IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO.
3, APRIL 2008 953
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Generation System
Rong-Jong Wai, Senior Member, IEEE, and Wen-Hung Wang
Abstract—This study addresses a grid-connected photovoltaic
(PV) generation system. In order to make the PV generation
system more flexible and expandable, the backstage power circuit
is composed of a high step-up converter and a pulsewidth-modu-
lation (PWM) inverter. In the dc–dc power conversion, the high
step-up converter is introduced to improve the conversion effi-
ciency of conventional boost converters and to allow the parallel
operation of low-voltage PV modules. Moreover, an adaptive total
sliding-mode control system is designed for the current control of
the PWM inverter to maintain the output current with a higher
power factor and less variation under load changes. In addition,
an adaptive step-perturbation method is proposed to achieve the
objective of maximum power point tracking, and an active sun
tracking scheme without any light sensors is investigated to make
PV plates face the sun directly in order to capture maximum
irradiation and enhance system efficiency. Experimental results
are given to verify the validity of the high step-up converter, the
PWM inverter control, the ASP method, and the active sun tracker
for a grid-connected PV generation system.
Index Terms—Active sun tracking scheme, adaptive step-pertur-
bation (ASP) method, high step-up converter, photovoltaic (PV)
generation system, pulsewidth-modulation (PWM) inverter, total
sliding-mode control (TSMC).
I. INTRODUCTION
I N THE PAST century, global surface temperatures have
increased at a rate near 0.6 C/century because of the
global warming taking place due to effluent gas emissions
and increasing CO [1], [2]. Problems with energy supplies
and use are related not only to global warming but also to
such environmental concerns as air pollution, acid precip-
itation, ozone depletion, forest destruction, and radioactive
emissions. To prevent these effects, some potential solutions
have evolved including energy conservation through improved
energy efficiency, a reduction in fossil fuel use and an increase
in environmentally friendly energy supplies. Recently, energy
generated from clean, efficient and environmentally friendly
sources has become one of the major challenges for engineers
and scientists. Among them, photovoltaic (PV) application
has received a great attention in research because it appears
to be one of the most efficient and effective solutions to this
environmental problem [3]–[7].
Dc–dc converters with high voltage gain are required in many
industrial applications, such as front-end stages for clean-en-
ergy sources, dc back-up energy systems for uninterruptible
Manuscript received January 5, 2006; revised April 27, 2007, June 26, 2007,
and July 6, 2007. This work was supported in part by the National Science
Council of Taiwan, R.O.C. through Grant Number NSC 95-2221-E-155-070-
MY3. This paper was recommended by Associate Editor D. Masimovic.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze Uni-
versity, Chung Li 32003, Taiwan, R.O.C. (e-mail: rjwai@saturn.yzu.edu.tw;
s927104@mail.yzu.edu.tw).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TCSI.2008.919744
1549-8328/$25.00 © 2008 IEEE
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power supplies (UPS), high-intensity discharge lamps for
automobile headlamps, and the telecommunications industry
[8]–[11]. The conventional boost converters cannot provide
such a high dc voltage gain, even for an extreme duty cycle.
It also may result in serious reverse-recovery problems, and
increase the rating of all devices. As a result, the conversion ef-
ficiency is degraded and the electromagnetic interference (EMI)
problem is severe under this situation [12]. In order to increase
the conversion efficiency and voltage gain, many modified
boost converter topologies have been investigated [13]–[17].
Although voltage-clamped techniques are manipulated in the
converter design to overcome the severe reverse-recovery
problem of the output diode in high-level voltage applications,
there still exist switch over-voltage stresses, and the voltage
gain is limited by the turn-on time of the auxiliary switch [13],
[14]. Wai and Duan [17] investigated a novel coupled-inductor
converter strategy to increase the voltage gain of a conven-
tional boost converter with a single inductor, as well to deal
with the problem of the leakage inductor and demagnetization
of the transformer in a conventional coupled-inductor-based
converter. In this study, the high step-up converter topology in
[17] is introduced to boost and stabilize the output dc voltage
of PV modules for the utilization of a dc–ac inverter.
Developments in microelectronics and power devices have
provided widespread applications of pulsewidth-modulation
(PWM) inverters to industries. A PWM inverter used for a
grid-connected scheme is controlled in order to produce an
output current in phase with the utility voltage for obtaining a
unity power factor (PF). The performance is evaluated by the PF,
the transient response, and the efficiency. Thus, much attention
has been paid to the closed-loop regulation of PWM inverters to
achieve good dynamic response for the grid-connected scheme
in the past decade [18]–[21]. Variable structure control (VSC)
with sliding mode, or sliding-mode control (SMC), is one of the
effective nonlinear robust control approaches since it provides
system dynamics with an invariance property to uncertainties
once the system dynamics are controlled in the sliding mode
[22], [23]. The insensitivity of the controlled system to uncer-
tainties exists in the sliding mode, but not during the reaching
phase, i.e., the system dynamic in the reaching phase is still
influenced by uncertainties. Recently, some researchers have
