Ebook Engineering Physics Jntu Anantapur Series 2015 PDF Full Chapter PDF

Engineering Physics JNTU Anantapur
Series (2015) - eBook PDF

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/engineering-physics-jntu-anantapur-series-2015-e
book-pdf/
Engineering Physics
JNTU Anantapur Series (2015)
About the Author
K Thyagarajan is Associate Professor and Head, Department of Physics, JNTU A
College of Engineering, Pulivendula, YSR district, Andhra Pradesh. He is a postgraduate
in Physics with specialisation in Electronics from S V University, Tirupati. He completed
his MPhil in the field of Ultrasonics from S V University. Thereafter, he was awarded PhD
in Spectroscopy from the same university. Dr. K Thyagarajan began his career as Assistant
Professor in Physics at Sri Kalahasteeswara Institute of Technology, Srikalahasti. Later
he joined JNTU A College of Engineering, Pulivendula, in the same cadre. For the past
15 years, he has been engaged in teaching Engineering Physics, Applied Physics and
Solid State Physics to BTech students. Besides his teaching activities, he also holds the
post of Chairperson of the PG Board of Studies of Physics, JNTU, Anantapur.
Dr. K Thyagarajan has published numerous research papers in journals of international
repute and has presented many papers in international and national conferences. His
research areas of interest include Nanomaterials and Thin Films.
To his credit, he established a research lab in the department with the financial
assistance of JNTU Anantapur. At present, seven students are pursuing PhD under his
guidance. He organised DST INSPIRE Science Camps sponsored by DST, Govt. of India,
and a National Conference on Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology (NCNN) sponsored
by UGC and co-sponsored by APSCHE, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh. He conducted
National Workshop on Recent trends in Nanomaterial synthesis and Characterization
Techniques under TEQIP II programme.
Engineering Physics
JNTU Anantapur Series (2015)
K Thyagarajan
Associate Professor and Head
JNTU A College of Engineering
Pulivendula, Andhra Pradesh
India
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

NEW DELHI
McGraw Hill Education Offices
New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas
Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

P-24, Green Park Extension, New Delhi 110 016
Engineering Physics, JNTU Anantapur Series (2015)
Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or
retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings
(if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be
reproduced for publication.
This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
ISBN (13 digit): 978-93-392-2332-8

ISBN (10 digit): 93-392-2332-2
Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani

Head—Products (Higher Education and Professional): Vibha Mahajan
Regional Product Development Editor: Sushil Kumar Mathews
Assistant Sponsoring Editor: Koyel Ghosh
Manager—Production Systems: Satinder S Baveja
Assistant Manager—Editorial Services: Sohini Mukherjee
Senior Graphic Designer—Cover: Meenu Raghav
Senior Publishing Manager: Shalini Jha
Assistant Product Manager: Tina Jajoriya
General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela
Manager—Production: Reji Kumar
Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India),
from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor
its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and
neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors,
omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the
understanding that McGraw Hill Education (India) and its authors are supplying information
but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are
required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.
Typeset at Text-o-Graphics, B-1/56, Aravali Apartment, Sector-34, Noida 201 301, and printed at
Cover:
Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

CONTENTS
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xiii
UNIT 1 Physical Optics, Lasers and Fibre Optics

1. Physical Optics–Interference 1.1–1.17
Introduction 1.1
1.1 Interference 1.1
1.2 Newton’s Rings 1.4
1.3 Determination of Wavelength of a Light Source 1.7
1.4 Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid 1.8
Solved Problems 1.9
Multiple Choice Questions 1.13
Fill in the Blanks 1.15
True or False 1.16
Review Questions 1.16
2. Physical Optics–Diffraction 2.1–2.22

Introduction 2.1
2.1 Diffraction 2.1
2.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction at Single Slit 2.3
2.3 Fraunhofer Diffraction at Double Slit 2.6
2.4 Diffraction Grating 2.9
2.5 Fraunhofer Diffraction Due to Grating (N Parallel Slits) 2.10
Solved Problems 2.14
True or False 2.21
vi Contents
3. Lasers 3.1–3.24
Introduction 3.1
3.1 Characteristics of Laser 3.1
3.2 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of Radiation 3.3
3.3 Einstein’s Coefficients 3.6
3.4 Population Inversion 3.7
3.5 Excitation Mechanism 3.9
3.6 Optical Resonator 3.9
3.7 Construction and Components of a Laser 3.11
3.8 Ruby Laser 3.11
3.9 Helium–Neon Laser 3.13
3.10 Applications of Laser 3.15
True or False 3.23
4. Fibre Optics 4.1–4.29

Introduction 4.1
4.1 Optical Fibre 4.1
4.2 Working Principle of Optical Fibre 4.1
4.3 Fibre Structure and Construction 4.3
4.4 Types of Optical Fibres 4.7
4.5 Attenuation and Losses in Fibres 4.10
4.6 Fibre Optic Communication System 4.12
4.7 Advantages of Optical Fibres in Communication 4.13
4.8 Applications of Optical Fibres in Medicine 4.13
4.9 Applications of Optical Fibres in Sensors 4.14
True or False 4.28
Contents vii
UNIT 2 Crystallography and Ultrasonics

5. Crystallography and Ultrasonics 5.1–5.58
Introduction 5.1
5.1 Fundamental Terms of Crystallography 5.2
5.2 Unit Cell and Lattice Parameters 5.4
5.3 Crystal Systems 5.5
5.4 Bravais Lattices 5.7
5.5 Expression for Lattice Constant 5.10
5.6 Crystal Structures of Materials 5.11
5.7 Simple Cubic Crystal Structure (SCC) 5.12
5.8 Body Centred Cubic Structure (BCC) 5.13
5.9 Face Centred Cubic Structure (FCC) 5.15
5.10 Structure of NaCl 5.17
5.11 Miller Indices – Crystal Planes 5.19
5.12 Ultrasonics 5.36
True or False 5.55
UNIT 3 Quantum Mechanics and Free Electron Theory

6. Quantum Mechanics and Free Electron Theory 6.1–6.48
Introduction 6.1
6.1 Matter Waves 6.1
6.2 de Broglie Hypothesis 6.2
6.3 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 6.5
6.4 Schrödinger’s One-dimensional Time-independent
Wave Equation 6.6
6.5 Particle in a One-dimensional Potential Box 6.10
6.6 Eigenwave Functions 6.12
6.7 Free Electron Theory 6.14
6.8 Fermi–Dirac Distribution 6.22
6.9 Sources of Electrical Resistance 6.23
viii Contents
6.10 Kronig–Penney Model 6.25

True or False 6.46
UNIT 4 Semiconductors and Magnetic Materials

7. Semiconductors 7.1–7.37
Introduction 7.1
7.1 Intrinsic Semiconductor 7.1
7.2 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration and Fermi Level 7.3
7.3 Intrinsic Conductivity 7.4
7.4 Determination of Energy Band Gap (Eg) 7.5
7.5 Extrinsic Semiconductor 7.6
7.6 Fermi Energy Level (EF) 7.8
7.7 Drift and Diffusion 7.10
7.8 Einstein’s Relation 7.13
7.9 Hall Effect 7.14
7.10 Direct and Indirect Band-gap Semiconductors 7.16
7.11 Working Principle of p-n Junction Diode 7.18
7.12 Light Emitting Diode (LED) 7.20
7.13 Photodiode 7.22
7.14 Laser Diode 7.23
True or False 7.35
8. Magnetic Materials 8.1–8.27

Introduction 8.1
8.1 Basic Definitions 8.1
8.2 Origin of Magnetic Moment–BOHR Magneton 8.3
8.3 Classification of Magnetic Materials 8.6
8.4 Hysteresis 8.13
Contents ix
8.5 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials 8.14

True or False 8.26
UNIT 5 Superconductivity and Physics of Nanomaterials

9. Superconductivity 9.1–9.23
Introduction 9.1
9.1 Properties of Superconductors 9.1
9.2 Meissner Effect 9.3
9.3 Types of Superconductors 9.5
9.4 Flux Quantisation 9.8
9.5 Josephson Effect 9.10
9.6 Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) Theory 9.12
True or False 9.22
10. Physics of Nanomaterials 10.1–10.25

Introduction 10.1
10.1 Nanomaterials 10.1
10.2 Significance of the Nanoscale 10.2
10.3 Properties of Nanomaterials 10.4
10.4 Synthesis of Nanomaterials 10.7
10.5 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 10.15
10.6 Properties of Graphene 10.17
10.7 Applications of Nanomaterials 10.19
True or False 10.23
Model Question Paper I M-I.1–M-I.2
Model Question Paper II M-II.1–M-II.2
PREFACE
Engineering Physics provides basic knowledge in the application of physical
concepts in various fields of engineering. It covers the complete syllabus on
Engineering Physics for different branches of engineering under the prescribed
syllabus of JNTU Anantapur, effective as per the Regulation of 2015.
The highlight of this book is the simple and clear way in which all the topics
have been dealt with to suit the requirements of undergraduate students. Besides
these, a large number of illustrations lend clarity to the topics. The excellent
pedagogy includes solved examples, multiple-choice questions and review
questions which help students to have a firm grasp on the topics.
Key Features
• Complete syllabus coverage
• Comprehensive coverage of Physical Optics, Superconductivity, Quantum
Mechanics, etc. (essential as per the syllabus)
• Lucid style of presentation
• Model Question Papers
• Rich pedagogy
192 Illustrations
81 Solved Problems
397 Multiple-Choice Questions
167 Fill in the Blanks
114 True/False Questions
181 Review Questions
89 Essay Type Questions
Chapter Organisation
The book is divided into five units spanning 10 chapters. Chapters 1 and 2
describe the optical phenomena of interference and diffraction. The theory of
lasers, laser systems and their applications in various fields are elucidated in
Chapter 3. An introduction to fibre optic principles and communication is
presented in Chapter 4. The basic concepts of periodic arrangement of atoms
in crystals, Bragg’s law, crystal-structure determinations by X-ray diffraction
technique and the role of different types of defects in crystals in understanding
xii Preface
their properties, including non-destructive testing of materials by ultrasonic

