ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC) stress that for Aristotle it is not merely sensory

experience that leads to an understanding of the world,

- "The master of those who know"
rather understanding arises from the activity of the
- believed that human reason is the key to what
mind (intellect) working with the information form the
we call the good life.
senses.
- He said that we must study human conduct in
order to make any theory about politics. In addition to stating the appearances, Aristotle also
- He also emphasized human reason and the idea saw great value in examining what he called endoxa.
of forming habits as the basis of excellence and Endoxa is a Greek word translated as “credible beliefs”
human happiness. or “reputable opinions”.
- He also looked at the steps in making any moral
As he wrote in Physics, in the quest for truth the natural
action and pointed out moderation as a virtue.
process “is to start from the things which are more
- He was driven by a desire for knowledge, and
knowable and obvious to us and proceed towards those
believed that human beings, by virtue of having
which are clearer and more knowable by nature.” In
rationality, are animals that naturally desire
other words, the goal must be to use credible beliefs
explanations of things in the world.
(endoxa) and appearances as starting points in one’s
Happiness (eudaimonia) = excellence in repetitive journey to knowledge of the world.
action; it is a habit and not an emotion, nor a material
possession.
Aristotle in Determining When Proper Knowledge of
Excellence is doing an action based on the efficient use
Something Had Been Acquired or Whether Further
of human reason.
Investigation Was Required (Four Causal Account Of
Aristotle in his book Nicomachean Ethics Explanatory Adequacy)