adopted the idea of total SMC (TSMC) to get a sliding motion
through the entire state trajectory [24]–[26]. Since there is no
reaching phase in TSMC, the motion of the controlled system
is never influenced by uncertainties. This study attempts to
extend an adaptive TSMC (ATSMC) from [25] to the current
control of a PWM inverter. Up to now, this is the first time to
investigate the application of TSMC to the power electronics
control.
In general, PV modules have nonlinear voltage-current char-
acteristics, and there is only one unique operating point for a PV
 954 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
Fig. 1. Configuration of grid-connected PV generation system.
generation system with a maximum output power under a par-
ticular environmental condition. However, the maximum power
point varies with irradiation and temperature, so that the max-
imum power point tracking (MPPT) at all atmospheric situa-
tions is a challenging problem. In the past decade, many MPPT
methods have been applied to PV generation systems for ex-
acting maximum available powers from PV modules, e.g., in-
cremental conductance method [4], perturbation and observa-
tion (P&O) method [27]–[29], and voltage-and current-based
method [30], [31], etc. The P&O method, which measures the
variations of power and voltage to judge the momentary re-
gion and change the reference voltage for operating close to
the maximum power point, is often used because of its simple
structure and fewer measured parameters [28], [29]. Although
the P&O method is easy to realize, the reference voltage still
varies periodically when the MPPT is reached, so that it may
cause oscillation phenomena around the maximum power point,
causing extra power losses. For this reason, an adaptive step-per-
turbation (ASP) method modified from the conventional P&O
method is proposed to obtain faster tracking response and stable
operation by perturbing the voltage of PV modules with an adap-
tive voltage step.
According to different irradiations, the output power of a PV
module is substantially changed. For example in Taiwan, the
direction with maximum average irradiations during one year
is the South, and the corresponding angle of inclination is 23.5
so that many PV modules are installed in this posture. However,
it could not capture maximum irradiations persistently by this
method so that the performance of the PV generation system
can not be improved effectively. Nowadays, many researchers
have focused on sun tracking investigations [32]–[35]. Con-
ventional sun tracking strategies have light sensors equipped
on the terminals of PV plates. When the feedback signals from
light sensors are equal, it means that the PV plate directly faces
the sun and has the maximum irradiation at the corresponding
position. Unfortunately, the initial proofreading and correcting
of light sensors are time consuming and the devices’ proper-
ties are easily varied under different operational conditions. In
order to overcome the aforementioned drawbacks, this study
investigates an active sun tracking scheme without light sensors
via the property of open-circuit voltage of PV modules propor-
tional to the corresponding irradiation, to follow the trail of the
sun.
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II. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
In this study, the configuration of a grid-connected PV gen-
eration system is depicted in Fig. 1. The system connected with
a utility power is mainly composed of PV modules, an active
sun tracker, a high step-up converter, a full-bridge inverter, and
a system controller. Due to the photo-voltaic effect, the voltage
of a PV cell is not very high. Because PV panels in a series
string are constrained to all conduct the same current, the least
efficient cell sets this string current, which may spell failure
when one cell of a string is inactive. The overall efficiency of
the PV array is reduced to the efficiency of this least efficient
cell. It means that PV panels in a series string must be given the
same orientation and be of identical size for obtaining a higher
output voltage. Besides, the corresponding output voltage
is varied easily with respect to the variation of loads. In order to
satisfy the requirement of high-voltage demand, a dc–dc con-
verter with high voltage gain is one of the essential mechanisms
in the grid-connected PV generation system. In this study, a high
step-up converter [17] is implemented to reduce the series-con-
nected numbers of PV modules, to maintain a constant dc bus
voltage for the inverter utilization, and to decouple and
simplify the inverter control design.
A unipolar PWM full-bridge inverter, including four power
semiconductors and an output inductor, is regarded as the
dc–ac power conversion circuit to meet the requirement of grid
connection. Since the PWM inverter is expected to produce an
output current in phase with the utility voltage for obtaining
a unity PF, an ATSMC system [25] is introduced by way of
switching four power semiconductors in this inverter to main-
tain an output current with a higher PF and less variation
under load changes.
PV modules exhibit nonlinear voltage-current characteris-
tics, and the maximum power point varies with the irradiation
and temperature. At a particular environmental condition, only
one unique operating point exists to provide the PV generation
system with maximum output power. In this study, an ASP
method is proposed to inject an adaptive step perturbation
into the voltage of PV modules. Since the step perturbation is
persistently adjusted in accordance with the variations of the
voltage and power of PV modules, the ASP method boosts the
MPPT speed and stability much higher than the conventional
methods, to further reduce extra power losses in the tracking
process.
 WAI AND WANG: GRID-CONNECTED PV GENERATION SYSTEM 955