waves, are discussed in Chapter 5.
Chapter 6 deals with classical and quantum free-electron theory for electrical
conductivity, the effect of periodic potential on electron motion, origin of
band theory and classification of material based on it. The basic concepts and
applications of semiconductors are presented in Chapter 7. The magnetic
properties of materials are discussed in depth in Chapter 8. The properties
and applications of superconductors are introduced in Chapter 9. Chapter 10
includes the basic concepts of nanomaterials, their synthesis, properties and
applications.
Acknowledgements
I appreciate the role of the incharge Vice Chancellor of JNTU A, Prof. H
Sudarsana Rao, and other university authorities for their moral support and
encouragement in shaping the book. I also wish to acknowledge the principal and
staff members of JNTU A College of Engineering for their support. The patience
and care shown by my wife, T Kavitha, and my daughters, T Devi Prasuna and T
Yashaswini Sai, also deserve a special mention. I am grateful to my parents for
their support in my career.
I would also like to thank the editorial team at McGraw Hill Education (India) for
their support and cooperation.
I hope that this book will be well received by students and teachers alike.
K Thyagarajan
Feedback
Criticism and suggestions from the users of this book for making further
improvements are most welcome. Readers can write to me at ktrjntu@gmail.com.
K Thyagarajan
Publisher’s Note
Constructive suggestions and criticism always go a long way in enhancing any
endeavour. To improve the book, we request all readers to email us their valuable
comments/views/feedback at info.india@mheducation.com mentioning the title
and author name in the subject line. Readers can also report any piracy of the
book spotted by them.
Roadmap to the Syllabus
This text is useful for Engineering Physics-JNTU Anantapur-2015
CHAPTERS AS PER TOPIC/SUBJECT SECTION PAGE No.
SYLLABUS
UNIT I: PHYSICAL OPTICS, LASERS, AND FIBRE OPTICS
1. Interference (Review) 1.1 to 1.1.2/ 1.1 and 1.2/
Chapter 1: Physical 2. Interference in Thin Film by Reflec on 1.1.3/ 1.2 to 1.6/
Optics 3. Newton’s Rings 1.2.3 1.6 and 1.7
1. Diffrac on Review 2.1 to 2.2 and
Chapter 2: Physical
2. Fraunhofer Diffrac on 2.1.2/2.2 to 2.3/2.3 to
Optics—Diffraction
2.5.2 2.14
1. Characteris cs of Laser 3.1/3.2 to 3.1 to 3.3/ 3.3
2. Spontaneous and Simulated Emission of 3.2.4/3.3/ to 3.5/ 3.6
Radia on 3.4/3.5 and and 3.7/3.7
3. Einstein’s Coefficients 3.6 and 3.8/3.9
4. Popula on Inversion and 3.10
5. Excita on Mechanism and Op cal Resonator
Chapter 3: Lasers 6. Nd:YAG Laser Content given in h p://www.
mhhe.com/thyagarajan/ep1/
jntu/a15
7. He-Ne Laser 3.9 to 3.13 to 3.15/
8. Semiconductor Diode Laser 3.9.2/7.14 to 7.23 to 7.25/
9. Applica on of Lasers 7.14.3/3.1 3.15 and 3.16
1. Introduc on-Construc on and Working 4.1 to 4.2.1/ 4.1 to 4.3/4.5
Principle of Op c Fibre 4.3.4 and to 4.7/ 4.7 to
2. Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angle 4.3.5/ 4.4 4.9/ 4.10 and
Chapter 4: Fibre
3. Types of Op cal Fibres to 4.4.3/ 4.11/ 4.12
Optics
4. A enua on and Losses in Op cal Fibres 4.5/4.6/ 4.8 and 4.13/
5. Block Diagram of OFC System and 4.9 4.13 to 4.17
6. Applica on of Op cal Fibres
UNIT II: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND ULTRASONICS
1. Introduc on 5.0 to 5.1/ 5.1 and 5.2/
2. Space La ce 5.1.1/ 5.1.2/ 5.2 and 5.3/
3. Unit Cell 5.2/5.4/ 5.4/ 5.4 and
4. La ce Parameters 5.3/5.2 to 5.5/ 5.7 to
5. Bravias La ce 5.9/5.11/ 5.10/ 5.5 to
6. Crystal Systems 5.11 to 5.7/ 5.12 to
Chapter 5:
7. Packing Frac ons of SC, BCC and FCC 5.11.5/ 5.16/ 5.19 to
Crystallography
8. Direc ons and Planes in Crystals 5.11.2/ 5.24/ 5.19
9. Miller Indices 5.11.6/ /5.21/ 5.25/
10. Interplanar Spacing in CC 5.11.7/ 5.25 and
11. X-Ray Diffrac on 5.11.10 5.26/ 5.27 to
12. Bragg’s Law 5.29
13. Powder Method
1. Introduc on 5.12 to 5.36/ 5.37 to
2. Produc on of Ultrasonics by Piezoelectric 5.12.1/ 5.39/ 5.39 to
Chapter 5:
Method 5.12.2/ 5.40
Ultrasonics
3. Proper es and Detec on 5.12.3/
4. Applica ons in Non-Destruc ve Tes ng 5.12.4
xiv Roadmap to the Syllabus
UNIT III: QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ELECTRON THEORY

1. Ma er Waves 6.1/6.2 and 6.1 and
2. De’ Broglie Hypothesis and Proper es 6.2.5/6.4 and 6.2/6.4 to
3. Schrodinger’s Time Dependent and 6.4.1/ 6.4.2/ 6.9/ 6.9/ 6.10
Chapter 6: Quantum
Independent Wave Equa ons 6.5 to 6.12
Mechanics
4. Physical Significance of Wave Func on
5. Par cle in One-Dimensional Infinite Poten-
al Well
1. Classical Free Electron Theory 6.7/6.7/ 6.14 to 6.19/
2. Equa on for Electrical Conduc vity 6.7/ 6.8 and 6.21/ 6.19
3. Quantum Free Electron Theory 6.8.1/ 6.9/ to 6.22/ 6.22
Chapter 6: Electron 4. Fermi-Dirac Distribu on 6.10/ 6.10/ and 6.23/
Theory 5. Source of Electrical Resistance 6.10 6.23 to 6.25/
6. Kronig-Penney Model 6.25 to 6.30/
7. Origin of Bands in Solids 6.30/ 6.31
8. Classifica on of Solids into Conductors
UNIT IV: SEMICONDUCTORS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors 7.1 and 7.5/ 7.1 and 7.2–
2. Dri and Diffusion Currents and Einstein’s 7.7 and 7.8/ 7.6 to 7.8/
Equa on 7.9/ 7.10/ 7.10 to 7.14/
Chapter 7:
3. Hall Effect 7.11 7.14 to 7.16/
Semiconductors
4. Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconduc- 7.16 to 7.18/
tors 7.18 to 7.20
5. Forma on of p-n Junc on
1. Introduc on and Basic Defini ons 8.1/ 8.2/ 8.2/ 8.1 to 8.3/ 8.3
2. Origin of Magne c Moments 8.3 to 8.3.4/ to 8.6/ 8.3 to
3. Bohr Magnetron 8.4/ 8.5/ 8.5 8.6/ 8.6 to
Chapter 8: Magnetic 4. Classifica on of Magne c Materials into 8.13/ 8.13/
Materials Dia, Para, Ferro 8.14 to 8.16/
5. Hysteresis 8.15
6. So and Hard Magne c Materials
7. Applica ons of MM
UNIT V: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND PHYSICS OF NANOMATERIALS
1. Introduc on 9.00/ 9.1.1/ 9.1 to 9.2/
2. Effect of Magne c Field 9.2/ 9.3 to 9.3/ 9.3 and
3. Meissner Effect 9.3.2/ 9.4/ 9.4/ 9.5 to
4. Type I and Type II Superconductors 9.2.1/ 9.6/ 9.8/ 9.8 to
Chapter 9: Super-
5. Flux Quan za on 9.5/ 9.6.2 9.10/ 9.4 and
conductivity
6. Penetra on Depth 9.5/ 9.12 to
7. BCS Theory 9.14/ 9.10 to
8. Josephson’s Effects 9.12/ 9.14
9. Applica on of Superconductors and 9.15
1. Introduc on 10.0 to 10.1 and
2. Significance of Nanoscale 10.1.3/ 10.2/ 10.2/
3. Physical Proper es: Op cal, Thermal, Me- 10.2/ 10.3 to 10.4 to 10.7/
chanical and Magne c Proper es 10.3.5/ 10.4 10.7 to 10.13/
Chapter 10: Physics 4. Synthesis of Nanomaterials by Top-Down to 10.4.3/ 10.19 to
of Nanomaterials and Bo om-Up Approaches 10.7 10.20
5. Applica ons of Nanomaterials
2. A. Types of Nanomaterials 10.1.1 to 10.1 to 10.2
10.1.3
U
N
Chapter 1: Physical Optics–Interference
Chapter 2: Physical Optics–Diffraction
I Chapter 3: Lasers
Chapter 4: Fibre Optics
1
U
N
Chapter 1: Physical Optics–Interference
Chapter 2: Physical Optics–Diffraction
I Chapter 3: Lasers
Chapter 4: Fibre Optics
1
U
I Chapter 5: Crystallography and Ultrasonics
2
U
I Chapter 6: Quantum Mechanics and