- Aristotle says that many speak about happiness “Aristotle’s suggestion is that a full knowledge and
as the ultimate goal (end) of life, yet seldom do understanding of anything requires a grasp of all four.”
people agree on it because they have not really
The knowledge of a thing, beyond its classification and
defined it. He says just as a flute player finds
description, requires an explanation of causality (why it
happiness in performing his function (ergon),
is)
which is "to play flute" and do this beautifully
(EU-) by using human reason, so we must ask The four causes, or explanatory factors that Aristotle
what is the definition, function of a human deemed necessary for proper knowledge of something;
being. He answers that it is "an activity determines the nature and purpose of everything:
characterized by the excellent use of human
reason." 1. Material cause - understanding of what
something is made of
2. Formal cause - proper knowledge to identify
the design, pattern, structure, or form that the
Aristotle’s Theory of Knowledge
matter realizes in becoming a determinate thing
Aristotle about the Attainment of Knowledge 3. Efficient cause - identification of the agent or
entity responsible for the matter taking its
The first step in the acquisition of knowledge, specific, structure or form
according to Aristotle, is to identify the puzzles and
difficulties that the various phenomena of the world
present to us. Identifying a puzzle, requires the use of
the senses. Observation with the senses allows one to
‘state the appearances’ making us aware of the puzzles
that require explanation while also providing us with
the information our minds need to discover the
potential solutions to these puzzles. It is important to
 4. The final cause - is identified when one can
state the purpose or function of the thing being
explained
Aristotle’s Theory of Morality/Ethics
People commonly believe that “being happy” is the
same as “living well” and “doing well”. The common
people’s definition of happiness is some clear and
obvious good (pleasure, wealth, or honor) or some
thing, and that something may be identified with a
different thing during some time (When a person is sick,
that person may define happiness as health).
Virtue - a trait of excellence, including traits that may
be moral, social, or intellectual.; conformity of one's
life and conduct to moral and ethical principles;
thinking and doing what is right and avoiding what is
wrong; a character trait, acquired by practice, that
disposes a person to adopt the right course of action in
morally charged situations;
Excellence - the quality of being outstanding or
extremely good.
Vice – immoral or wicked behavior
Aristotle in How Happiness is Acquired
- Aristotle supposes that happiness above all else
and all things human is god-given.
- “Happiness is one of the most divine things,
even if it is not god-sent but attained through
virtue and some kind of learning or training”
- Happiness is the good of man; Happiness is
some kind of activity of the soul in conformity
with virtue. All other goods are either necessary
prerequisites for happiness, co-works with it,
and are useful instruments for attaining it
Aristotle in Pleasure and Pain as the Test of Virtue
- Moral excellence is concerned with pleasure
and pain
- Pleasure makes us do base actions; Pain
prevents us from doing noble actions
- Virtues have to do with actions and emotions,
and pleasure and pain are a consequence of
every emotion and of every action, therefore,
virtue has to do with pleasure and pain.
- It is through pleasures and pains that men are
corrupted (i.e through pursuing and avoiding
pleasures and pains of the wrong kind/wrong
time/wrong manner/ or wrong In some other
definable aspect)
- Virtue, being concerned with pleasure and
pain, makes us act in the best way in matters
revolving pleasure and pain, and that vice does
the opposite. If the man has the right attitude
with pleasures and pains, he will be good; if the
wrong attitude, he will be bad
- Even in our actions we use pleasure and pain as
a criterion, be it to a greater or smaller extent.
- “Virtue or excellence is concerned with
pleasures and pains; that the actions which
produce it also develop it and, if differently
performed destroy it; and that it actualizes itself
fully in those activities to which it owes its
origin.”
Aristotle in Examples of the Mean in Particular Virtues
Aristotle describes a virtue as a “mean” or
“intermediate” between two extremes (vices)
- Example: In feelings of fear and confidence,
courage is the mean. A man who exceeds in
confidence is reckless, and a man who exceeds
in fear (deficient in confidence) is cowardly.
- In regard to pleasures and pains, the mean is
self-control. The excess of pleasure is self-
indulgence, and the excess of pain (deficient in
pleasure) is insensitivity
Aristotle in The Relation Between the Mean and its
Extremes
- There are three kinds of disposition: two are
vices (one marked by excess and one by
deficiency, and one, virtue, the mean)
- All three dispositions are opposed to one
another. “Just as an equal amount is larger in
relation to a smaller and smaller in relation to a
larger amount, so, in the case both of emotions
and of actions, the middle characteristics
exceed in relation to the deficiencies and are
deficient in relation to the excesses.”
- While the three are opposed to one another,
the extremes are more opposed to one another
than each is to the median, for they are apart
from one another than each is from the median.
Sometimes, some extremes and their median
are similar (e.g recklessness resembles courage)
but there is a very great dissimilarity between
the extremes. They are defined as opposites.
- When a deficiency or an extreme is similar to
the median, its corresponding opposite is more
opposed to the median (e.g recklessness
(excess) is considered more similar and closer to
courage (mean), therefore, cowardice
(deficiency) is the opposite of courage.) There
are two causes for this: the first is the nature of
the thing itself, and the second reason is found
in ourselves: the more we are naturally
attracted to anything, the more opposed to the
median does this thing appear to be (e.g we are
naturally more attracted to pleasure, so we
incline more easily to self-indulgence than to a
disciplined kind of life.)
Aristotle in Man as Responsible Agent
- Virtue or excellence depends on ourselves, and
so does vice. For where it is in our power to
act, it is also in our power not to act.
- “-and if such action or inaction constitutes our
being good and evil, we must conclude that it
depends on us whether we are decent or