Fig. 2. Architecture of high step-up converter.

Generally speaking, the output power of PV modules is sub- lated voltage gain is higher than that of other coupled-inductor-
stantially changed according to different irradiations. To further based converters. In addition, all devices in this scheme also
enhance the capability of the PV generation system, an active have voltage-clamped properties and their voltage stresses are
sun tracker actuated by a synchronous motor is investigated on relatively smaller than the output voltage. Thus, it can select
the basis of the open-circuit voltage of a PV module, for main- low-voltage low-conduction-loss devices, and there are no re-
taining the PV plate in the face of the sun in order to improve verse-recovery currents within the diodes in this circuit. Fur-
the generation efficiency of the fixed-installation PV module, thermore, the closed-loop control methodology is utilized to
and to lower the cost of conventional sun trackers with light sen- overcome the voltage drift problem of the power source under
sors. Incidentally, it is unnecessary to modify the original circuit the load variations. As a result, this converter topology can in-
framework of the grid-connected PV generation system because crease the voltage gain of a conventional boost converter with
of the sole requirement of the open-circuit voltage of PV mod- a single inductor, and deal with the problem of the leakage in-
ules in the active sun tracking scheme. ductor and demagnetization of the transformer for a coupled-in-
In this study, the PWM inverter control, the ASP method, and ductor-based converter.
the active sun tracking scheme are carried out using Turbo C lan- The major symbol representations are summarized as follows.
guage inserted into a system controller, i.e., a digital-signal-pro- and denote dc input voltage and current, and is an
cessor (DSP) development module. This development module input filter capacitor in the PV module input circuit. and
has: Texas Instruments TMS320LF2407A central processing represent individual inductors in the primary and secondary sides
unit with an evaluation module (EVM), 16 channel 10-bit of the coupled inductor , respectively. is a switch in the
analog-to-digital, 4 channel 12-bit digital-to-analog converters primary-side circuit; and are the output voltage command
and programmable I/O ports. The central processing unit has: a and the trigger signal in the feedback control mechanism, respec-
40MIPS 16-bit fixed point DSP core, 16 PWM channels, four tively. and denote a clamped capacitor, a clamped
general purpose timers and two encoder channels. The detailed diode and a rectifier diode in the passive regenerative snubber cir-
functions of the main components in the grid-connected PV cuit. is a high-voltage capacitor in the secondary-side circuit.
generation system are described in the following sections. and are the output diode and the filter capacitor in the
filter circuit, respectively. and describe dc output voltage
III. HIGH STEP-UP CONVERTER and current, respectively, in the dc output circuit.
The architecture of a high step-up converter introduced from The coupled inductor in Fig. 2 is modeled as an ideal trans-
[17] is depicted in Fig. 2, where it contains seven parts: a PV former, a magnetizing inductor , and a leakage inductor
module input circuit, a primary-side circuit, a secondary-side . The turns ratio and coupling coefficient of this
circuit, a passive regenerative snubber circuit, a filter circuit, ideal transformer are defined as
a dc output circuit, and a feedback control mechanism. In this
strategy, a coupled inductor with a lower-voltage-rated switch (1)
is used for raising the voltage gain whether the switch is turned (2)
on or turned off. Moreover, a passive regenerative snubber is
utilized for absorbing the energy of stray inductance so that the where and are the winding turns in the primary and sec-
switch duty cycle can be operated under a wide range; the re- ondary sides, respectively. The voltages across the switch, the
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 956 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008

primary and secondary winding of the ideal transformer, and

the leakage inductor are denoted as and , re-
spectively. Moreover, the primary current of the coupled
inductor is composed of the magnetizing current and the
primary induced current . The secondary current is
formed by the primary induced current through the ideal
transformer, and its value is related to the turns ratio . In
addition, the conductive voltage drops of the switch and all
diodes ( and ) are neglected in order to simplify cir-
cuit analyses. Fig. 3. PWM inverter framework.
According to the detailed circuit analyses in [17], the voltage
gain of the high step-up converter and the corresponding
switch voltage can be represented as