Free Electron Theory
3
U
I Chapter 7: Semiconductors
Chapter 8: Magnetic Materials
4
U
I Chapter 9:
Chapter 10:
Superconductivity
Physics of Nanomaterials
5
CHAPTER 1
PHYSICAL OPTICS–
INTERFERENCE
INTRODUCTION
Wave theory of light attempts to understand the various optical phenomena
exhibited by light waves. Interference constituted the first proof of the wave
nature of light. Thomas Young first experimentally demonstrated interference
in light waves. The superposition principle forms the conceptual basis for the
explanation of interference. To produce interference, the light waves should be
coherent, i.e., the light waves should have constant phase difference and same
frequencies.
1.1 INTERFERENCE
When two or more light waves superimpose in the medium then according to
superposition principle, the resultant displacement at any point is equal to the
algebraic sum of the displacements due to individual waves. If y1 and y2 are the
displacements due to two light waves 1 and 2, then the resultant displacement of
the resultant wave is given by y = y1 + y2. The variation of resultant displacement
influences amplitude variation, which causes intensity variations. This modifi-
cation in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is known as
interference. When the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to
Resultant
y light wave Light wave 1
y
y2
y1 y1
y2 Resultant
Light wave 1 light wave
Light wave 2 Light wave 2
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1 (a) Constructive interference (y¢ = y1 + y2);
(b) Destructive interference (y = y1 – y2)
1.2 Engineering Physics
two light waves, the interference is constructive interference (Fig. 1.1(a)). If the
resultant amplitude is equal to the difference of two amplitudes, the interference
becomes destructive interference (Fig. 1.1(b)). The intensity variations are
studied as interference patterns or fringes or bright and dark fringes.
1.1.1 Coherence
To observe interference, the two light waves should be coherent. The two light
waves are said to be coherent if they have the same frequency (wavelength) and
they are in phase or maintain a constant phase relationship. When such light waves
superimpose, they give, rise to an interference pattern. The light waves emitted
by two independent light sources do not have a constant phase relationship for a
long time and they have randomly varying phase relationship. Due to which, they
do not produce stationary interference pattern.
When a light from a single source is made to split into two wavefronts by
using two slits, then these split wavefronts act as if they emerged from two
sources having a fixed phase relationship and by superimposition, they produce a
stationary interference pattern. The process of maintaning constant phase relation
is known as coherence.
Coherence is of two types.
1. Temporal Coherence If it is possible to predict the phase relation at
a point on the wave w.r.t. another point on the same wave then the wave
has temporal coherence.
2. Spatial Coherence If it is possible to predict the phase relation at a
point on a wave w.r.t. another point on a second wave, then the wave is
said to have spatial coherence.
1.1.2 Conditions for Interference
1. The two light sources emitting light waves should be coherent.
2. The two sources must emit continuous light waves of same wavelengths
and frequency.
3. The separation between the two sources should be small.
4. The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.
5. To view interference fringes, the background should be dark.
6. The amplitudes of the light waves should be equal or nearly equal.
7. The sources should be narrow, i.e., they must be small.
8. The sources should be monochromatic.
1.1.3 Interference in Thin Film by Reflection
When light is incident on a plane parallel thin film, some portion gets reflected
from the upper surface and the remaining portion is transmitted into the film.
Again, some portion of the transmitted light is reflected back into the film by
the lower surface and emerges through the upper surface. These reflected light
Physical Optics–Interference 1.3
beams superimpose with each

other, producing interference and
forming interference patterns.
Consider a transparent plane
parallel thin film of thickness
‘t’ with refractive index m. Let a
monochromatic light ray AB be
incident at an angle of incidence
of ‘i’ on the upper surface of the
film. BE and BC are the reflected
and transmitted light rays. Let
the angle of refraction is ‘r’. The Figure 1.2 Interference in thin film
ray BC will be reflected into the
film and emerge through the film in the form of the light ray DF. These two
light rays superimpose and depending upon path difference between them, they
produce interference patterns.
To know the path difference, let us draw the normal DG to BE. From the
points D and G onwards, the light rays travel equal distances. By the time the
light ray travels from B to G, the transmitted light ray has to travel from B to C
and C to D.
The path difference between light rays (1) and (2) is
Path difference = m(BC + CD) in film – BG in air (1)
HC
Consider the DBCH, cos r = ___
BC
BC = _____
HC _____ t
cos r = cos r
CD = _____
t
Similarly, from DDCH, cos r
BC = CD = _____
t
cos r (2)
To calculate BG, first BD which is equal to (BH + HD) has to be obtained.

BH BH
From DBHC, tan r = ___ = ___
CH t
BH = t tan r
Similarly, HD = t tan r
BD = BH + HD = 2t tan r (\ BH = HD) (3)
sin i = ___
BG
From DBGD,
BD
BG = BD sin i = 2t tan r sin i
From Snell’s law, sin i = m sin r

BG = 2m t tan r sin r (4)
Substituting the above values in Eq. (1)
2mt
Path difference = _____
cos r – 2mt tan r sin r
2mt sin2r
2mt ________
= _____
cos r – cos r
2mt 2mt
= _____ 2 _____ 2
cos r (1 – sin r) = cos r cos r
= 2mt cos r (5)
At the point B, reflection occurs from the upper surface of the thin film
(denser medium). Light ray (1) undergoes an additional phase change of p or an
l
additional path difference of __.
2
l
Total path difference = 2mt cos r + __
2
When the path difference is equal to integral multiples of l then the rays (1)
and (2) meet in phase and undergo constructive interference.
The condition for bright fringe is
l
2mt cos r + __ = nl
2
l
2mt cos r = (2n – 1) __ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3… (6)
2
When the path difference is equal to half integral multiples of l then the rays
(1) and (2) meet in out of phase and undergo destructive interference.
The condition for dark fringe is
l l
2mt cos r + __ = (2n + 1) __
2 2
2mt cos r = nl where n = 0, 1, 2, 3… (7)
Depending on the above conditions, the interference pattern consists of bright
and dark fringes.
1.2 NEWTON’S RINGS

Newton’s rings are one of the best examples for the interference in a nonuniform
thin film. When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane
glass plate, an air film of increasing thickness is formed between the two. The
thickness of the film at the point of contact is zero. If monochromatic light is
allowed to fall normally and the film is viewed in the reflected light, alternate
dark and bright rings concentric around the point of contact between the lens
and glass plate are seen. These circular rings were discovered by Newton and are
called Newton’s rings.
1.2.1 Experimental Arrangement
The experimental arrangement is as shown in Fig. 1.3. The plano-convex lens (L)
of large radius of curvature
is placed with its convex
surface on a plane glass
plate (P). The lens makes
the contact with the plate
at ‘O’. The monochromatic
light falls on a glass plate G
held at an angle of 45° with
the vertical. The glass plate
G reflects normally a part of
the incident light towards the
air film enclosed by the lens
L and the glass plate P. A part
of the light is reflected by the
Figure 1.3 Newton’s rings (Experimental set up)
curved surface of the lens L
and a part is transmitted which is reflected back from the plane surface of the
plate. These reflected rays interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the
form of circular rings. These rings are seen near the upper surface of the air film
through the microscope.
1.2.2 Explanation of Newton’s Rings
Newton’s rings are formed due to
interference between the light rays
reflected from the top and bottom
surfaces of air film between the
plate and the lens. The formation
of Newton’s rings can be explained
with the help of Fig. 1.4. A part
of the incident monochromatic
light AB is reflected at B (glass–air
boundary) in the form of the ray (1) Figure 1.4 Formation of Newton’s rings
with any additional phase (or path)
change. The other part of the light is refracted along BC. Then at C (air–glass
boundary), it is again reflected in the form of the ray (2) with additional phase
l
change of p or path change of __.
2
As the rings are observed in the reflected light, the path difference between
l
them is 2mt cos r + __. For air film m = 1 and for normal incidence r = 0, path
2
l
difference is 2t + __.
2
l
At the point of contact t = 0, path difference is __, i.e., the reflected light at the
2
point of contact suffers phase change of p. Then the incident and reflected lights
are out of phase and interface destructively. Hence the central spot is dark.
l
The condition for bright ring is 2t + __ = nl.
2
l
2t = (2n – 1)__ where n = 1, 2, 3…
2
The condition for dark ring is
l l
2t + __ = (2n + 1)__
2 2
2t = nl where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…
For monochromatic light, the bright and dark rings depends on thickness of the
air film. For a Newton’s rings system, the locus of points having same thickness
lie on a circle having its centre at the point of contact. Thus, we get bright and
dark circular rings with the point of contact as the centre.
1.2.3 Theory of Newton’s Rings
To find the diameters of dark and bright rings, let ‘L’ be
a lens placed on a glass plate P. The convex surface of
the lens is the part of spherical surface (Fig. 1.5) with
centre at ‘C’. Let R be the radius of curvature and r be
the radius of Newton’s ring corresponding to the film
thickness ‘t’.
From the property of a circle,
NA × NB = NO × ND
Substituting the values, Figure 1.5 Theory of
r × r = t × (2R – t) Newton’s rings
r2 = 2Rt – t2
As t is small, t2 will be negligible
r2 = 2Rt
r2
t = ___
2R
For bright ring, the condition is

l
2t = (2n – 1) __
2
2
l
2 ___ = (2n – 1) __
r
2R 2
(2n – 1)lR
r2 = _________
2
Replacing r by __, the diameter of nth bright ring will be
D
2
(2n – 1)
D2 _______
___ = lR
4 2
______ ____
D = ÷2n – 1 ÷2lR
______
D μ ÷2n – 1
________________
D μ ÷odd natural numbers
Thus the diameter of the bright rings are proportional to the square root of odd
natural numbers. For dark ring, the condition is
2t = nl
2
2 ___ = nl
r
2R
r2 = nlR
D2 = 4nlR ____
D = 2 ÷nlR
__
D μ ÷_____________
n
D μ ÷natural numbers
Thus, the diameters of dark rings are proportional to
the square root of natural numbers.
With increase in the order (n), the rings get closer and Figure 1.6 Newton’s
the fringe width decreases and is shown in Fig. 1.6. ring pattern
1.3 DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF

A LIGHT SOURCE
The wavelength of a light source can be calculated by measuring the diameters of
the various rings and knowing the radius of curvature of the plano convex lens.
Theory
Let R be the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens, l be the wavelength of
light used. Let Dm and Dn are the diameters of mth and nth dark rings respectively.
Then
D2m = 4mlR
and D2n = 4nlR
D2n – D2m = 4(n – m)lR
D2n – D2m
l = _________
4(n – m)R
Using the above formula, l can be calculated.
Experiment
Experimental arrangements are made
as given in Section 1.2.1. After forming
the Newton’s rings, the microscope
is adjusted so that the centre of the Dn2 – Dm2
crosswire is adjusted at the central dark
Dm2
spot of the ring pattern. By counting
the number of rings, the microscope is D2
moved to the extreme left of the pattern
and the cross wire is adjusted tangentially ( n – m)
in the middle of the nth (21st) dark ring.
The reading of the microscope is noted.
Now the microscope is moved to the right
Figure 1.7 Plot of D2 w.r.t. the number
and its readings are noted successively at
of rings
(n – 3)th (18th), (n – 6)th (15th) … rings,
etc., with a difference of three rings up to the central dark spot. Again crossing
the central dark spot in the same direction, the readings corresponding to (n – 6)
th
(15th), (n – 3)th (18th) and nth (21st) rings are noted. The difference between the
left and right reading gives the diameter of the particular ring. A graph is plotted
between the number of the rings and the square of the corresponding diameter.
From the graph,
D2n – D2m ___
_______ AB
n – m = CD
The radius R of the plano convex lens can be obtained with the help of a
spherometer. Substituting these values in the formula, the wavelength of the light
source can be known.
1.4 DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

