Basic concepts

What is a Process?

An operation (or series of operations) by which a particular

objective is accomplished

Chem Eng: operations that cause a physical or chemical

change in material, or changes the condition of energy

These changes are accomplished in a series of process units,

linked together with a set of input and output process streams
Process Units & Streams

Process units: physical

components constituting
a process

Process streams:
materials entering &
leaving a process unit
Types of Processes

 Physical or chemical

 Batch, continuous or
semi-batch

 Steady-state or
transient
Process Classification

Batch - No material is transferred in or out of the system during the time

period of interest (no input or output)

Continuous - Material is transferred in and out of the system continuously

Semibatch - Any process that is neither batch nor continuous

Steady State - All conditions are invariant with time. Usually refer to
continuous processes: ACCUM = 0

Transient - One or more conditions vary with time

(ACCUM≠0)
What is a System?

An arrangement of physical components in a process

connected or related to form or/and act as an entire unit

Can be constituted by 1 or more connected process units

Physical Systems

Have well defined physical boundaries between the systems and the surrounding

• Open system (mass crosses the system boundary during the period of time covered

by the energy balance)

• Closed system

• Isolated system (no mass nor energy cross the system boundary during the period of

time covered by the energy balance)

 Conceptual Systems

Arbitrarily defined with

imaginary boundary for
purpose of process analysis.

Can contain other physical

systems within its boundary
⇒ Control volume
System Properties

Quantities necessary to describe the state or condition of a system.

Extensive properties: depend on the size of system
• eg. weight, force, energy, flow rate
Intensive properties: are independent of the mass or size of
system,
• eg. temperature, pressure, density, viscosity
System Properties (cont.)

Composition (an intensive quantity)

Mass and Volume

1. Density
ρ = mass/volume
solid: practically independent of T and P
liquid: dependent on T
gas: dependent on T & P

2. Specific gravity

ρref : density of a reference substance at a specific condition,

(common ref: liquid water at 4.0oC )

ρref = 1000kgm-3 = 1.000gcm-3 = 62.4lbmft-3

Specific Gravity Examples

Example 1: from Table B.1 column 4,

20𝑜
s.g (Acetone)=0.791 at 20oC
4𝑜
Acetone has s.g of relative to water (l) at 4oC.

In petroleum industry, s.g. is expressed as:

Ref: liquid water at 60oF (15.5oC): ρ ref = 0.999 gcm-3

Specific Gravity of Gases

For gases, the reference is usually air, but s.g. of gases is

not commonly used, specific volume is used instead
Specific Volume = volume/mass
= 1/density
Concentration of Mixtures

Concentration of Mixtures
Concentration of a mixture is the amount of a solute per unit quantity (usually
volume) of the solution or solvent.
Composition of Mixtures

Parts per million (ppm) used for extremely dilute solution = 1 part of solute
per 106 parts of solution (~solvent). Mass for solids or liquids, mole for gases.

Composition of Mixtures:
For mixture of N components Mass (weight) fraction of component k:
Composition of Mixtures cont.

Mol fraction of component k:

xi can be converted to yi if MW of all components is known

Example 5:
If a gas mixture contains 60 mol% H2, 30% CH4 and 10%
C2H6, what is its composition in mass percent ?
Composition of Mixtures cont.
Composition of Mixtures cont.
Composition of Mixtures cont.
Flow Rate

Rate at which a material is transported through a

process line.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Mass flow rate: 𝑚 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molar flow rate: 𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Volume flow rate: 𝑉 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

where:
: average Density
𝑀: average molecular weight
 Mass flow rate
Volume flow rate

Page 45
Flow Rate Measurement

Flowmeter is a device mounted in the process line that provides a

continuous reading of the flow rate in the line

Rotameter Orifice meter

Flow Rate Measurement

The rotameter is a taped vertical tube

containing a float: the larger the flow
rate, the higher the float rises in the
tubes

The orifice meter is an obstruction in

the flow channel with a upstream side
of the orifice to the downstream side;
the pressure drop with a number of
devices, including a different
manometer.
Process Variables - Force
Force

Weight: W = (m x g) / gc
SI: W = m⋅9.81 (N)
cgs: W = m⋅ 981 (dyne)
American: W = m⋅ (32.164/gC) ≈ m (lbf)
Process Variables - Pressure

𝐹
Normal force per unit area: 𝑃=
𝐴

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure of a column of air from point of measurement to top of the
atmosphere.
Pressure

At sea level, 0oC and 45o latitude:

Patm = 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 14.7 psi = 1.01325 bars = 760 mmHg
Fluid pressure usually is measured relative to the atmospheric
pressure ⇒ Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure is used in process calculations:
Pabs = P gauge + P atmosphere
Pabs = 0 in complete vacuum
Figure 3.4-1 (p. 54)
Fluid pressure in a tank and a pipe.
Figure 3.4-2 (p. 54)
Pressure at the base of a fluid column (hydrostatic pressure)
Example 7

A manometer reading gives 100mmHg, calculate the absolute

pressure.
Process Variables - Temperature

A measure of the average kinetic energy possessed by the

substance molecules.
Temperature can only be determined indirectly by
measuring some physical property whose value depends on
temperature in known manner.
• Thermometry (volume)
• Resistance thermometry (resistance)
• Thermocouple (voltage)
• Pyrometry (spectra of emitted radiation)
Common reference states:
• Freezing point, Tf
• Boiling point, TB
Temperature

Two most common temperature scales:

Centigrade and Fahrenheit
Centigrade (Celcius) scale:
For water at 1 atm pressure
Tf = 0 oC
TB = 100 oC
Fahrenheit scale:
For water at 1 atm pressure
Tf = 32 oF
TB = 212 oF
Temperature conversion: T(oF) = 1.8 T(oC) + 32
Temperature (cont.)
Absolute Temperature