(3)

(4)

where is the duty cycle of the switch . Because the voltage

Fig. 4. Equivalent dynamic model of PWM inverter.
gain is less sensitive to the coupling coefficient , (3)
and (4) can be rewritten with as
the state-space average method [12] and the linearization tech-
(5)
nique as
(6)
(8)
According to (5) and (6), one can obtain

(7) where is the duty cycle of the switches and during

one switching period. Define the duty cycle and the power gain
By analyzing (7), the switch voltage is not related to the as and , where is a
input power source and the switch duty cycle if the sinusoidal control signal and is the amplitude of a triangular
values of the output voltage and the turns ratio are carrier signal , then the dynamic equation of the PWM
fixed. Thus, it can ensure that the maximum sustainable voltage inverter can be given by
of the switch is constant. As long as the input voltage is not
higher than the switch voltage-rated, the high step-up converter (9)
can be applied well to low-voltage PV power sources even with
large voltage variations. By way of the Laplace transformation of (9), the equivalent dy-
namic model of the PWM inverter is depicted in Fig. 4, where
IV. PWM INVERTER CONTROL
is the Laplace operator.
A. Dynamic Model Description By choosing the ac output current as the system state
and the control signal as the control input, (9) can be
Fig. 3 illustrates the PWM inverter framework including four
rearranged as
power semiconductors and an output inductor. In Fig. 3, is
the equivalent series resistor of the output inductor
and are the output voltage of the full-bridge inverter and
the utility voltage; is the output current of the full-bridge
inverter; and the voltage source emulates the disturbance (10)
incurred by load variations. In order to analyze conveniently,
the following assumptions are made in this study: i) the value of where
is small enough to ignore; ii) the conduction and switching and and denote
losses are zero since all power switches are assumed to be ideal the nominal values of and , respectively; and
devices; iii) the delay time between the switch turn-on and represent the system parameter variations; is called the
turn-off states is small enough to neglect; and iv) the control lumped uncertainty and defined as
signal and input/output voltages are taken as constant values (11)
because the switching frequency is greater than the system
dynamic frequency. Here, the bound of the lumped uncertainty is assumed to be
Due to the symmetry property of the positive-half and neg- given by
ative-half period in the unipolar PWM switching, the dynamic
equation during the positive-half period can be represented via (12)
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 WAI AND WANG: GRID-CONNECTED PV GENERATION SYSTEM 957

Fig. 5. ATSMC system for PWM inverter.

where is the operator of an absolute value, and is a given

positive constant.

B. ATSMC System
The objective of the PWM inverter control is to force the
system state to track a reference output current
, which is designed by the ASP method introduced later.
An ATSMC system, as shown in Fig. 5, is introduced for the
current control of the PWM inverter, where the control error is
chosen as . Define a sliding surface [25]
as

(13) Fig. 6. Control flowchart of ASP method.