OF A LIQUID
The experiment is performed when there is an air film between the glass plate
and the plano-convex lens. The diameters of mth and nth dark rings are determined
with the help of a travelling microscope. We have
D2n – D2m = 4(n – m)lR (8)
The plano convex lens and plane glass plate is placed into the container which
consists of the liquid whose refractive index (m) is to be determined. Now, the air
film is replaced by the liquid film. Again, the diameters of the same mth and nth
dark rings are to be obtained. Then we have
4(n – m)lR
Dn¢ 2 – Dm¢ 2 = __________ (9)
m
From equations (8) and (9), we get
D2n – D2m
m = _________ (10)
D n¢ 2 – D m¢ 2
Using the above formula, ‘μ’ can be calculated.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. A parallel beam of light of 6000Å is incident on a thin glass plate of

refractive index 1.5 such that the angle of refraction into the plate is
50°. Find the least thickness of the glass plate which will appear dark
by reflection.
Given data Wavelength of the given light l = 6000Å = 6000 × 10-8 cm

Refractive index of the glass plate m = 1.5
Angle of refraction r = 50°
Solution 2mt cos r = nl
For least thickness, n = 1
Thickness t = _______
nl
2m cos r
1 × 6000 × 10–8
t = ______________
2 × 1.5 × cos 50°
6 × 10–5
t = _________ = 3.1114 × 10–5 cm
3 × 0.6428
= 3.11 × 10–5 cm
2. In a Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the 5th ring is 0.30 cm
and the diameter of the 15th ring is 0.62 cm. Find the diameter of the
25th ring.
Given data Diameter of the 5th ring = 0.3 cm

Diameter of the 15th ring = 0.62 cm
Solution We want diameter of the 25th ring.

We know that D2n – D2m = 4(n – m)lR
D 215 – D25 = 4(15 – 5)lR
fi (0.62)2 – (0.3)2 = 40 lR
0.3844 – 0.09 = 40 lR (i)
Similarly, D25th and D5th
D225 – D25 = 4(25 – 5)lR
D225 – 0.09 = 80lR (ii)
Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i)
D225 – 0.09 80 lR
____________ = _____
0.3844 – 0.09 40 lR
fi D225 = 2______
× 0.2944 + 0.09 = 0.6788
D25 = ÷0.6788 = 0.824 cm
Diameter of the 25th ring is 0.824 cm.
3. A convex lens on a plane glass plate is exposed to a monochromatic light.
The diameter of the 10th dark ring is 0.433 cm. Find the wavelength of
the light used if the radius of curvature of the lens is 70 cm.
Given data Radius of curvature, R = 70 cm

D2n
Solution l = ____
4nR
(0.433)2 0.187
= __________ = _____ = 6.6786 × 10–5 cm
4 × 10 × 70 2800
4. A soap film with a refractive index of 1.33 and thickness of 5000 Å

is exposed to white light. What wavelengths in the visible region are
reflected?
Given data Refractive index of the soap film, m = 1.33

Thickness of the film, t = 5000 Å = 5000 × 10–10 m
Solution Condition for maximum reflection is
l
2mt cos r = (2n + 1) __, where n = 0, 1, 2, etc.
2
Assume cos r = 1
4mt 4 × 1.33 × 5000 × 10–10
Then l = _______ = ____________________
(2n + 1) (2n + 1)
26600 × 10–10
= ____________ m
(2n + 1)
When n = 0, l1 = 26600 × 10–10 m (infrared region)
26600 × 10–10
When n = 1, l2 = ____________ = 8866.7 × 10–10 m (I R)
3
26600 × 10–10
n = 2, l3 = ____________ = 5320 × 10–10 m (visible region)
5
26600 × 10–10
n = 3, l4 = ____________ = 3800 × 10–10 m
7
(ultraviolet region)
All wavelengths reflected, at wavelength 5320Å the visible regions are
reflected.
5. What is the thickness of the thinnest film of 1.33 refractive index in
which destructive interference of the yellow light (6000 Å) of a normally
incident beam in air can take place by reflection?
Given data Refractive index of the film, m = 1.33

Wavelength of yellow light l = 6000 Å = 6000 × 10–8 cm
Angle of incidence i = 0°, \ r = 0° (reflection)
For least thickness, n = 1
Solution 2mt cos r = nl
t = _______
nl
2m cos r
1 × 6000 × 10–8
= ______________
2 × 1.33 × cos 0°
6 × 10–5
= _______ = 2.255 × 10–5 cm
2.66 × 1
\ the thickness of the thinnest film = 2.255 × 10–5 cm
6. In a Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the 8th ring was
0.35 cm and the diameter of the 18th ring was 0.65 cm. If the wave length
of the light used is 6000Å then find the radius of curvature of the
plano-convex lens.
Given data Diameter of the 18th ring = 0.65 cm

Wavelength of the light, l = 6000 Å
Solution Radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is
D2n – D2m
R = _________
4(n – m)l
(0.65)2 – (0.35)2
fi R = ___________________
4(18 – 5) × 600 × 10–8
0.4225 – 0.1225 ___0.3
= ______________ = × 104 = 125 cm
24 × 10 –4 24
\ radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is 125 cm.
7. In a Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the 12th ring changes
from 1.45 cm to 1.25 cm when a liquid is introduced between the lens
and the glass plate. Find the refractive index of the liquid.
Given data Diameter of the 12th ring in air medium, D12 = 1.45 cm
Diameter of the 12th ring in a liquid, D 12
¢ = 1.25 cm
4nlR
Solution D2n = _____
m
4nlR 4 × 12lR
(D12)2 = _____ = ________ \ m = 1 for air
m 1
4 × 12lR
(D ¢12)2 = ________
m
From the above relation,
(D12)2 (1.45)2 2.1025
m = ______2 = ______2 = ______ = 1.3456
(D ¢12) (1.25) 1.5625
\ refractive index of the liquid is 1.3456.

8. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 5th dark ring is
0.3 cm and the diameter of the 25th ring is 0.8 cm. If the radius of
curvature of the plano convex lens is 100 cm, find the wavelengths of
the light used.
Given Data Diameter of 5th dark ring D5 = 0.3 cm

Diameter of 25th dark ring D25 = 0.8 cm
Radius of curvature of plano convex lens R = 100 cm
D2n – D2m
Solution l = _________
4(n – m)R
(0.8)2 – (0.3)2
= ____________
4(8 – 3) × 100
= 4.87 × 10–5 cm
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Two sources are said to be coherent if their emitted waves have
(a) same amplitude (b) same wavelength
(c) constant phase difference (d) All of these
2. When a light wave is reflected at the glass–air interface, the change of
phase of the reflected wave is equal to
(a) 0 (b) p/2
(c) p/4 (d) p
3. When a light wave is reflected at the air–glass interface, the change of phase of
the reflected wave is equal to
(a) 0 (b) p/2
(c) p/4 (d) p
4. In the presence of a plane parallel film, the path difference is equal to
(a) 2m sin i (b) 2m t cos r
(c) 2m sin r (d) 2m t cos i
5. If a light wave is refracted from air to denser medium then the phase and path
difference is
(a) p and l (b) p and l/2
(c) p/2 and l (d) p/2 and l/2
6. In a plane parallel film due to reflected light, what is the condition for maxima
for the air film to appear bright?
(a) 2m t cos r = nl (b) 2m t cos r = (2n + 1)l/2
(c) 2m t cos r = nl/2 (d) 2m t cos r = (2n – 1)l/2
7. In a plane parallel film due to reflected light, what is the condition for minima
for the air film to appear dark?
(a) 2m t cos r = nl/2 (b) 2m t cos r = (2n + 1)l/2
(c) 2m t cos r = nl (d) 2m t cos r = (2n – 1)l/2
8. In Newton’s rings, interference is due to light rays reflected from
(a) upper surface of lens and upper surface of glass plate
(b) lower surface of lens and upper surface of glass plate
(c) lower surface of glass plate and upper surface of lens
(d) lower surface of lens and lower surface of glass plate
9. In Newton’s rings experiment, what is the condition for bright fringes in case of
reflected light?
______
(a) D μ ÷2n + 1 (b) D μ n
__ ______
(c) D μ ÷n (d) D μ ÷2n – 1
10. In Newton’s rings experiment, what is the condition for dark fringes in case of
reflected light?
______
(a) D μ ÷2n + 1 (b) D μ n
__ ______
(c) D μ ÷n (d) D μ ÷ 2n – 1
11. If the thickness of the parallel thin film increases, the path difference between
the reflected lights
(a) decreases
(b) increases
(c) first decreases and then increases
(d) first increases and then decreases
12. The phenomenon of intensity modification due to superposition of light waves is
known as
(a) interference (b) diffraction
(c) polarisation (d) coherence
13. When a light wave is reflected at the air-glass interface, the change of path of the
reflected wave is equal to
(a) l/2 (b) l/4
(c) l/6 (d) l/8
14. When a liquid film is introduced in the place of air film, then the diameters of the
rings
(a) increases
(b) decreases
(c) first increases and then decreases
(d) first decreases and then increases
15. When the film is observed by white light, colours are observed due to
(a) interference (b) diffraction
(c) polarisation (d) coherence
16. Wave nature of light is evidenced by
(a) photoelectric effect (b) interference
(c) blackbody radiation (d) nuclear emission
17. In the interference pattern energy is
(a) created at the maxima (b) destroyed at the minima
(c) converted but is redistributed (d) converted into matter
18. Two waves having their intensities in the ratio 9 : 1 produce interference. In the
interference pattern, the ratio of maximum to minimum intensity is equal to
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 9 : 1 (c) 3 : 1 (d) 4 : 1
19. Two beams interfere have their amplitudes ratio 2 : 1. Then the intensity ratio of
bright and dark fringes is
(a) 2 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 (c) 9 : 1 (d) 4 : 1
20. When a thin film of oil or soap bubble is illuminated with white light, multiple
colours appear. This is due to
(a) diffraction (b) polarisation

(c) total internal reflection (d) interference
21. When the Newton’s rings are viewed through a microscope, the Central ring is
seen dark because
(a) Phase difference of p due to phase change on reflection.
(b) Air film thickness is nearer to zero.
(c) Path difference of l due to phase change on reflection.
(d) Phase change of 2p due to phase change on reflection.
22. The convex lense in Newton’s ring apparatus is replaced by an ordinary glass
plate, then
(a) non-interference occurs
(b) circular rings are still obtained
(c) interference takes place but the shape of fringes is irregular
(d) straight line fringes are observed.
23. In Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of 40th ring is 0.1 m air film. When an
oil film is formed the diameter of the same ring becomes 0.089 m the refractive
index of oil is
(a) 1.26 (b) 0.80 (c) 1.10 (d) 1.33
Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d)
7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (a)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (d)
19. (c) 20. (d) 21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (a)
Fill in the Blanks

