parameters over the past 500 ka according to the La04 solution
[32]. (a) Mean annual insolation including a solar constant of 1368 W·m−2. (b) Eccentricity (solid) and
climatic precession (dotted line). (c) Obliquity. (d) 65°N summer (21 May–20 July) insolation. (e)
Combined power spectrum of eccentricity (grey), obliquity (grey plus solid line) and precession (black)
for the past 15 Ma.

The variation of the Earth's movements (orbital, tilt, and precession) and climate change

Lucas J. Lourens, in Climate Change (Third Edition), 2021

2.1 Eccentricity

The Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. The plane in which the Earth moves around the Sun is
called the Ecliptic of date, Ect (Fig. 28.1). The Sun is roughly located in one of its two foci. The
eccentricity (e) of the Earth's orbit is defined as:

Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 28.1. Astronomical configuration of the Earth (modified after [134]). (A) Elements of the Earth's
orbital parameters. (B) Position of a point (S) on the celestial sphere. See text for explanations.

(28.1)

2
�

where a is the ellipse semimajor axis, b is the semiminor axis, and c is the distance from focus to center.
The current eccentricity is 0.0167 (Fig. 28.2B), but in the past 100 millions of years, eccentricity has
varied from about 0.0669 to almost 0.0001, i.e., a near-circular orbit [26]. For the past 15 Ma, the three
most important periods in the series expansion for eccentricity are about 405, 124, and 95 ka (Fig.
28.2E), corresponding to the resonances between the secular frequencies of Venus (g2) and Jupiter (g5),
Mars (g4) and Venus (g2), and Mars (g4) and Jupiter (g5), respectively [26].

Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 28.2. Variations of the Earth's orbital parameters between 350 ka and 50 kyr into the future
according to the La04 solution [26]. (A) Mean annual insolation including a solar constant of 1368 W/m2.
(B) Eccentricity (solid) and climatic precession (dotted line). (C) Obliquity. (D) 65°N summer (21st May–
20th July) insolation. (E) Combined power spectrum of eccentricity (gray), obliquity (green) and
precession (black) from the past 15 Ma.

The Variation of the Earth's Movements (Orbital, Tilt and Precession)

Lucas J. Lourens, in Climate Change (Second Edition), 2016

2.1 Eccentricity

The Earth's orbit around the sun is an ellipse. The plane in which the Earth moves around the sun is
called the ecliptic of date, Ect (Fig. 1). The sun is roughly located in one of its two foci. The eccentricity
(e) of the Earth's orbit is defined as:

Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 1. Astronomical configuration of the Earth. (a) Elements of the Earth's orbital parameters.
(Modified after Ref. [109].) (b) Position of a point (S) on the celestial sphere. (Modified after Ref. [39].)
See text for explanations.

(1)

=
�

where a is the ellipse semi-major axis, b the semi-minor axis and c the distance from focus to centre. The
current eccentricity is 0.0167 (Figure 2(b)), but in the past hundred millions of years eccentricity has
varied from about 0.0669 to almost 0.0001, i.e. a near-circular orbit [24]. For the past 15 Ma, the three
most important periods in the series expansion for eccentricity are about 405 ka, 124 ka and 95 ka (Fig.
2(e)), corresponding to the resonances between the secular frequencies of Venus (g2) and Jupiter (g5),
Mars (g4) and Venus (g2), and Mars (g4) and Jupiter (g5), respectively [24]. Here ka refers to a thousand
years (kyr).

Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 2. Variations of the Earth's orbital parameters between 350 ka and 50 000 years into the future
according to the La04 solution [24]. (a) Mean annual insolation including a solar constant of 1368 W
m−2. (b) Eccentricity (solid) and climatic precession (dotted line). (c) Obliquity. (d) 65°N summer (May
21–July 20) insolation. (e) Combined power spectrum of eccentricity (grey), obliquity (green) and
precession (black) from the past 15 Ma.

Seafloor Processes

Kerim H. Nisancioglu, in Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences (Third Edition), 2019

Orbital Parameters and Insolation

The Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse where the degree to which the orbit departs from a circle is
measured by its eccentricity (e). The point on the orbit closest to the Sun is called the perihelion, and
the point most distant from the Sun the aphelion (Fig. 1). If the distance from the Earth to the Sun is rp
at perihelion, and ra at aphelion, then the eccentricity is defined as e = (ra − rp)/(ra + rp). Variations in
the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit follow cycles of 100,000 and 400,000 years, giving a change in annual
mean insolation on the order of 0.2% or less. This change in insolation is believed to be too small to
produce any notable effect on climate.