worthless individuals.”
- Aristotle believes that wickedness is voluntary
and that no one is involuntarily happy. Man is
the source and begetter of his actions, like a
father is of his children.
- Even ignorance is in itself no protection against
punishment if a person is thought to be
responsible for his ignorance. “-a man is himself
responsible for becoming careless because he
lives in a loose and carefree manner.” For a
given kind of activity produces a corresponding
character.
- If a man is not ignorant of what he is doing
when he performs acts which will make him
unjust, he will become unjust voluntarily.
- Since an unjust/self-indulgent man initially had
the choice to not become unjust/self-indulgent,
he has acquired these traits voluntarily; but
once he has acquired them it is no longer
possible for him not to be what he is.
- Bodily vices (voluntary ugliness, blindness)
which depend on ourselves are blamed and
those which do not are not blamed. Other kinds
of vice for which we are blamed also depend
upon ourselves.
- If the individual is somehow responsible for his
own characteristics, he is similarly responsible
for what appears to him [to be good]
- Virtues and vices are both voluntary.
Aristotle on Ethics and Emotions
Aristotle observes that emotions are:
1. Directed towards an object, for instance, "I grieve
because of..." (something or someone), I am afraid of
(something or someone).
2. Viewed by us according to how we view the world,
that is, according to our beliefs.
Hence, emotions are not the same as sexual instinct
hunger, or thirst because these instincts are based on
biological makeup. Stoics and Epicureans, the followers
of Aristotle, would later assert that social beliefs
influence (poison or distort) these basic animal instincts
to make them bloated (excessive).
According to Aristotle, emotions are based on our
beliefs. Hence the need for us to check, review what
beliefs we cherish. The beliefs we have are the direct
causes of emotions we feel, not the objectively
situations we say as true.
Emotions are a way of seeing the world. Our faculty of
reason can discipline when emotions begin to take
control of us, or our emotions become so powerful that
they begin to cloud our sense of reason.
Aristotle in the Nature of Emotions
Aristotle was examining the nature of emotions in his
book RHETORIC, "to enable aspiring orators to produce
these emotions" in the audience who are listening. His
first analysis was the distinction between FEAR and
BEING STARTLED. A loud noise or enemy approaching
may produce a startling effect even on a brave person
even though he is not afraid. He is startled but not
afraid; hence, he will not run away, as if only a part of
his body were moved but not his entire body.
Being Startled
Aristotle says that such an effect of being startled is the
effect of phantasia (appearing) but without any belief
on the part of the brave person. There is no conviction
nor acceptance. The loud noise strikes him as terrible
(as an appearance), but being a brave person, he does
not accept it as terrible. He doesn't give his consent to
it.
Fear
Fear can be aggravated by the thought that its damage
is beyond repair, that no help will come. The fear is
removed by the belief that one has already suffered
everything worse there is. Once the belief is changed or
removed, our fears are also changed or removed.
Pity
Pity is a painful emotion (lupé), pain at a destructive evil
happening to one who does not deserve it, that you
might suffer or your family members. There are three
conditions, says Aristotle, for pity:
1. The person we pity is undeserving (anaxios) of the
misfortune, especially when we know he or she is good,
innocent, kind. We feel a sense of injustice.
2. We believe that it can also happen to us, that we can
be wounded and hurt. A person who thinks he is above
suffering and has everything will not feel pity then. Such
a person Aristotle calls the one with hubris (a mixture of
pride and stubbornness).
3. The one who feels pity sees the possibilities, causes
of suffering (e.g. death, illness, violence)
Anger
Anger is both a pleasant and painful feeling, hence
complex. When a person is wronged or insulted
seriously, then we feel pain. If the angry person
discovers that no offense actually happened, or not
deliberately done anger can disappear. So too if the
item damaged is not important. Anger includes the wish
to retaliate (vengeance), that the offender deserves
punishment. It is pleasant to balance the wrong.
As Socrates and Plato have said, the beliefs involved in
these emotions have something in common: these
involve the idea that there is a significant worth of
items outside of us in the world that we cannot fully
control. Love is a deep attachment to another life
separate from us, independent of us, for if we control
them, then that love will be less good. But then it is
possible to be broken off—by death, separation, or
betrayal.
Pity and fear are felt only when the items lost are
important. We see our vulnerability in front of the
situations in life that we cannot control. We feel pity
and fear only if we think that life can do something
terrible to us.
In anger, we acknowledge that we are affected by the
actions of other people. These emotions are tied
together; a person whom we love, a family member,
can be a basis of fear if that person is threatened, grief
or pity if the person suffers or dies, anger if someone
harms or maltreats him/her. According to Aristotle, it is
wrong to totally feel no emotions.
Stoicism
- Founded by Zeno of Citium (Athens, 344–262
BC)
- Stoicism can be epitomized by three essential
beliefs: (1) that virtue is sufficient for happiness,
(2) that other so-called goods should be
regarded with indifference, and (3) that the
world is providentially ordered by God.
- The Stoics agreed with Aristotle’s moral
philosophy to a certain degree.
- Stoicism is a type of eudaimonic virtue ethics,
asserting that the practice of virtue is both
necessary and sufficient to achieve happiness
(in the eudaimonic sense).
- The Stoic Philosophy believes that virtue is
sufficient for eudaimonia.
- Stoicism claims that all that is necessary to live a
good life is being virtuous. All other so-called
goods should be regarded with indifference.
 - Believes that once you have become virtuous, completely in the power of the human will to
nothing can ruin your life. In Stoic logic, virtue is surpass whatever trials we may be facing in life.
the limit of happiness.
Seneca (5 – 65 AD):
(Source: https://www.thecollector.com/what-is-stoicism-the-stoics-
beliefs/ , https://iep.utm.edu/stoicism/ ) Avoid Luxury