where is the initial value of and is a nonzero positive

constant.
The ATSMC system is divided into three main parts. The first
part addresses performance design. The objective is to specify
the desired performance in terms of the nominal model, and it
is referred to as the baseline model design . Following the
baseline model design, the second part is the curbing controller
design to totally eliminate the unpredictable perturbation
effect from the parameter variations and external disturbance
so that the baseline model design performance can be exactly
ensured. Finally, the third part is the adaptive observation de-
sign to estimate the upper bound of the lumped uncertainty
for alleviating the chattering phenomenon caused by the inap-
propriate selection of a conservative constant control gain in
the curbing controller. The entire control methodologies of the
ATSMC system are summarized in the following theorem.
Theorem 1: If the PWM inverter scheme shown in (10) is con-
trolled by the three-part ATSMC system described by (14)–(16)
with the adaptive observation design shown in (17), then the sta-
bility of the ATSMC system for the current control of the PWM
inverter can be guaranteed
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
where is a positive constant.
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Proof: Consider aLyapunov function candidate
with and take the
derivative of with respect to time; there exists an
ATSMC system described by (14)–(16) with the adaptive
observation design shown in (17) such that . According
to the Lyapunov stability theorem and Barbalat’s lemma [22],
[23], it can imply that the function will converge to zero as
. Moreover, the parameter estimation error can be
guaranteed to be bounded. The detailed proof of Theorem 1
can be referred to [25]. As a result, the stable behavior for the
current control of the PWM inverter can be ensured.
V. ASP METHOD
Due to the characteristic of PV modules with nonlinear
voltage-current relation and the variation of the maximum
power point with respect to irradiation and temperature, an
ASP method is proposed in this study to adjust the reference
voltage by injecting a step perturbation into the voltage of
PV modules and judging the momentary operation region for
raising the operating point close to the maximum power point.
In this way, the major drawback concerned with the tradeoff
between tracking speed and response in the conventional P&O
method can be effectively improved. The corresponding control
flowchart of the proposed ASP method is illustrated in Fig. 6.
In Fig. 6, and represent the terminal
voltage, current and power of PV modules, respectively, in
which denotes the iteration number; and represent
the reference voltage and its step perturbation, respectively;
 958 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
Fig. 7. Block diagram of current command for PWM inverter.
and denote the variations of and
, respectively. Define an ASP control law as
(18)
where is a positive constant. Because the step perturbation
of the reference voltage, , is proportional to the ratio of
PV power with respect to voltage , it means that
the ASP method has the ability to adjust the reference voltage
according to instantaneous operational conditions.
When the control process starts, the terminal voltage and
current of PV modules are first measured, then the power of
PV modules can be obtained from the product of and
. If the variations of and both are not equal to zero,
the reference voltage could be produced by (18), otherwise, the
reference voltage will be maintained at the previous value. The
block diagram of the current command produced by the indirect
voltage control of PV modules for the PWM inverter is depicted
in Fig. 7, where the voltage control error is defined as
is a proportional gain; is a time delay;
is the amplitude of the current command, , in
which is the utility frequency sensed by a phase-lock loop
(PLL) circuit [4]. In other words, the current command
for the PWM inverter is composed of the product of and
so that the inverter current will be in phase with the
grid voltage when the PWM inverter control error
converges to zero by the proposed ATSMC system.
VI. ACTIVE SUN-TRACKING SCHEME
Because the movement of the sun is slow and monotonous,
and the variation range of the climbing angle is within , A. Experimental Results of High Step-Up Converter
it is unnecessary to adjust the inclined angle of the PV plate
for simplifying the mechanical framework. Only by way of the
single axis direction control, it can immediately achieve the goal
of collection of maximum irradiation. In this study, an active sun
tracking scheme actuated by a synchronous motor is used for the
sun tracking via the information of the open-circuit voltage of
the PV module, and the corresponding control flowchart of the
active sun tracker is depicted in Fig. 8.
In Fig. 8, and represent the present and pre-
vious open-circuit voltages, respectively; denotes the vari-
ation of the open-circuit voltage. Because the sun only moves
from the East to the West during one day, the PV plate is ro-
tated by the unit angle for a time at clockwise (CW) in the
beginning of the control process to disturb the corresponding
open-circuit voltage. In this way, it can adjust the rotating direc-
tion by observing the variation trend of the open-circuit voltage
to capture more irradiations because the open-circuit voltage of
the PV module is proportional to the corresponding irradiation.
If the condition of holds, the PV plate is rotated by
the unit angle for a time at counterclockwise (CCW), i.e.,
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Fig. 8. Control flowchart of active sun tracker.
it is returned to the previous location. After that, the control
process will wait for a time to further ensure whether or not
the reason for decreasing disappears. If the condition of
holds, the control process also waits for a time
for the next CW rotation. Note that, the function of the waiting
time is helpful for alleviating the extra power consumption in
back and forth motion. According to the aforementioned action
principle, the control target of the active sun tracking scheme
can be achieved. In this study, the implementation of the MPPT
control is faster than in the case of the sun tracker. Because the
sun moves slowly in general, it is reasonable to ignore the inter-
action of the ASP control and the active sun tracker.
VII. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The validity of the high step-up converter, the PWM inverter
control, the ASP method, and the active sun tracker in the grid-
connected PV generation system are verified by the following
experimental results.
In order to verify the effectiveness of the high step-up
converter, the input side consists of six 75-W PV modules
manufactured by the MOTECH Company (F-MSN-75W-R-02)
connecting in parallel as a low-voltage power source. The
specifications of a single PV module for the standard condi-
tion (100 mW/cm , 25 C) are rated 76.78 W, rated
17.228 V, rated 4.4567 A, open-circuit
21.61 V, short-circuit 4.9649 A, and PV
%.
In the experimentation, the high step-up converter is designed
initially to operate from the variability dc input of PV modules,
to deliver a constant dc output, 200 V. Assume that the
maximum value of the switch voltage is clamped at 34 V; the
turns ratio is according to (7).
From (6), the related duty cycle, , is reasonable in prac-
tical applications if the minimum input voltage is assumed to be
10 V. In order to solve the problem of the output voltage of PV
modules varying with the load variations, this converter with
dc voltage feedback control is utilized to ensure the system sta-
bility, and a PWM control IC TL494 is adopted to achieve the
 WAI AND WANG: GRID-CONNECTED PV GENERATION SYSTEM 959

goal of feedback control. The prototype with the following spec-

ifications is designed to illustrate the design procedure given in
Section III.
Switching frequency:

kHz

Coupled inductor:

H
H

Capacitor:

F V
F V
F V
F V

Switch:

Diode:

The experimental voltage and current responses of the high

step-up converter operating at 320 W-output power are
depicted in Fig. 9. From Fig. 9(a), the switch voltage
is clamped at 34 V, which is much smaller than the output
voltage V, and the curve of the switch current
is similar to a square wave so that it can further reduce the
conduction loss of the switch . By observing Fig. 9(b) and
(c), the primary current keeps about 30A; thus, only a
smaller core capacity is necessary for H. According to
Fig. 9(d)–(j), the reverse-recovery currents in all of the diodes
( and ) can be alleviated effectively, and the voltages Fig. 9. Experimental voltage and current responses of high step-up converter
of the clamped capacitor and the high-voltage capacitor with P = 320 W and V = 200 V.
are close to constant values. Therefore, it can alleviate
the reverse-recovery problem and exhibit the voltage-clamped
effect for further raising the conversion efficiency. From according to (7). From (6), the
Fig. 9(i), the selection of the output diode with 200-V blocking related duty cycle, , is reasonable in practical appli-
voltage is enough in this application because the voltage of the cations if the minimum input voltage is assumed to be 8.614 V
output diode is limited below the output voltage ( 200 V) (i.e., when is decreased by a factor of two). Even though the
at all times. Fig. 10 summarizes the experimental conversion solar array voltage changes from 17.228 V to less than 8.614 V
efficiency of the high step-up converter under different output due to clouding, snow or dirt, the step-up converter can compen-
powers. As can be seen from this figure, the conversion effi- sate for such a drop and provide the inverter with rated voltage
ciency at light powers is over 95% and the maximum efficiency of 200 V regardless of irradiation changes as long as the solar
is over 96.5%, which is comparatively higher than conventional array voltage is not higher than the switch voltage rating and
converters with the same voltage gain. the clamped switch voltage is appropriately preset. Although the
By the same assumption of the maximum value of the switch combination of a step-down/step-up converter also can provide
voltage to be clamped at 34 V in this study, the turns ratio is an alternative solution handling the voltage variation problem
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 960 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
Fig. 10. Conversion efficiency of high step-up converter with V =
under different output powers.
due to irradiation changes, it may fail under excessive voltage
variations and the multistage conversion loss is a latent problem
to be overcome.
The experimental inductor current and switch voltage curves
of the high step-up converter under the condition of 24-V
input voltage, 200-V output voltage, and 1-kW output power
are shown in [17, Fig. 14] to examine the coupled-inductor
capability for a high power application. As can be seen from
this figure, the proposed converter with the same size of the
coupled inductor in [17] can be operated over 1-kW power.
Moreover, the conversion efficiency of the high step-up con-
verter for 24-V input voltage and 200-V output voltage under
different output powers are shown in [17, Fig. 15] to verify
its superiority over that of the coupled-inductor in [16]. Ac-
cording to these comparisons in [17], one can conclude that this
high step-up converter with the appropriate design of circuit
component specifications is still suitable for the application of
kilowatt-level power conversion. Although the efficiency of
the high step-up converter would be reduced because of the
losses in the inductors, the decrease of winding turns and the
increase of air gap in the coupled inductor are helpful to solve
this problem efficiently.
B. Experimental Results of PWM Inverter Control
The circuit components of the PWM inverter scheme
are IRFP264 (250 V/38 A) and
mH; the switching frequency is kHz.
Moreover, the parameters of the ATSMC systems for the PWM
inverter scheme are given as follows:
All the parameters in the ATSMC system are chosen to achieve
the best transient control performance by considering the re-
quirement of stability. The experimental results of the ATSMC
for the PWM inverter of the grid-connected PV generation
system under light load and heavy load are depicted in Fig. 11.
It can be noticed that the output current is almost in phase with
the utility voltage, and the PF of the PWM inverter is higher
than 0.98 that satisfies the PF demand in industrial applications.
The experimental results of the grid-connected PV generation