Fig. 1

Sign in to download full-size image

Fig. 1. Sketch of the Earth's orbit around the Sun today and at the end of the last glacial cycle (11,000
years ago), showing the positions of the solstices and equinoxes relative to perihelion. The longitude of
perihelion (ω) is measured as the angle between the line to the Earth from the Sun at spring equinox
and the line to the Earth at perihelion.

A more significant change in insolation is caused by variations in the seasonal and latitudinal distribution
of insolation due to obliquity. Obliquity (ε) is the angle between Earth's axis of rotation and the normal
to the Earth's plane around the Sun (Fig. 1). This angle is ~ 23.5 degrees today, but varies between
values of 22.1 degrees and 24.5 degrees with a period of 41,000 years. A decrease in obliquity decreases
the seasonal insolation contrast, with the largest impact at high latitudes. At the same time, annual
mean insolation at high latitudes is decreased compared to low latitudes. An example of the effect of
obliquity variations on seasonal insolation is shown in Fig. 2A. During times when obliquity is reduced,
high-latitude summertime insolation decreases, whereas wintertime insolation increases. The
magnitude of the change in high-latitude summer insolation due to obliquity variations can be as large
as 10%.

Fig. 2

Sign in to download full-size image

Fig. 2. Insolation difference in units of W/m2 as a function of latitude and season: (A) when decreasing
obliquity from 24.5° to 22° in the case of a perfectly circular orbit (e = 0); and (B) for a change in
precession going from summer solstice at perihelion to summer solstice at aphelion while keeping
obliquity at today's value (ε = 23.5) and using a mean value for eccentricity (e = 0.03). The annual mean
insolation difference is shown to the right of each figure and the seasons are defined as follows: FE, fall
equinox; SE, spring equinox; SS, summer solstice; WS, winter solstice.

The third and last variable affecting insolation is the longitude of perihelion (ω). This parameter is
defined as the angle between the line to the Earth from the Sun at spring equinox and the line to the
Earth from the Sun at perihelion (Fig. 1). It determines the direction of the Earth's rotational axis relative
to the orientation of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, thereby giving the position of the seasons on the
orbit relative to perihelion. Changes in the longitude of perihelion result in the Earth being closest to the
Sun at different times of the year. Today, the Earth is closest to the Sun in early January, or very near
winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere. All other things being equal, this will result in relatively
warm winter and cool summer seasons in the Northern Hemisphere, whereas the opposite is the case in
the Southern Hemisphere. At the time of the last deglaciation, 11,000 years ago, the Earth was closest to
the Sun at summer solstice, resulting in extra warm summers and cool winters in the Northern
Hemisphere. An example of the effect of changes in precession on seasonal insolation is shown in Fig.
2B.

If the Earth's orbit were a circle, the distance to the Sun would remain constant at all times of the year
and it would not make any difference where on the orbit the seasons were positioned. Therefore, the
impact of variations in the longitude of perihelion depends on the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and is
described by the precession parameter (e sin ω). The combined effect of eccentricity and longitude of
perihelion can give changes in high-latitude summer insolation on the order of 15%, and varies with
periods of 19,000 and 23,000 years, but is modulated by the longer-period variations in eccentricity. Fig.
3 shows the variations in obliquity (ε), eccentricity (e), and the precession parameter (e sin ω) for the
past 1 million years.

Fig. 3

Sign in to download full-size image

Fig. 3. The three most important cycles regulating insolation on Earth are obliquity, eccentricity, and
precession: (A) obliquity, or tilt of the Earth's axis varies with a period of 41,000 years; (B) eccentricity of
the Earth's orbit varies with periods of 100,000 years and 400,000 years; and (C) precession of the
equinoxes has a dominant period of 21,000 years and is modulated by eccentricity.

EXTINCTIONS OF BIG GAME

Todd A. Surovell, in Encyclopedia of Archaeology, 2008

Climate Change

Variations in the Earth's orbit over the last two million years have caused climate to oscillate between
glacial and interglacial conditions. There were more than 20 instances when continental glaciers
expanded and contracted over the Northern Hemisphere (Figure 4). As continental glaciers waxed and
waned, oceanic and atmospheric temperatures cooled and warmed, sea levels fell and rose,
precipitation regimes were greatly modified, and plant and animal species migrated and reorganized
ecological communities. Because swings in climate had major impacts on biological organisms, there is
no doubt that animal extinctions could have resulted, but there is considerable argument about how
climate change might cause mass extinctions, and whether climate change explains the observed
extinctions of the Quaternary.
Sign in to download full-size image