End of Greek Civilization and Rise of - Softens the mind and leads to complacency.

Stoics/Epicureans - Excessive prosperity is the most dangerous excess.

- Some philosophers formed communities after Virtue Over Riches

the fall of Greece (After the end of the Golden
- Enduring misfortune with virtue is preferable to exploding
Age of Greece, that was under Alexander the due to excessive wealth.
Great)
- These philosophers had preference for - Honors, ambitions, and fame fade with time, but improving
seclusion, admired the learnings from the the mind endures.
writings of Plato, Aristotle, and Tragedians.
These groups were Stoics and Epicureans
Duties and Citizenship
- Stoics were a small group of Socrates’ followers
- Stoics and Epicureans focused on psychological - Fulfill duties even when removed from privilege.
well-being (Therapy for the Soul/psyche)
- Good citizen efforts, even silent ones, serve as valuable
- Their writings were considered prototypes of
examples.
modern psychology.
- Believed that eliminating tyranny of emotions
and passions must be eliminated to achieve Dealing with External Challenges
happiness (ataraxia).
- Ataraxia is defined as freedom from - External events or political situations can be opportunities
disturbance in the mind. for honorable actions.
- The reason for the name Stoic is that the - Thrift and contentment are keys to satisfaction.
founders originally, very informally, just met at
the "painted columns (stoa)" to talk about life.
Mind Over Material Wealth
Stoic Philosophers
- Strengthen self-restraint, avoid luxury, forget ambitions,
Epictetus (50-120 AD) and develop frugality.
- born a slave and later freed by the secretary of - The mind's treasures of wisdom endure with age.
Nero, the harsh emperor.
- Influenced by earlier Stoics who gave public
lectures, he, in turn, gave lectures to his Consolation in Adversity
followers, who compiled them. Encheiridion is a
- No situation is too harsh; skillful handling can soften the
short manual of Epictetus’ Stoic ethical advice
hard and lighten the heavy.
compiled by Arrian, Epictetus’ disciple
- Encheiridion (manual) later influenced the good - Envy of higher positions is unwarranted as what is high can
Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. Epictetus fall.
believed that the universe is governed for the
best by an all-wise "Providence," and all men
are brothers, equal. We must be independent Contentment and Wealth
of whatever external circumstances we have, - Learn to be content with thrift; a simple life can be
even in the worst poverty. He emphasizes that wealthy.
the human mind can never be touched by
- Poverty is felt more by those without contentment,
anything happening outside of us. He trusts
regardless of wealth.