system with the ATSMC system for the PWM inverter under
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200V
Fig. 11. Experimental results of grid-connected PV generation system with
ATSMC for PWM inverter. (a) Light load. (b) Heavy load.
different step load changes are given to examine the load vari-
ation effect. In Fig. 12(a), the load is changed from light load
to heavy load; reversely, the load is changed from heavy load to
light load in Fig. 12(b); and in Fig. 12(c)–(d) the load changed
from no load to heavy load and heavy load to no load, respec-
tively. As can be seen from this figure, the control performance
of the ATSMC system for the PWM inverter is insensitive to
the abrupt load changes. Generally speaking, inverters may gen-
erate small dc voltages/currents due to somewhat asymmetric
gating. In conventional way, transformers are generally con-
nected between inverter and power system to prevent these dc
currents from entering the power system. Due to the powerful
control ability of the proposed ATSMC system, a transformer
is omitted in this study to reduce the energy transformation loss
and lower manufacturing cost. If it is desirable to use a trans-
former for electric isolation under safety considerations, the pro-
posed control strategies still can work well by additionally con-
sidering the turn ratio of the transformer.
C. Experimental Results of ASP Method
Figs. 13–15 are the experimental results for the purpose of
(19) verifying the effectiveness of the ASP method. The atmospheric
condition is the irradiation level 88 mW/cm and the module
temperature 53 C dated on the afternoon of November 6, 2005.
The control flowchart as shown in Fig. 6 is implemented via a
DSP with 0.166 ms time step and the parameters of the ASP
method are given as follows:
(20)
The experimental results of conventional P&O method with
fixed step perturbations 0.15 and 0.3 V are illustrated in Figs. 13
and 14, respectively. It is obvious that the smaller step perturba-
tion (0.15 V) results in slower tracking response, but it has stable
 WAI AND WANG: GRID-CONNECTED PV GENERATION SYSTEM
Fig. 12. Experimental results of grid-connected PV generation system with
ATSMC for PWM inverter under load change. (a) Light load to heavy load.
(b) Heavy load to light load. (c) No load to heavy load. (d) Heavy load to no
load.
operation around the maximum power point. Although the larger
step perturbation (0.3 V) can provide faster tracking response,
oscillations around the maximum power point occurred. For
comparison, Fig. 15 shows the experimental results of the ASP
method. By observing Fig. 15, the operating point could be con-
trolled to locate at the maximum power point rapidly and stably.
As a result, the proposed ASP method indeed yields superior
performance to that of the conventional P&O method.
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961
Fig. 13. Experimental results of grid-connected PV generation system with
conventional P&O method (0.15-V step). (a) Tracking response. (b) Transient
V–P and V–I curve. (c) Steady V–P and V–I curve.
D. Experimental Results of Active Sun Tracker
In order to verify the validity of the sun tracking scheme by
way of realistic experimentations, a single PV module actuated
by a synchronous motor manufactured by TUSHING Company
(GL-301) is used to form the active sun tracker, and the cor-
responding rotational angle is . The atmospheric circum-
stance is the irradiation level 67 mW/cm and the module tem-
perature 30 C dated on October 5, 2005 (Local time PM 3:00,
Taiwan). The control flowchart shown in Fig. 8 is implemented
using a DSP with 1-ms sampling interval, and the parameters of
the active sun tracking scheme are given as follows:
(21)
Two conditions of irradiation are examined here: one is the
nominal condition, and the other is the shading condition by
placing a plastic plate abruptly above a PV plate. The experi-
mental results of the grid-connected PV generation system with
the active sun tracker at nominal and shading conditions are
depicted in Fig. 16. In Fig. 16(a), the open-circuit voltage is
increased from V to V when the ac-
tive sun tracker was started to rotate the PV plate, so that it
would result in the increasing of output powers. In Fig. 16(b),
the open-circuit voltage suddenly decreased because the shading
condition occurred at 34 s such that the PV plate was returned
to its previous location for waiting a span. When the shading
condition was removed at 62s, the PV plate was rotated again
after the waiting time to track the sun’s direction, so that the
 962 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008