1. The resultant displacement is due to the presence of both the waves of
displacements y1 and y2 is given by y = y1 + y2. This is known as the principle of
____________.
2. Two waves are said to be ____________ if their waves have same ratio of bright
fringe to dark fringe.
3. If 5 : 1 is the amplitude ratio of the source, the intensity ratio of maximum to
minimum is
(a) 25 : 1 (b) 6 : 4
(c) 4 : 9 (d) 9 : 4
4. Due to interference in thin films, if the film thickness is extremely small when
compared to l, the film will appear ____________.
5. Newton’s ring experiment, the radius of nth dark ring is given by ____________
where l is the wavelength of light and R is the radius of the ring observed.
6. On introducing the liquid in between the lense and the glass plate in Newton’s
ring experiment, the diameter of the rings observed ____________.
7. Superposition of two coherent wavefronts originating from coherent sources

result in ____________.
8. In interference pattern fringes have ____________ width.
Answers to Fill in the blanks

1. Superposition 2. Coherent
____
3. 9:4
4. dark 5. ÷nRl 6. decreases
7. Interference 8. equal
True or False
1. Two monochromatic sources of same amplitude and same wavelength can act as
coherent sources. (T/F)
2. If the path difference between the two interfering waves is integral multiple of l,
constructive interference occurs. (T/F)
3. In Newton’s ring experiment reflected light the point of contact of lens with the
glass plate. Where thickness of air is zero, appears dark. ___
(T/F)
4. Radius of fourth dark ring in Newton’s ring experiment is 4÷Rl . (T/F)
5. Thin films when viewed under white light, appears multicolored due to
dispersion. (T/F)
Answers to True or False

1. T 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. F
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Short Answer Questions

1.
What is interference?
2.
What is constructive interference?
3.
What is destructive interference?
4.
What is coherence?
5.
What is temporal coherence?
6.
What is spatial temporal coherence?
7.
Mention any two important conditions to get interference.
8.
Mention the conditions to get bright and dark fringes in the interference
due to reflected light by thin film.
9. Why the centre spot is dark in the Newton’s rings formed by the reflected
light?
10. Why does Newton’s rings consist of concentric rings?
11. Mention the expression for diameter of bright and dark rings in Newton’s
rings by the reflected light.
Essay Type Questions

1. Explain the interference in the films by reflection.
2. Describe the formation of Newton’s rings with necessary theory.
3. Explain how the wavelength of light sources is determined by forming
Newton’s rings.
4. Explain how the refractive index of liquid is determined by forming
Newton’s rings.
CHAPTER 2
PHYSICAL OPTICS–
DIFFRACTION
INTRODUCTION
The wave nature of light is further confirmed by the optical phenomenon of
diffraction. The word ‘diffraction’ is derived from the Latin word diffractus
which means to break to pieces. It is common experience that waves bend around
obstacles placed in their path. When light waves encounter an obstacle, they bend
round the edges of the obstacle. This bending is predominant when the size of the
obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of light. The bending of light waves
around the edge of an obstacle is diffraction. It was first observed by Gremaldy.
2.1 DIFFRACTION
As shown in Fig. 2.1, when light falls on an obstacle then the corresponding
geometrical shadow on the screen should be completely dark. In practice, the
geometrical shadow consists of bright and dark fringes. These fringes are due
to the superimposition of bended light waves around the corners of an obstacle.
The amount of bending depends upon the size of an obstacle and wavelength of
light.
Figure 2.1 Diffraction

When light falls on an obstacle whose size is comparable with the wavelength
of light then light bends around the edges or corners of an obstacle and enters
into the geometrical shadow. This bending of light is known as diffraction. The
bright and dark fringes in the shadow forms a diffraction pattern.
The diffraction phenomena are broadly classified into two types:
Fresnel diffraction
To study diffraction, there should be a light source, obstacle and screen. In this
class of diffraction, the source and screen are placed at finite distances from the
obstacle. To study this diffraction, lenses are not necessary as the source and
screen are at a finite distance. This diffraction can be studied in the direction of
propagation of light. The incident wave fronts are either spherical or cylindrical.
Fraunhofer diffraction
In this class of diffraction, the source and screen are placed at infinite distances
from the obstacle. Due to the above fact, we need lenses to study the diffraction.
This diffraction can be studied in any direction. In this case, the incident wave
front is plane.
2.1.1 Comparison between Fresnel’s and Fraunhofer’s Diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel’s diffraction
1. For diffraction to occur, the light 1. For diffraction to occur, the light source
source and screen are at infinite and screen are at finite distance from
distance from the obstacle. the obstacle.
2. To study diffraction, lenses are 2. No lenses are necessary to study the
necessary. diffraction.
3. Study of the diffraction is easy. 3. Study of the diffraction is complicated.
4. Diffraction can be studied in any 4. Diffraction can be studied only in the
direction of propagation of light. direction of propagation of light.
5. In this case, the incident wavefronts 5. In this case, the incident wavefronts are
are plane. either spherical or cylindrical.
2.1.2 Difference between Interference and Diffraction

When two or more light waves superimpose then it causes intensity modifications
in the resultant light wave, which causes the interference phenomenon. In
diffraction, the bended light waves superimpose and cause intensity variations
in the form of a diffraction pattern. The diffraction phenomenon also involves
interference effect. Let us study the differences between interference and
diffraction phenomena.
Interference Diffraction
1. It is due to superposition of two source 1. It is due to superposition of secondary
different wavefronts originating from wavelets originating from the different
two coherent sources. parts of the same wavefront.
Contd..
Physical Optics–Diffraction 2.3
Contd..
2. Interference bands are of equal width. 2. Diffraction bands decrease in their widths
as the order increases.
3. All the bright fringes are of the same 3. The bright fringes are of varying intensity.
intensity.
4. All the dark fringes have zero intensity. 4. The intensity of dark fringes is not zero.
2.2 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

Consider a slit AB of width ‘e’. Let a plane wave front WW ¢ of monochromatic
light of wavelength l propagating normally towards the slit is incident on it. The
diffracted light through the slit is focussed by means of a convex lens on a screen
placed in the focal plane of the lens. According to Huygen–Fresnel, every point
on the wave front in the plane of the slit is a source of secondary wavelets, which
spread out to the right in all directions. These wavelets travelling normal to the
slit, i.e., along the direction OP0 are brought to focus at P0 by the lens. Thus, P0
is a bright central image. The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle q with the
normal are focussed at a point P1 on the screen. Depending on path difference,
the point P1 may have maximum or minimum intensities. To find intensity at P1,
let us draw the normal AC from A to the light ray at B.
Figure 2.2 Fraunhofer diffraction—single slit
The path difference between the wavelets from A and B in the direction q is
given by
Path difference = BC = AB sin q = e sin q
2p
Corresponding phase difference = ___ × path difference
l
2p
= ___ e sin q
l
Let the width of the slit be divided into n equal parts and the amplitude of the
wave from each part is ‘a’. The phase difference between any two successive
waves from these parts would be
1
__
[
2p
1 ___
__
]
n [Total phase] = n l e sin q = d (say)
Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude R

is given by
a sin nd/2
R = _________
sin d/2
a sin (pe sin q/l)
= ______________
sin (pe sin q/nl)
sin a
= a ______ where a = pe sin q/l
sin a/n
sin a
= a _____ ( a/n is very small)
a/n
a sin a
______
=n ( na = A)
a
sin a
= A _____
a
Intensity 2
( a )
sin a 2
I = R = A2 _____ (1)
2.2.1 Principal Maximum

The resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers of a as
[ a3 a 5 a 7
R = __ a – ___ + ___ – ___ + ...
A
a 3! 5! 7! ]
[ a2 a 4 a 6
]
= A 1 – ___ + ___ – ___ + ...
3! 5! 7!
I will be maximum, when the value of R is maximum. For maximum value of
R, the negative terms must vanish, i.e., a = 0
pe sin q
_______ =0
l
sin q = 0
q =0 (2)
Then R =A
Imax = R2 = A2 (3)
The condition q = 0 means that the maximum intensity is formed at P0 and is
known as principal maximum.
2.2.2 Minimum Intensity Positions
I will be minimum, when sin a = 0
a = ± p, ±2p, ±3p
a = ± mp
pe sin
_______q
= ± mp
l
e sin q = ±ml (4)

where m = 1, 2, 3.......
Thus, we obtain the points of minimum intensity on either side of the principal
maximum. For m = 0, sin q = 0, which corresponds to principal maximum.
2.2.3 Secondary Maxima
In between these minima, we get secondary maxima. The positions can be
obtained by differentiating the expression of I w.r.t. a and equating to zero. We
get
___
dI ___
=
da da
d
[ ( )]
sin a 2
A2 _____ = 0
a
2 sin a a cos a – sin a
A2 . ______ . _____________ =0
a a2
either sin a = 0 or a cos a – sin a = 0
sin a = 0 gives positions of minima.
Hence the positions of secondary maxima are given by
a cos a – sin a = 0
a = tan a (5)
The values of a satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically
by plotting the curves y = a and y = tan a on the same graph. The points of
intersection of the two curves gives the values of a which satisfy the above
equation. The plots of y = a and y = tan a are shown in Fig. 2.3.
y = tan α
y=α
–5π –3π –π 0 π 3π 5π
2 2 2 2 2 2
Figure 2.3 Plots of y = a and y = tan a
The points of intersections are

3p 5p
a = 0, ± ___, ± ___, ...
2 2
Substituting the above values in Eq. (1), we get the intensities in various
maxima.
a = 0, I0 = A2 (principal maximum)
3p
a = ___,
2 [
sin (3p/2)
I1 = A2 ________
3p/2 ] 2
A2
ª ___ (1st secondary maximum)
22
5p
a = ___,
2 [
sin (5p/2)
I2 = A2 ________
5p/2 ] 2
A2
ª ___ (2nd secondary maximum)
62
and so on.
From the above expressions, it is evident that most of the incident light is
concentrated in the principal maximum and the rest is redistributed into the
secondary maxima.
2.2.4 Intensity Distribution
The variation of I w.r.t. a is shown in Fig. 2.4. The diffraction pattern consists of a
central principal maximum for a = 0. There are secondary maxima of decreasing
3p 5p
intensity on either sides of it at positions a = ± ___, ± ___. Between secondary
2 2
maxima, there are minima at positions a = ±p, ±2p, ±3p, ...
–3π –5π –2π –3π –π 0 π 3π 2π 5π 3π