High-minded Values
- Material possessions like gold and marble are considered
earthly garbage.
- Uneducated minds may worship such things, but a high-
minded person values the mind over material wealth.
Cicero (106-43 BC)
Cicero tries to remember a conversation of the old
Roman sage Cato, when asked how he bears old age,
why he does not fear it
CATO's View on Old Age:
 Not hard for those with discipline for a virtuous life.
 Age is challenging for those lacking discipline, even
when young.
 Wise men accept and endure old age, recognizing
the futility of fighting against Nature.
Faults Charged to Old Age:
 Draws nearer to death, but death is equally possible
in youth.
 Young men die, ending promises of attaining honors.
 Old men have already attained what the young are
hoping for.
 Death in old age is as natural as a fruit dropping from
a tree due to ripeness.
Attitude Towards Death:
 Old men accept death peacefully, like a fire going
out.
 Death in old age is akin to a fruit dropping naturally
due to ripeness.
 Approaching death is compared to seeing land after
a long sea voyage, about to anchor and reach home.
Belief in the Soul:
 The soul (mind) is considered heavenly.
 Souls in human bodies take care of the earth.
 Contemplating heavenly spheres leads to a life of
moderation and consistency.
 Believes in the divine origin of the soul, highlighting
its quickness of thoughts, memory, foresight, and
mastery of arts and sciences.
Markus Aurelius (121-180 AD):
 Retreat into the Soul: Find quiet and freedom within
your own mind.
 Tranquility and Order: Tranquility is achieved
through the good ordering of the mind.
 Renewal: Constantly retreat and renew yourself
through basic principles.
 Cleansing the Mind: Short, basic principles can
cleanse the mind and bring peace.
 Enduring Others: Recognize that humans exist for
one another, and enduring others' attitudes is part of
justice.
 Mistakes and Unwillingness: Understand that many
mistakes are committed unwillingly by individuals.
 Desire for Fame: Critique the desire for fame,
considering the forgetfulness of praise, the
emptiness of applause, and the shortness of time
and space for such recognition.
 Perspective on Discontent: Return to society free
from discontent with the circumstances and people
you encounter.
 Impermanence of Praise: Highlight the
impermanence and insignificance of praise and the
folly of those who pretend to praise.
Greeks in general have looked down upon emotions as
compared to human reason. Aristotle and even to the
time of modern taxonomy, has labeled humanity as
homo sapiens then, thinks that the only defining trait of
the human being is our ability to reason.
Aristotle believed that emotions are not completely
blind to reason. Emotions are dependent on beliefs.
Emotions are thus responsive to cognitive modification.
Once you change what you value, what you believe, you
also change the emotions that you get to feel because
of the situations that are happening.
TERMINOLOGIES
Good (Agathos) - something that is good in its character
or constitution and is beneficial in its effect; the
ultimate goal that we seek.
For Aristotle, the ultimate end, that which is “good”
for each human being, is happiness. A good is the
result of an action, what we seek in doing something.
Everything we do is for the sake of some good. Some
things are “good in themselves,” for example,
happiness. We do not seek happiness in order to get
wealth. Rather wealth, which is a good, is sought for a
larger good, a good in itself, namely happiness.
(Source:
https://grattoncourses.files.wordpress.com/2016/01/aristotle
-overview.doc )
Happiness (Eudaimonia) – the state or condition of
'good spirit'; a good life; doing well and living well; a
positive and divine state of being that humanity is able
to strive toward and possibly reach.
For Aristotle, eudaimonia involves activity, exhibiting
virtue (aretē sometimes translated as excellence) in
accordance with reason
Eudaimonia is attained through the development of virtues
and the exercise of reason
Eudaimonia involves doing virtuous activities that are guided
by the use of reason
Aristotle argues that to live well is to successfully use one’s
rational faculties to correctly apply virtues to moral dillemas
Ataraxia – calmness, peace of mind
Endoxa - beliefs (doxai) about a certain matter that are
accepted either by everyone or most everyone, or by
all, some, or a few reputable wise men.
Phantasia – imagination, fantasy; the forming of mental
images, esp. wondrous or strange fancies
Metaphysics – the branch of philosophy that studies
the fundamental nature of reality; the study of reality
and existence; refers to the studies of what cannot be
reached through objective studies of material reality
(outside human sense or perception); This includes the
first principles of: being or existence, identity, change,
space and time, cause and effect, necessity, actuality,
and possibility

Basically, well-being (eudaimonia) is gained by proper Ergon – function, task, or work

development of one's highest and most human Epicurean – by Epicurus. Its philosophy focuses on
capabilities and human beings are "the rational animal". pleasure as the main goal of life. Pleasure not
It follows that eudaimonia for a human being is the necessarily bodily pleasures, but more of absence from
attainment of excellence (areté) in reason. pain (aponia) and absence of mental concerns (ataraxia)
According to Aristotle, eudaimonia actually requires
activity, action, so that it is not sufficient for a person to
possess a squandered ability or disposition. Eudaimonia
requires not only good character but rational activity.
Aristotle clearly maintains that to live in accordance
with reason means achieving excellence thereby.
Moreover, he claims this excellence cannot be isolated
and so competencies are also required appropriate to
related functions. For example, if being a truly
outstanding scientist requires impressive math skills,
one might say "doing mathematics well is necessary to
be a first rate scientist". From this it follows that
eudaimonia, living well, consists in activities exercising
the rational part of the psyche in accordance with the
virtues or excellency of reason [1097b22–1098a20].
Which is to say, to be fully engaged in the intellectually
stimulating and fulfilling work at which one achieves
well-earned success.
(Source:
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Eudaimonia#Aristotle )