Figure 4. The last five glacial cycles recorded in stable oxygen isotopes from benthic foraminifera
recovered from a core of the Pacific Ocean floor. Oxygen isotopes of marine foraminifera record the
isotopic composition of ocean water which is a direct reflection of the volume of glacial ice in terrestrial
settings. High values of δ18O indicate glacial periods. Low values of δ18O, like those observed in modern
times, indicate interglacials. Data from Mix AC et al. (1995) Benthic foraminferal stable isotope
stratigraphy of site 846: 0–1.8 ma'. In: Pisias NG et al. (eds.) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program.
Scientific Results 138, College Station, TX, USA. 839–854.

A handful of models have been proposed which attempt to link Quaternary climate change to
extinctions. Unlike overkill models, climate change hypotheses are typically constructed with reference
to specific geographic regions because extinctions occurred at different times in different parts of the
world. The most explicit climatic/ecological extinction models have considered North America. For
example, Dale Guthrie, a vertebrate palaeontologist at the University of Alaska, has argued that the
transition from glacial to interglacial climate in North America (20 000–10 000 years ago), resulted in
vegetational communities that would have been detrimental to many species of Pleistocene megafauna.
Lower levels of seasonality and longer growing seasons in Pleistocene ecosystems produced high-
diversity mosaics of vegetation that would have permitted large herbivores to easily meet their
nutritional requirements. With the transition to the Holocene, North American biomes were
transformed into large-scale low-diversity patches wherein generalist feeders with simple digestive
tracts, such as mammoths, mastodons, sloths, and horses would essentially starve, or due to anti-
herbivory toxins, be poisoned to death by being forced to eat large quantities of toxic foods, to which
these animals had little physiological resistance. According to Guthrie, only large mammals with
specialized diets or physiologies, such as bison, pronghorn, and moose, thrived in Holocene ecosystems.

Climate-based hypotheses, like overkill, suffer from many problems. Most commonly, it is questioned
why it was a particular climate change that caused the extinctions. For example, in the Americas,
extinction correlates with the most recent transition from glacial to interglacial climate, but this was just
one of many such transitions that occurred during the Pleistocene. Proponents of overkill would argue
that this episode of climate change just happens to correlate with the first arrival of human migrants;
proponents of climate hypotheses would argue that this period of climate change was uniquely severe.
Also, proponents of climate hypotheses must explain why extinctions seemingly always correlate with
human colonization. If humans had no causal role in Pleistocene extinctions whatsoever, then the timing
of extinction should be independent of human global colonization, and yet human migration and animal
extinction seem to be highly correlated (Figure 2).

Broadband Albedo

In Advanced Remote Sensing, 2012

7.5.1.5 Meteosat Albedo Product

The Meteosat series of Geostationary Earth Orbit meteorological satellite belongs to the European
Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). Two generations of satellites,
the MFG (Meteosat First Generation) and MSG (Meteosat Second Generation), have been successfully
launched to date.

The currently used satellites are the four units from Metetosat-6 to Meteosat-9. The positions of
Meteosat-6 and Meteosat-7 are above the Indian Ocean, and the positions of Meteosat-8 and
Meteosat-9 are above Africa.

The long-term Meteosat Surface Albedo (MSA) product, which is generated using MFG data, covers two
regions: the area centered at 0° longitude from 1982 to 2006 and the area centered at 63°E longitude
from 1998 to the present. These two products are generated from the satellite data in 10 days, with a
spatial resolution of 3 km, and they include the white-sky albedo and black-sky albedo in visible and near
infrared boadband (0.4-1.1 μm).

The MSG albedo product is produced with the data from the SEVIRI sensor. It is generated in a five-day
composite period and in a single-day time-step. The data product is in a spatial resolution of 3 km,
including three broadband albedos of the visible, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared.

The Solar System at Ultraviolet Wavelengths

Amanda R. Hendrix, ... Deborah L. Domingue, in Encyclopedia of the Solar System (Second Edition), 2007

4.3. Enceladus

Enceladus, not easily observed from Earth orbit due to its proximity to Saturn and the rings, has recently
been the target of key UV measurements from the Cassini spacecraft in orbit around Saturn. Enceladus
has long intrigued scientists because it is the brightest object in the solar system; Voyager images
revealed vast regions that were evidently crater-free, suggesting recent resurfacing by geologic activity.
Furthermore, its orbit at the densest part of the broad, tenuous E-ring has suggested that Enceladus
could somehow be the source of the E-ring ice particles.