Defined such that zero absolute temperature is theoretically

the lowest temperature attainable in nature.
Zero absolute = - 273.15 oC = -459.67 oF
Kelvin
T (K) = T(oC) + 273.15 ≈ T(oC) + 273
Rankin
T (oR) = T(oF) + 459.67 ≈ T(oF) + 460
Conversion: T(oR) = 1.8 T(K)
 Temperature Difference

Common in calculations involving heat or enthalpy, temperature difference

between any two states is used, e.g: Q = mCp(T2-T1) = mCPΔT
CP is heat capacity of a substance with units of J/(kg.oC), J/(kgmol⋅K),
Btu/(lb⋅oF), etc
The temperature unit here (oC, K, oF, oR)
corresponds to ΔT and not the actual temperature T.
Preferable to write: J/(kg⋅ΔoC), Btu/(lb⋅ΔoR)
Temperature Example
OVERALL BLOCK DIAGRAM (FLOWCHART)
THE GENERAL MASS BALANCE EQUATION

Valid for finite time interval (Batch) as well as differential

time (Continuous):

Batch process (no chemical reaction):

Initial input - Final output = Accumulation

Continuous process (no chemical reaction):

MB without chemical reactions @ steady state

Equation 4.2-1 can be simplified as

Material Balance Calculations

 All MB problems are variations of a single theme:

Given: values of some input and output variables
Find: values of the others.

 Solving MB problems does not only require deriving and solving equations
containing unknowns, but also requires a basic understanding of the
process involved, and a systematic planning to arrive at the correct
results.

 Need a generalized approach to problem solving so that any MB

problems of any degree of complexity can be solved in the most
expeditious manner.
Problem Solving Strategy

1. Read the problem & define objectives

2. Draw block flow diagram (or flowchart) describing the process
3. Label with symbols the stream flows and compositions
4. Identify known and unknown stream flows and compositions
5. Select a basis of calculation
6. Select system for analysis & write down independent equations to
solve
7. Determine degrees of freedom
8. Solve the equations for the unknowns
9. Check the answer
10. Change Basis – Convert the results using the desired (design) basis
to obtain the final answers, if required.
PROBLEM EXAMPLE 1

A liquid mixture containing 30 wt% A and 70 wt% B is distilled

at a rate of 650 kg/h in a continuous distillation column.
Part of the liquid condensate from the condenser is returned to
the column as reflux, the remainder leaves as the distillate
product containing 90 wt% A.
The bottoms product leaves as a saturated liquid from the
reboiler and should contain 80 wt% B.
Calculate the product flow rates.
PROBLEM EXAMPLE 1
PROBLEM EXAMPLE 1
Significant figures rules

1. Non-zero digits are always significant.

Example: a number like 46.78 would have four significant
figures and 3.94 would have three

2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant.

Example: a number like 409 has three significant figures.

3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the DECIMAL PORTION

ONLY are significant
Example: 0.07030
0.00800
4.70 x 10-3
6.500 x 104
Significant figures are highlighted in red
Significant figures rules

The significant figures of a number are the digits from the

first nonzero digit on the left to either

(a) the last digit (zero or nonzero) on the right if there is a

decimal point, or
(b) the last nonzero digit of the number if there is no
decimal point.
Significant figures in different operations

In adding or subtracting, the final answer has the same

number of decimal places as the number in the question
with the least number of decimal places.
Example: Evaluate 3.257 + 27.34 +82.1 = 112.697
Answer: 112

In multiplying or dividing, the final answer has the same

number of sig figs as the number in the question with the
least number of sig figs.
Often times, you’ll be asked to round to the correct number
of sig figs, so we’ll practice this as well in the next examples!
Example: Evaluate 25 x 13 325 320
Answer: 3.2 x 102
Significant figures rules

if you report a mass as 8.3 g (two significant

figures), you indicate that the mass lies somewhere
between 8.25 and 8.35 g,

whereas if you give the value as 8.300 g (four

significant figures) you indicate that the mass lies
between 8.2995 and 8.3005 g.
Significant figures rules
 Significant figures in different operations

A rule of thumb for rounding off numbers in which the digit

to be dropped is a 5 is always to make the last digit of the
rounded-off number even:
1) How many significant figures are there?

a) 0.004050 (4)
b) 1450 (3)
c) 800 (1)
d) 2050. (4)
e) 3.9X10-2 (2)
1) How many significant number are there?

a) 0.004050 (4)
b) 1450 (3)
c) 800 (1)
d) 2050. (4)
e) 3.9X10-2 (2)

a) 3.050 x 1.14/(2.3050X10^-3) ( ????

b) 2.210 x 4.76090 x 1.000000

3.050 (4)
1.14 (3)
2.3050 x 10^-3 (5)
part (a) result ()
2.210 x 4.76090 x 1.000000
(4)
(7)
(6)

(4)
 2.7 g 2.65g -- 2.75g

400

25.80 25.795 -25.805

7.52 7.515 – 7.525

1a) 12.200 x 10^3 (5)
1b) 1.22000 x 10 ^4 (6)
1c) 3040. x 10^-6 (4)

2a) 13400 (3)

2b) 0.01340 (4)
2c) 0004200 (3)
3a) (3) (4) (4)  (3)
3b) (3) (2)  (2)
3c) (4) (3)  (3) 11.2
3d) (4) (1)  (1) 11.76  12 (2s.f.)

4a) 1460
4b) 13.4
4c) 1.76 x 10^-7
5a) 4.25 - 4.35
5b) 4.295 - 4.305
c) 2.7775 x10^-3 - 2.7785x 10^-3
d) 2495 - 2505 ? 2450 - 2550
e) 2.4995 x10^3 - 2.5005 x10^-3