2 2 2 2
α→
Figure 2.4 Intensity distribution
2.3 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT DOUBLE SLIT

Let S1 and S2 be double slits of equal widths e and separated by a distance d. The
distance between the middle points of the two slits is (e + d). A monochromatic
light of wavelength l is incident normally on the two slits. The light diffracted
from these slits is focussed by a lens on the screen placed in the focal plane of
the lens. The diffraction at two slits is the combination of diffraction as well
as interference, i.e., the pattern on the screen is the diffraction pattern due to a
single slit on which a system of interference fringes is superimposed. When a
plane wavefront is incident normally on two slits, the secondary wavelets from
the slits travel uniformly in all directions. The wavelets travelling in the direction
of incident light come to a focus at P0 while the wavelets travelling in a direction
making an angle q, come to focus at P1.
S1
P1
S1
e+d θ P0
S2 K
Source
Lens S2
Lens
Double Slit Screen
Figure 2.5 Fraunhofer diffraction—double slit
From the study of diffraction due to single slit, the resultant amplitude
A sin a pe sin q
= ______ where a = _______.
a l
H
Since we use double slit, from each slit we get a
A sin a R
wavelet of amplitude ______ in a direction q. These two
A sin α
a α
δ
wavelets interfere and meet at a point P1 on the screen. To 0 G
calculate the path difference between the wavelets, let us A sin α
α
draw a normal S1K to the wavelet through S2.
Figure 2.6 Vector
Path difference = S2K addition method
= (e + d) sin q
2p
Phase difference d = ___ (e + d) sin q (6)
l
To find the resultant amplitude at P1 we use vector addition method (Fig. 2.6)
in which the two sides of a triangle are represented by the amplitudes through S1
and S2. The third side gives the resultant amplitude.
From the figure,
(OH)2 = (OG)2 + (GH)2 + 2 (OG)(GH) cos d
(
A sin a 2
a ) (
A sin a 2
R2 = ______ + ______ + 2 ______
a
A sin a
a ) ( ) ( ______
a )
A sin a
cos d
2
sin a
= A2 _____ [2 + 2 cos d ]
a2
( )
A sin a 2
= 2 ______ (1 + cos d )
a
( )
A sin a 2
= 2 ______ (1 + 2 cos2d /2 – 1)
a
R = 4A ( _____ ) cos [ ____________ ]

2 sin a 2 p (e + d) sin q
2
2
a l
p (e + d) sin q
Let b = ____________
l
(
sin a
R2 = 4A2 _____
a ) cos b
2
2
(
sin a
The resultant intensity I = R2 = 4A2 _____
a ) cos b
2
2
(7)
From the above expression, it is clear that the resultant intensity is the product
of two factors, i.e.,
( )
sin a 2
1. A2 _____ which represents the diffraction pattern due to a single slit
a
2. cos2b which gives the interference pattern due to wavelets from double
slits
The resultant intensity is due to both Diffraction and Interference effects.
2.3.1 Diffraction Effect
(
sin a 2
)
The diffraction term A2 _____ gives the principal maximum at the centre of the
a
screen with alternate minima and secondary maxima of decreasing intensity. We
get principal maximum for q = 0. We get minima for sin a = 0

a = ±mp, where m = 1, 2, 3, ...
pe sin q
_______ = ± mp
l
e sin q = ± ml
The positions of secondary maxima occurs for
± 3p ± 5p ± 7p
a = ____, ____, ____, ...
2 2 2
2.3.2 Interference Effect
The interference term cos2 b gives the equidistant bright and dark fringes.
The maxima will occur for cos2 b = 1
b = ±np, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
b = 0, ± p, ± 2p, ± 3p ...
p (e + d) sin q
____________ = ± np
l
(e + d) sin q = ± nl
The minima will occur for cos2 b = 0
b = ± (2n + 1)p/2 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
(e + d) sin q = ± (2n + 1) l/2
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
And when thou shalt bee counted but a sot,
The noble wights which liude and dyde in worthy fame,
In heauen and earth shall finde an euerlasting name.
11.
But words of course are these of fortune had,

When vnto princes haps chaunce good or ill;
God sends to euery sorte these tempests sad,
When from his worde they swarue and heauenly will:
Men must endeuour then to please his goodnesse still,
And then come life, or death, come ioy, come smarte:
No fortune’s frowne can daunte the doughty harte.
12.
The famous king so dead, his son, but nyne months olde,
Henry the sixt of England was proclaymed king:
And then the Frenchmen wexte more stoute and bolde,
His youth occasion gaue them to conspire the thing,
Which might them all from due subjection bring?
On which the councell calde a parliament,
Of French that might the treasons high preuent.
13.
Wherein the duke of Bedford, my good lorde and frend,

Was regent made, the prince his deputy in Fraunce:
The duke of Glocester protectour was, to th’end
To rule in cases such at home might hap to chaunce:
They chose to garde the prince, in honour to aduaunce
Henry Beuforde bishop of Winchester,
And Thomas the noble duke of Excester.
14.
But here before those things coulde well be setled sure,

(As great affayres of kingdomes longer time do take)
The Frenchmen did by treason, force, and coyne,
procure
Some townes which English were, in Fraunce theyr fayth
forsake:
A long discourse it were of all recitall make:
But of my chaunce that time, resite will I,
Which seru’d in warres my prince in Normandy.
15.
Before the mount S. Michaell as in seige I lay,

In confines of the Normane’s and the Breton’s land,
From townsemen famisht nigh we vitailes kept away,
And made them oft in daunger of dis-mounteing stand:
But it being strong and also stoutly mand,
Euen by our losses they gate harte of grasse,
And wee declineing saw what fortune was.
16.
Yet nathelesse[1874] wee thought by famine make them

yeelde,
Eke they by fight or succours hoapt the seige to rayse,
T’accomplish which they rusht on sodayne out to feelde,
As bent to dy or win the wanted foode with prayse:
And wee as ready were for them at all assayes:
These eager impes whome foode, want, feazde to fight
amayne,
Wee forc’d them dye, fall, fly, to take theyr forte
agayne.
17.
Where I in chase pursude them euen to the towne,

Tane prisner was, a while for ransom lay:
But then the worthy duke, the regent of renowne,
Did for mee quite disburse the price requirde to pay:
The seige wee raysde, from thence wee went our way,
And I redeemed bare this blanke in minde,
Till of requite I might occasion finde.
18.
Which thus ere long befell, to this a while giue eare:

When Arthur earle of Richmond to S. Iaques came
De Beuuron, where my selfe and other captaynes were,
Which had repared well and fortefide the same,
Wee made him flye, to his immortall shame:
Euen thus to him and forty thousand moe,
Fiue hundreth English gaue the ouerthroe.
19.
Long while hee battery layde agaynst the wall,

Thereby to make a breatche for them to enter in:
But well perceiuing still his shot to profite small,
And that wee weyde not of his powre a pinne,
On euery side afreshe hee did th’assault begin:
Yet wee so bare them off, and beate them downe,
They durst not seaze or enter on the towne.
20.
But wearied with the seige and sault, they pausde a

while,
Consulting what were best, and so did wee likewise:
They founde the feate, they thought should surely vs
beguile,
And in an euening came t’accomplish th’enterprise:
A sharp assaulte they gaue: alarme my mates, wee rise:
On both the sides they scalde, the forte to gayne,
But from the scales and walles wee flang them downe
amayne.
21.
It was my charge that time to keepe a bulwarke bace,
Where Bretons came along to enter by a streit:
’Twas in a bottome lowe, a pond was by the place,
By which they needes must passe vp to a posterne gate:
I meant to make them fishe the poole without a bayt,
Protesting ere they there should get the wall
Wee would as English dye, or gieue our foes the fall.
22.
The trompets sound tan tara, tan tan tara right,

The guns were shot founce-founce-founce, fomp-fum,
fow-powthow,
The dromze went downe-dun-downe, the fluits fyt-fyte-fyt,
fyte,
The weapons clish-clash, and the captaynes nowe-now-
nowe:
With billes wee beat them downe, with shafts wee shot
them throw:
The gory ground did groane, the smoky shot and cryes
Dimd all the ayre, and thundred through the scyes.
23.
S. Denise, cryde the French, and Bretons glahe-lahee,

S. George the English cryde, fight-fight-fight, kill-kill-kill:
“Fight-fight,” quoth I, “come on, they flee, they flee, they
flee:”
And there withall wee vsde a poynt of warlike scill,
Wee causde the men within to crye vnto vs still:
“Fight Suffolke, now, fight, fight, and Salsbury:
Fight, fight, you noble earles, the Bretons flee, they
flee.”
24.
With that amazed all the Bretons gan recoyle,

Some drowned in the pond, wherin they ran for feare,
And I pursude the flight, to wrecke my captiue foyle,
Wee payde them in the chase disordred as they were,
Seuen hundred slew, tooke fifty prisners there,
Gaynde eyghteene standerds, and one banner more:
Yet I and mine, not fully were fowrescore.
25.
Of this exployt when th’earle of Richmond herde,

Which gaue an hoate assault on th’other side the towne,
No lesse was hee displeasde, amazed, than afferde,
To heare the names of those two earles of high renowne,
His guilty courage quaylde, his heart was daunted
downe,
Hee causde the trompets sounde retrayte away:
To scale our walles hee durst no longer stay.
26.
At midnight hee dislodgde, from seige hee made departe,

The constable of Fraunce (late earle of Richemond) fled,
And toward Fougiers sped, with such as tooke his parte,
For haste, perhaps with feare, lest hee should lose his
heade:
They left two hundred pypes of flowre and bisket bread,
Greate gunnes foureteene, three hundred pypes of
wine,
Two hundred frailes of figs and raysons fine.
27.
Fiue hundred barels they of hering left beside,

Of pouder for our gunnes full forty barels more,
They fled without theyr tents, the dasterds durst not byde,
For feare they coulde not stay, to take away theyr store:
Haue you oft hearde the like of cowards such before?
Those forty thousand, Bretons, Frenche, and Scots,
Fowre score them foyled, made them flee like sots.
28.
When this, that noble man, the duke of Bedford hearde,