Ultraviolet measurements from HST detected the hydroxyl radical, OH, in emission (3085 Å) in the
Saturn OH and O abundances were not consistent with sputtering rates; an additional source of H2O
was needed—and remained a mystery until Cassini observations of Enceladus in 2005.
The Cassini spacecraft, through unique multiinstrument observations, discovered active water plumes
on Enceladus. A stellar occultation by Cassini UVIS measured the presence of water vapor above the
limb of the South Pole. Similar UV occultations of other regions of the moon had found no evidence of
any gases, indicating that the vapor was locally confined to the south polar region. Surface
temperatures, measured by the far-IR spectrometer, were found to be anomalously high;
measurements by the magnetometer, mass spectrometer, dust detector, and near-IR spectrometer on
Cassini confirmed the presence of gaseous species and ice grains being expelled from Enceladus’ south
polar hot spot. It is surprising that such a small, icy body is currently geologically active! The cause of the
south polar hot spot and associated plumes is under investigation, and Enceladus remains a primary
observational target of the Cassini mission.

Extreme Space Weather Spacecraft Surface Charging and Arcing Effects

Dale C. Ferguson, in Extreme Events in Geospace, 2018

7 Limits on Spacecraft Charging Events

Assume that the highest magnetic field in GEO is 250 nT, Ne = Ni and Ti = Te. This implies that NeTe is <
1.0 × 105 cm− 3eV. The total electron flux goes as Ne√Te, so that Ne√Te < 1.0 × 105/√Te. This, then is
the limit for total electron fluxes, which are closely related to spacecraft charging (Ferguson and
Wimberly, 2013; Ferguson et al., 2015a), especially for Te > 9 keV, which is true for all the “worst-case”
environments. In Table 1 are the densities and temperatures for the extreme charging events in Fig. 6,
along with derived quantities related to spacecraft charging.

Table 1. Proposed Worst-Case Charging Environments

Environment Ne (cm− 3) Te (eV) NeTe Ne√Te NeTe/1.0 × 105

Galaxy 15 0.0458 5.56E + 04 2.55E + 03 1.080E + 01 2.55E-02

NASA worst-case 1.12 12,000 1.34E + 04 1.227E + 02 1.34E-01

ATS-6 1.2 16,000 1.92E + 04 1.518E + 02 1.92E-01

SCATHA Mullen1 2.5 22,800 5.70E + 04 3.775E + 02 5.70E-01

SCATHA Mullen2 2.5 16,600 4.15E + 04 3.221E + 02 4.15E-01

ECSS 1.4 23,600 3.30E + 04 2.151E + 02 3.30E-01

Here it can be seen that the SCATHA Mullen 1 environment (NASA-HDBK-4002A) is almost 60% of
theoretical maximum if the magnetic field is constrained to 250 nT. Fig. 10 shows the relationship
between the electron flux proxy (Ne√Te) and the energy density proxy (NeTe) for these six
environments.
Sign in to download full-size image

Fig. 10. Close relationship between total electron flux and particle energy density for many severe
environments.

Here, it can be seen that there is a close relationship between the electron flux and the energy density
for extreme charging events. Extrapolating to our maximum allowed energy density proxy (1.0 × 105 eV
cm− 3), we find that Ne√Te is 745 cm− 3eV0.5. In Eq. 5, the total electron current flux is given in terms of
electron densities and temperatures.

(5)

2.68

10

14

2
Amps

Ne√Te = 745 cm− 3eV0.5 = 7.45 × 108 m− 3eV0.5, which corresponds to Fe = 2 × 10− 5 Amps/m2.

So what does this mean as far as frame and differential charging on typical spacecraft? To answer this,
we refer in Figs. 11 and 12 to Nascap-2k results for a double Maxwellian electron energy distribution,
where differential charging is shown on the vertical axis and the total electron flux (in Amps/m2) is given
on the horizontal axis (Ferguson and Wimberly, 2013). For these Nascap runs, the final time was chosen
to be 2000 s, about the longest time extreme charging environments last on a given satellite due to its
orbital motion and substorm durations, and a time long enough that potentials are approaching their
asymptotic levels. Putting in our maximum flux from above, we find that the predicted theoretical
maximum daytime frame charging (-Abs) = 400,000 V (!), and the predicted maximum differential
charging (Max-Min) = 20,000 V. For comparison, the highest electron temperature ever measured in the
GEO magnetosphere was about 90,000 eV (Ferguson et al, 2011).

Sign in to download full-size image

Fig. 11. Satellite frame (or absolute) charging vs total electron flux for double Maxwellian plasmas.
Nascap-2k results for 2000 s of charging.