Fig. 14. Experimental results of grid-connected PV generation system with Fig. 15. Experimental results of grid-connected PV generation system with
conventional P&O method (0.3V-step). (a) Tracking response. (b) Transient ASP method. (a) Tracking response. (b) Transient V–P and V–I curve. (c) Steady
V–P and V–I curve. (c) Steady V–P and V–I curve. V–P and V–I curve.

open-circuit voltage increased to a steady state. According to

the experimental results in Fig. 16, the expected goal of the ac-
tive sun tracker can be realized perfectly, and this simple ac-
tive sun tracking mechanism could be taken as a ‘supervisor’
to further provide the adjustable command for PV plates in a
large-scale PV generation system. However, the proposed active
sun tracking scheme can not handle well more than one power
maximum (i.e., power versus voltage functions with two power
peaks due to partially shaded solar arrays with partial bypassing
of solar cells by diodes). How to jump over the local maximum
power point is worthy of investigation in the future research.

VIII. CONCLUSION
This study has successfully developed a grid-connected PV
generation system. The effectiveness of the high step-up con-
verter, the PWM inverter control, the ASP method, and the ac-
tive sun tracker for a grid-connected PV generation system was
verified by realistic experimentations. According to the experi-
mental results, the conversion efficiency of the high step-up con-
verter at rated power is over 95%, and the overall efficiency in-
cluding the inverter and losses in the sun tracker is over 85%.
Moreover, the output current of the PWM inverter can almost be
maintained in phase with the utility voltage. The corresponding
PF under different loads are higher than 0.98, satisfying the PF
standards in industrial applications. In addition, the realization Fig. 16. Experimental results of grid-connected PV generation system with ac-
of the ASP method provides faster tracking response with 3 s tive sun tracker. (a) Nominal condition. (b) Shading condition.
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 WAI AND WANG: GRID-CONNECTED PV GENERATION SYSTEM
settling time and overcomes the oscillation problem in the con-
ventional P&O method for reducing extra power losses. Fur-
thermore, the implementation of the active sun tracking scheme
on the basis of the open-circuit voltage of PV modules, is for
improving the generation efficiency of the fixed-installation PV
array, and lowering the cost of the conventional sun tracker
with light sensors. This system-integration research provides
designers with an alternative choice to convert the PV energy
efficiently, and it also can be extended easily to a large-scale PV
generation system.
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Rong-Jong Wai (M’99–A’00–M’02–SM’05) was
born in Tainan, Taiwan, R.O.C., in 1974. He received
his B.S. degree in electrical engineering and the
Ph.D. degree in electronic engineering from Chung
Yuan Christian University, Chung Li, Taiwan,
R.O.C., in 1996 and 1999, respectively.
Since 1999, he has been with the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Chung
Li, Taiwan, R.O.C., where he is currently a Professor.
He is also the Director of the Electric Control and
System Engineering Laboratory at Yuan Ze Univer-
sity, and the Energy Conversion and Power Conditioning Laboratory at the Fuel
Cell Center. He is a chapter-author of Intelligent Adaptive Control: Industrial
Applications in the Applied Computational Intelligence Set (CRC, 1998) and
the coauthor of Drive and Intelligent Control of Ultrasonic Motor (Tsang-Hai
Press, 1999), Electric Control (Tsang-Hai Press, 2002) and Fuel Cell: New Gen-
eration Energy (Tsang-Hai Press, 2004). He has authored numerous published
journal papers in the field of control system applications. His research interests
include power electronics, motor servo drives, mechatronics, energy technology,
and control theory applications.
Dr. Wai received the Excellent Research Award in 2000, and the Wu Ta-You
Medal and Young Researcher Award in 2003 from the National Science
Council, R.O.C. In addition, he was the recipient of the Outstanding Research
Award in 2003 and 2007 from the Yuan Ze University, R.O.C.; the Excellent
Young Electrical Engineering Award in 2004 from the Chinese Electrical
Engineering Society, R.O.C; the Outstanding Professor Award in 2004 and
 964 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS—I: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008

2008 from the Far Eastern Y. Z. Hsu-Science and Technology Memorial Wen-Hung Wang was born in Taichung, Taiwan,
Foundation, R.O.C.; the International Professional of the Year Award in 2005 R.O.C., in 1981. He received his B.S. and M.S.
from the International Biographical Centre, U.K., the Young Automatic Control degrees in electrical engineering from Yuan Ze
Engineering Award in 2005 from the Chinese Automatic Control Society, University, Chung Li, Taiwan, R.O.C., in 2003 and
R.O.C., and the Yuan-Ze Lecture Award in 2007 from the Far Eastern Y. Z. 2006, respectively.
Hsu-Science and Technology Memorial Foundation, R.O.C.His biography His research interests include photovoltaic genera-
was listed in Marquis Who’s Who in Science and Engineering in 2004–2009, tion system, power electronics, and adaptive control.
Marquis Who’s Who in 2004–2007, and Leading Scientists of the World (Inter-
national Biographical Centre) in 2005, Marquis Who’s Who in Asia, Marquis
Who’s Who of Emerging Leaders in 2006–2009, and Asia/Pacific Who’s Who
(Rifacimento International) in Vol. VII and VIII.

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