How I did quit my selfe, and seru’d my prince so well,
Hee mee procured of the king, as great rewarde
As my deserts coulde wish, and more the truth to tell,
Chiefe butlership of Normandy, vnto me fell
Reuenues eke in Normandy of lands,
A thousand crownes came yearely to my hands.
29.
I after this was sent to make inroade

Upon the coaste of Bretaine, for to bate theyr pride,
A band of horsemen tooke without aboade,
The duke of Somerset made me theyr guide,
To many townes about theyr bounds wee ride:
Set them on fire, or made them ransom pay,
Tooke store of prisners, wrought them much decay.
30.
Retourned victours safe to Normandy,

With good successe, for why the cause was good,
And of our prince were guerdonde gratefully
With lande and gifts, as for our seruice stoode:
This makes the captaynes venture life and bloode,
And souldiers serue with heart in what they may,
Which are assurde of honour, prayse, and pay.
31.
Yee worthy wights aliue, which loue your countrey’s

weale,
And for your prince’s porte such warres doe vndertake,
Learne so for countrey your’s with forayne foes to deale,
See that of manhood good, so great accompts yee make:
It nothing vayles in peace, to sweare, stur, face, or crake:
In werres hee winnes the fame of noble wight
Who warlike deales, for prince and publique right.
32.
Yf you so poynted bee, to serue your prince in war,

As erste was I, and muste before the muster take,
Retayne such souldiers as well made, strong, seemely ar
Brought vp to labour harde, of such accompt doe make:
These able are at neede to stand and keepe the stake,
When facing foysters fit for Tiburne frayes
Are foodesicke faynt, or hartsicke run theyr wayes.
33.
At home a man may finde a nomber euery day,

Which weare theyr weapons still, as all the worlde were
war,
And keepe a coyle to beare the best of blades away,
With buclers braue at backs, to shew what men they are:
In peace at home they sweare, stare, foyste, royst, fight,
and iar:
But when abroade they feare of warres the smarte,
Some better souldiers yede[1875] from driueing cart.
34.
In warres to serue, as wee, and weapons haue

When warlike stormes do rage, beseemes a warlike man:
In pleasaunt peace who sets him selfe to bandeing
braue,
And faceing fares at home, abroade doe nothing can,
Though nere so much hee boaste, fie on him cowerd
than:
For not in gauntlet, sworde, targ, oathes, hayre, staring
eyes,
But in the breast, good courage, vertue lyes.
35.
But here, perhaps you say, I fall a noate too lowe,

Beneath the persons of these worthy peeres and mee:
Tis true indeede, and yet such fruite hereof may growe,
As eke the meane hereby, his iarring out may see:
Without good meane, the song can neuer sweetly gree:
Leaue out the meane, or let him keepe no tune,
And you shall sing when Easter falles in June.
36.
Euen so, if meaner sorts doe iangle here and iar

To languish vnder Mars, but fill good peace with fight,
As discorde foule in musike, fit they for the war,
They neuer can atchiue the victory aright:
Leade such as square or feare, then farewell all, good
night:
A sheepe is euen as good to starteing, stand, and
beae:
As hee that iangles, wrangles, rangles, runnes aweae.
37.
Then who so deales for warre, must wisely make his

marte,
And choose such souldiers stout will stiffe in warfare
stande:
Yf hee not recke what ruffian roysters take his parte,
Hee weeldes vnwisely then the mace of Mars in hande:
He must be able eke, to deeme for sea and lande
What men may serue, to best aduauntage make,
And them enstruct fine warlike poynts to take.
38.
With scilfull knowledge fraight hee muste be voyde of

feare,
Of wisedom so discreete, so sober, graue and sage,
To deeme, perceiue, abyde, aduentures both to beare
As may in all exployts of fight with fortune wage:
Hee must haue art in vre, and vse not rule by rage:
Wise dealing sets the souldiers sure in ray,
Wilde ouer rashnesse casteth all away.
39.
The cause, grounde, place and time, the order of theyr

fights,
The valure of his foes, and what is theyr intent,
The weather fayre or foule, occasion of the nights,
What witty wyles and pollicies may them preuent,
And how the time or store of th’enmies hath beene spent:
All these, I say, must well be weyde before,
By him that sets in warres of credit store.
40.
In all which poynts that noble duke his grace did passe,
I meane the regent good, for chuseing, vseing men,
By nature framde thereto, hee wonders[1876] scilfull was,
And frendly vsed all, instructing now and then
Not only captaynes stout, that were his countrey men,
But also sondry souldiers as occasion came,
And taught them how to warres themselues to frame.
41.
His princely grace and gesture yet mee thinks I see,

And how hee bare himselfe, to deale for warre or peace:
In warre full Mars-like, hardy, sterne, and bolde was hee:
And meeke and prudent, mercifull, when stormes of
warres did cease:
Whom pity mou’d as much inflicted paynes to releace,
As euer wight in whom the broyles of war,
Or force of fights, had entred in so far.
42.
Which if agayne to rue the losse of such a frend,

In sight with playnts, of teares the fountaynes out might
flow:
So all lamenting muses would mee waylings lend,
The dolours of my heart in sight agayne to show:
I would deplore his death, and England’s cause of woe,
With such sad mourning tunes, and such sobs, sighes,
and teares,
As were not seene for one, this ten times twenty
yeares.
43.
For why this noble prince, when wee had needed moste
To set the states of Fraunce and England in a stay,
That feared was of foes in euery forayne coaste,
To soone, alas, this duke was taken hence away:
In Fraunce hee dyde: helasse, lament his losse wee may,
That regent regall, rule of publique right:
Loe, howe my hurtes afreshe beweepe this wanted
wight.”
44.
With that his woundes (mee thought) gan freshly bleede,

And hee waxte faynt and fell, and my salte teares
Ran downe my rufull cheekes, with trickling speede,
(For who coulde chuse that such cause sees and
heares.)
“O worthy knight,” (qd.[1877] I) “whose loyall faith
appeares:
Cease wayles, rise vp, instruct my quiuering pen,
To tell the rest of fortune’s dublings then.”
45.
“I haue,” quoth he, “not fortune’s flatterie to accuse,
Nor fate, nor destenie, nor any fancie fainde:
I haue no cause t’affirme that these coulde ought misuse
This noble prince, whose life and acts such fame and
honour gaynde,
But our deserts, our sinnes, and our offences staynde
This noble ile, and vs, our sinnes, I say,
Offending God, hee tooke this prince away.
46.
Helasse, how loath can I retourne, and leaue this pearle

in Roane,
My lorde Ihon duke of Bedford, there his corps yet lyes,
Enclosde with costly tombe, wrought curiously of stone,
By north the altar high (delighting many martiall eyes)
Within our ladie church, where fame him lifts to skies,
By dayly vew his name renoumbde exalted is,
And soule, I trust, full sweetly sweames in blisse.
47.
Needes must I enterline my talke a while with this:

And then I will retourne to tell you how I sped:”
When once the French men sawe this noble duke to
misse,
Which English armyes all gaynste foes with fortunes led,
They liude at large, rebeld against their soueraygne
head,
Forsooke their oathes, alleageaunce all denyde,
And English men with all their force defyde.
48.
While hee did liue, they durst not so to deale,

They durst not dare, with th’English oft to fraye,
They found it was not for theire owne or publique weale,
To rise againste theire lorde the regent, in araye:
Soone after hee was deade, departed hence away,
Both French and Normanes close to win did cloaze,
And wee deuided were, our rightes abroade to loaze.
49.
The feende (I thinke) deuisde a way to make the

breache,
By enuye bred in breastes of two right noble peeres,
Which mischiefe hatcht in England, then may teache
All noble men that liue, hence many hundreth yeares,
Beware of enuye blacke, how far shee deares:
Euen their examples tell, how true our Christe doth
say:
Each realme, towne, house, in ciuile strife, shall
desolate decay.
50.
Perdie the duke of Yorke was regent made of Fraunce,

At which the duke of Somerset did much repine,
Hee thought they rather ought him so t’aduaunce
King Henrie’s kin, for honour of his princely lyne:
But marke the grape which grew on this vngracious vine,
I will not say it after stroyde their lynes and houses
nye,
But this I say, wee dayely sawe dishonour came
thereby.
51.
For though the hauty duke were worthy it to haue,

As well for courage good, as vertues honour due:
Yet sith to th’duke of Yorke th’election first it gaue,
And hee the sadle mist, what neded hee to rue?
When tumultes great and sturres in Fraunce yet daylye
grew,
Hee nilde the regent hence dispatche[1878] in many
dayes:
That losse might win him hurte, or long disprayse.
52.
Wylde wengand on such ire, wherby the realme doth

lose,
What gayne haue they, which heaue at honour soe?
At home disdayne and greefe, abroade they frend their
foes:
I must bee playne in that which wrought my webs of woe,
My webs (qd.[1879] I:) would God they had wrought no
moe:
It was the cause of many a bleeding English breaste,
And to the French, their end of woefull warres
addresse.
53.
I dare aduouche yf they had firme in frendship boade,

And soothly, as beseemde, ioynde frendly hand with
hands,
They had not felt defame in any foraine roade,
Nor had not so beene sent, with losse from Gallia
strands:
They might possession kept, still of their conquerde
lands,
And able beene to tryde them selues so true,
As myght haue made their enmyes still to rue.
54.
For while the duke of Somerset made here so greate

delayes,
That into Fraunce the succours smale and slackly came,
Not only Paris than was loste, within few dayes,
That famous flowre of Fraunce, of far renowmed fame,
The Frenche, I say, not only gate and kept the same,
But by this meanes, in Fraunce we dayly felt such
smarte,
As might with pitie perst[1880] an adamantine harte.
55.
O great mishap, the noble duke of Bedford once being

dead,
Our welth went backe, by discords foule dispite wee loste
Not only townes in Fraunce, and captaines armyes led,
But many soldiers eke with labour, spence, and cost:
And though full oft wee made the Frenche men smell of
the rost,
Yet in the end wee gayne of fyght the fame,
And they by crafte and treason gate the game.
56.
What resteth more, it were, perdie, to long to tell,

Of batayles great and broiles which happened dayly still,
The stories eke declare aduentures which befell:
Although, God wot, the writers wanted poyntes of scill,
Of whom to speake a while, degresse agayne I will,
And partely shewe what one hee oughte to bee,
Which takes on him to write an historie.
57.
A chronicler should well in diuers tongues bee seene,