Sign in to download full-size image

Fig. 12. Differential charging vs total electron flux. Nascap-2k results for 2000 s of charging.

These extremely high charging values are beyond the design limits for any spacecraft, so we expect that
the most extreme charging environment imaginable would cause any spacecraft exposed to that
environment for a sufficient time to have surface arcs, regardless of whether our extrapolation is valid.

Using the commonly accepted value of a differential charging threshold for arcing (400 V, Cho et al,
2005) and Fig. 12 above, any even moderate geomagnetic substorm would be sufficient to cause arcing
on satellites caught on the morning side of the orbit. And Mateo-Velez et al. (2016) have shown that
conditions in medium Earth orbit (MEO), where GPS and other navigation satellites orbit, are more
severe than in GEO. How extreme the environment is in terms of the number of anomalies would then
depend on how long the charging conditions lasted. If more than a few hours, we could expect all
satellites within a few hours longitude of the morning sector to undergo severe differential charging,
and possibly damaging arcing. If the charging conditions last for 12 h or more, one might expect about
half the orbiting satellites to undergo arcing with varying effects, from minor upsets to sustained arcs.
See Fig. 17 in Ferguson et al., 2015b for the correlation of yearly spacecraft anomalies with the number
of days with 24-h Kp sums greater than 35 (a Kp sum is the sum of all of the eight 3-h Kp values in the
same day).

There has been much discussion in the literature (Lai, 1994, 2008; Lai and Tautz, 2006) that spacecraft
charging is primarily determined by the plasma temperature. While it is true that below a certain
temperature, the plasma discharges the spacecraft rather than charges it, and thus there is a
“threshold” in temperature necessary for spacecraft charging, it is not true that a maximum plasma
temperature implies a maximum in charging.

The Solar System at Ultraviolet Wavelengths

Amanda R. Hendrix, ... Deborah L. Domingue, in Encyclopedia of the Solar System (Third Edition), 2014

4.3 Enceladus

Enceladus, not easily observed from the Earth's orbit due to its proximity to Saturn and the rings, has
recently been the target of key UV measurements from the Cassini spacecraft in orbit around Saturn.
Enceladus has long intrigued scientists because it is the brightest object in the solar system; Voyager
images revealed vast regions that were evidently crater free, suggesting recent resurfacing by geologic
activity. Furthermore, its orbit at the densest part of the broad, tenuous E-ring has suggested that
Enceladus could somehow be the source of the E-ring ice particles.

UV measurements from the HST detected the hydroxyl radical, OH, in emission (308.5 nm) in the Saturn
system, primarily near the orbit of Tethys. Similarly, Cassini UVIS measured neutral oxygen (at 130.4
nm), in varying amounts, with the greatest abundances near the orbit of Enceladus.

The presence of OH and O suggested that H2O is produced by erosion of the inner icy satellites of Saturn
by micrometeoroid bombardment and is then broken down by photodissociation to produce the neutral
species. However, the amounts of H2O necessary to produce the observed OH and O abundances were
not consistent with sputtering rates; an additional source of H2O was needed—and this remained a
mystery until Cassini observations of Enceladus in 2005.
The Cassini spacecraft, through synergistic multi-instrument observations, discovered active water
plumes on Enceladus. A stellar occultation by Cassini UVIS measured the presence of water vapor above
the limb of the South Pole. Similar UV occultations of other regions of the moon had found no evidence
of any gases, indicating that the vapor was locally confined to the South Pole. Surface temperatures,
measured by the far-IR spectrometer, were found to be anomalously high; measurements by the
magnetometer, mass spectrometer, dust detector, and near-IR spectrometer on Cassini confirmed the
presence of gaseous species and expulsion of ice grains from Enceladus' south polar hot spot. It is
surprising that such a small, icy body is currently geologically active! The cause of the south polar hot
spot and associated plumes is under investigation, and Enceladus remains a primary observational target
of the Cassini mission.

Recommended publications

Advances in Space Research

Advances in Space Research

Journal

Icarus

Icarus

Journal

Quaternary International

Quaternary International

Journal

Journal of Space Safety Engineering

Journal of Space Safety Engineering

Journal

Elsevier logo with wordmark

About ScienceDirect

Remote access

Shopping cart

Advertise

Contact and support

Terms and conditions

Privacy policy

Cookies are used by this site. Cookie Settings

All content on this site: Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V., its licensors, and contributors. All rights are
reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies. For all open
access content, the Creative Commons licensing terms apply.