And eke in all the artes hee oughte to haue a sighte,
Whereby hee myght the truth of diuers actions deeme,
And both supply the wantes, correct that is not righte:
Hee should haue eloquence, and full and fitly write,
Not mangle stories, snatching here and there:
Nor gloaze to make a volume greate appeare.
58.
Hee should bee of such countenaunce and wit,
As should giue witnes to the histories hee writes,
Hee should bee able well his reasons so to knit,
As should continue well the matter hee resytes:
Hee should not prayse, disprayse, for fauour or dispytes,
But should so place each thing in order due,
As myght approue the stories to bee true.
59.
But this may haps the time may seeke at length redresse,
And then such stories nowe and noble acts as dye,
May come agayne to lighte (at least defaced lesse)
Yf from the Britaynes first antiquities they try:
In greate defects yf they the trueth supply:
Then shall the readers fuller stories finde,
And haue wherby to recreate the minde.
60.
But now retourne I must, and breifly heare declare

Before my death, what sundry happes wee had:
In warres right variousely the states of captaynes fare,
Now weale, now woe, now ioyfull, now right sad:
But who well ends, though all his haps were bad,
Let him earst sinke or swim, lose, wyn, bee slayne, die,
fall,
Yf hee dye well, h’is thrise and fower tymes blest of all.
61.
In Fraunce eyght leagues from Paris, Pontoise stands,

(Tweene that and Roane) which wee had wonne before:
And so wee held it English safely in our handes:
For to our prince the men allegeaunce swore,
And they remaynd obedient euermore,
Tyll from their necks to reaue the English yoke,
They might finde meanes by whom to stricke the
stroke.
62.
When these sawe Paris loste, and cities moe beside,

And what in Fraunce and Normandie reuoltes had done,
They thought no longer subiect to abyde,
But sought occasion how they might by Frenche be won?
As of our losse reports did dayly to them run,
So with king Charles th’agreede when to betray the
towne,
And force the English flee, or yeelde, or beate them
downe.
63.
For why, the powre of Fraunce coulde not with mighty

hoste
Performe, to wyn by force from vs th’assaulted towne,
Them scaleing often from the walles wee toste,
On euery syde full fast wee flang the French men downe:
Our noble actes before had gotten such renowne,
And fortune erste had past with vs so farre,
They had small hope to wyn our fortes by warre.
64.
Wherefore king Charles assayde the secrete saute,

Not by his force of French, but by his golden fee,
Corrupting diuers burgeses to make the faute,
Whereby an entry shoulde to his oppugning bee:
And they, as erste is sayde, were willing to agree,
Like periurde theeues conspirde, by secrete fyne
deuice
Gaue Pontoise vp, and tooke the promiste price.
65.
But in Nouember next, when it was sharpe and colde,
And dayly froste had dryde and parched hard the
grounde,
Wee were in hope agayne to get of Pontoise holde,
Which erste the townesmen sold for gayne of many a
pound:
The snow fell fast, lay thick, and couered well the ground,
And ditches were so harde about the towne before,
That on the ise by euery syde wee safely might get
ore.
66.
The lorde Ihon Clifforde was cheife captayne then,

Which with vs captaynes did this pollicie deuise,
That wee in clothing white and soldiers euery man,
Should in our armoure finelye vs disguyse:
The nexte nyght so wee should to the assaute aryse,
And passe the frozen ditche vnto the wall,
With laders scale, and kill the watchmen all.
67.
Wee so preparde our selues as time occasion gaue,

And drest in white coates trim, it ioyde our hartes to see
How fine wee paste the ditch, what good successe we
haue:
How on the walles we fynde the watch nigh frozen bee:
As noble Greekes on Troie, on Pontoise seasonde wee,
Wee slewe the watch, wee beate the soldiers downe,
Some prisners tooke, and tooke with all the towne.
68.
Of stately captaynes, French, was Iohn de Villers one

Within the taken towne, and Narrabon, a knight
Burgunion: yet they fled, away they gate them gone:
They durst not bide againste the blanched boyes to fight:
Wee paide the periurde knaues the burgesses that night,
And gate as much of honour and renowne
As they gate shame and losse, which bought and solde
the towne.
69.
Marke well the Frenchmen’s foyles in all our worthy war,

In these two regall Henrye’s times, and you shall see
How wee surpast the French in valure farre:
And bend for prince and realme so valiaunt for to bee:
Which if yee shall, and deale in seruice as did wee,
I nothing doubt renowne and fame shall say,
That noble England beares for warres the palme away.
70.
But when king Charles had heard how Pontoise men had
sped,
His army strayght assembled hee therefore agayne,
Wherewith to win this towne afresh th’assaute hee led,
Hee pyners set to trenche and vnder mine amayne,
Made bastiles for defence, yet all this toyle was vayne,
For battery of our walles hee spent his pouder still,
Made freshly Frenche assaults, but did no ill.
71.
The noble duke of Yorke discharged late before,

When now the earle of Warwicke chaunst at Roane to
dye,
Being regent chosen once agayne of Fraunce, as yore,
(Th’earle of Warwicke regent was two yeares, perdy)
Arryude in Fraunce, to rowse the Frenche king he did
hye,
Which lay beseiging Pontoise, as I sayde,
With him to fight, and eke to bring vs ayde.
72.
The Frenche king fled, for haste he left his store behinde:
When hee was once assurde the duke of Yorke drue
nere,
Hee durst not stay to bide the time or place assinde
To fight our regent with, but fled away for feare:
By these assayes you see what men in Fraunce they
were,
Discouragde oft, slayne, put to flight, and fall:
By sight, force, fight, and names, of nombers small.
73.
There when the duke had fortefyde our Pontoise towne,

Then he pursude the Frenche king erst that fled,
To Poyssy, where hee laye with lords of Frenche
renowne:
Before which towne, the duke his noble army led:
The Frenche king durste not out of Poyssy put his head:
And yet there came to skirmish out Frenche gentilmen,
Of which some slayne, fowre tane, the reste retyrde
agen.
74.
The duke to bid him batayle did pretend,

Yf hee coulde there encounter with him thoe:
But forth agayne hee durste not come nor send,
For feare hee should receiue the foyle and ouerthroe:
On which the duke dislodgde, departeing Poyssy froe,
To Maunte, and Roane, from thence his grace did hye,
T’appease the broyles of strife in Normandy.
75.
But then the Frenche king, calling vnto mynde his losse,
His charges in the seige, his bastiles trenches made,
How erste wee did them thence, sans bag and bagage
tosse,
Eke how from seige hee durste not staye the store to
lade,
And how their fortunes ofte, in fighte went retrograde,
How neighboures ill to Paris, wee of Pontoise were:
Hee cast asyde his Frenche and faynteing feare.
76.
The rather yet, for why, Parisiens ay did rayle,

They sayde hee wanted courage good, hee durst not
fight,
Hee lackte no soldiers good, his feeble heart did fayle:
“Le Roy (quoth they) du France, les Anglois point ne nuit:
Le Roy ne ose pas pour Pontoise faire poursuit:
Le Roy est Lourd, sans cueur: car peu de gens,
Fait nostre Roy & pais faire grande dispens.”
77.
On this king Charles retournde with mighty hoste,

To vindicate this great reproche and shame:
And vnto Pontoise gaue assaulte in poste,
Full hotly, when wee feared leaste the same:
Whereon, to fight agaynst him all our force wee frame,
But number great at th’entry gote such hand,
Wee could not forth agayne their force aband.
78.
With trompets sounding, tan tan-tar’aloude

The larum bell wee rong, our selues to try dispose,
To make them pay the price of our distresse wee vowde,
Before wee would possession got, of Pontoise loze:
In euery streete wee met the strength of all our foes,
And made them passe by deadly dint away,
Which ventured first our English mates to slay.

Ebook Engineering Physics Jntu Anantapur Series 2015 PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Engineering Physics Jntu Anantapur Series 2015 PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Engineering Physics JNTU Anantapur

Series (2015) - eBook PDF

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Ofﬁces

Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

ISBN (13 digit): 978-93-392-2332-8

Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

UNIT 1 Physical Optics, Lasers and Fibre Optics

2. Physical Optics–Diffraction 2.1–2.22

4. Fibre Optics 4.1–4.29

UNIT 2 Crystallography and Ultrasonics

UNIT 3 Quantum Mechanics and Free Electron Theory

6.10 Kronig–Penney Model 6.25

UNIT 4 Semiconductors and Magnetic Materials

8. Magnetic Materials 8.1–8.27

8.5 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials 8.14

UNIT 5 Superconductivity and Physics of Nanomaterials

10. Physics of Nanomaterials 10.1–10.25

their properties, including non-destructive testing of materials by ultrasonic

UNIT III: QUANTUM MECHANICS AND ELECTRON THEORY

I Chapter 5: Crystallography and Ultrasonics

I Chapter 6: Quantum Mechanics and

Light wave 2 Light wave 2

beams superimpose with each

To calculate BG, first BD which is equal to (BH + HD) has to be obtained.

From Snell’s law, sin i = m sin r

1.2 NEWTON’S RINGS

For bright ring, the condition is

1.3 DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF

1.4 DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

1. A parallel beam of light of 6000Å is incident on a thin glass plate of

Given data Wavelength of the given light l = 6000Å = 6000 × 10-8 cm

Given data Diameter of the 5th ring = 0.3 cm

Solution We want diameter of the 25th ring.

Given data Radius of curvature, R = 70 cm

4. A soap film with a refractive index of 1.33 and thickness of 5000 Å

Given data Refractive index of the soap film, m = 1.33

Given data Refractive index of the film, m = 1.33

Given data Diameter of the 18th ring = 0.65 cm

\ refractive index of the liquid is 1.3456.

Given Data Diameter of 5th dark ring D5 = 0.3 cm

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

(a) diffraction (b) polarisation

Fill in the Blanks

7. Superposition of two coherent wavefronts originating from coherent sources

Answers to Fill in the blanks

Answers to True or False

Short Answer Questions

Essay Type Questions

Figure 2.1 Diffraction

2.1.2 Difference between Interference and Diffraction

2.2 FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

Figure 2.2 Fraunhofer diffraction—single slit

Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude R

2.2.1 Principal Maximum

e sin q = ±ml (4)

Figure 2.3 Plots of y = a and y = tan a

The points of intersections are

–3π –5π –2π –3π –π 0 π 3π 2π 5π 3π

Figure 2.4 Intensity distribution

R = 4A ( _ ) cos [ ________ ]