Geography:

Theme 1: Population and Settlement:

1.1 Population Dynamics:
Birth rate: It is the number of live births per 1000 people per year
Death rate: It is the number of deaths per 1000 people per year
Infant mortality rate: It is the number of deaths of infants (under the age of 1) per 1000 people per year
Natural population change: The difference between the birth rate and the death rate. If birth rate is
greater, it is the natural increase and if death rate is greater, it is the natural decrease
Reasons for rapid increase in world’s population:
Decrease in death rate and increased life expectancy due to:
• Improved medical facilities and provision of vaccination and decrease in the doctor patient
ratio
• Good treatment of diseases with development of new and effective drugs
• Investment in old age homes to increase care for the elderly
• Availability of pensions so the elderly have money to spend on goods necessary for survival
• Increase in the nutrition value of their diet and therefore they have good food which will help to
keep them healthy
• Good water supply so they have access to clean drinking water preventing diseases such as
cholera that can kill people
• Good hygiene standards so that the people keep themselves and their surroundings clean to
avoid being diagnosed with diseases
Factors affecting birth rates in LEDCs and MEDCs:
High birth rates in LEDCs:
• Little availability of contraception or family planning
• Lack of education about family planning
• Unable to afford contraception or family planning services
• Likely need more children to lend a helping hand on their farms or family land
• Likely need more children to send out to work and earn money for the family
• Likely need children to look after parents in their old age since there may not be any
pension facilities
• Likely to have more children in desire for a son
• Likely to have more children due to the religion or tradition of the area
Low birth rates in MEDCs:
• Availability of contraception and family planning
• Education about using contraception and family planning
• Able to afford contraception and family planning
• Availability of pensions so do not need children to support them in old age
• High cost of education and bringing up children so people decide not to have them
• Many women are career oriented and want to pursue their own goals and not be caught up
in raising up children at home

Overpopulation: it is a condition where there are not enough resources to support the people living in an
area or a country

1
Underpopulation: it is a condition where there are too many resources for the people living in an area or a
country and therefore are being underutilised
Problems caused of overpopulation:
• Food supply: lack of food for some people as there is not enough produced
• Employment: lack of jobs for all people of the working population
• Housing: lack of proper housing and some people may end up living in shantys
• Pressure on service provision: not enough healthcare and education facilities
• Crime: some people may resort to crime to obtain basic goods such as food
• Traffic congestion: there may be too many cars causing roads to be congested
• Pollution: water may be contaminated due to factories’ waste going into rivers
• Deforestation: forest needs to be cleared for making space for development
• Habitat loss: animals and birds living in forests lose their habitat
• Disease: contamination of water supply causes chronic diseases like cholera
Problems caused by underpopulation:
• shortage of workers: not enough people to run factories and companies
• low level of production: less workers means that less products are produced
• resources under-used: excess resources lay dormant (eg oil since less cars)
• high taxes: government needs money for development and since there are such less people,
they need to raise taxes
• lack of government income: few people paying taxes so low income for govt
• small market for goods and services: few buyers available in local area
• hard to defend country: few people enlist in military thus army is small
Problems of ageing population (increasing old dependents population):
• High dependency as they are not earning so less income from taxes
• More pressure on economically active (working) population
• Need for more money to be spent on care for elderly care homes and pensions
• More taxation needs to be raised leading to higher taxes
• Less workforce (less economically active)
• Workforce becomes less innovative
• Less money spent on education
• Pension aged raised
• More spending/pressure on healthcare
• Less money spent on infrastructure
• Country becomes difficult to defend
1.2 Migration:
• Internal migration: migration within a country
• International migration: migration from one country to another
• Immigrant: a person arriving in a new country
• Emigrant: a person who leaves their home country and moves to another country
• Forced migration: where there is no choice of the migrant
• Voluntary migration: where it is the own choice of the migrant
• Net migration: it is the difference between immigration and emigration (immigration - emigration)
• Population change: net migration combines with natural population change gives the overall
population change of the country. If this is positive, there is population growth and if this is
negative, there is population decline
• Push factors: factors that cause people to move away from an area
• Pull factors: factors that attract people to live in an area
Reasons for migration to and from a country:
2
Push factors (why people move away from an area or country):
Poverty Lack of employment or low wages
Little or poor quality health care Little or poor quality education
provision provision
Lack of availability of food Lack of availability of water
Impacts of government policy (high Drought or famine
taxes)
Natural disasters Presence of war, fear of
persecution, or political instability
Lack of social amenities Unreliable supply of electricity
Pull factors (why people move to an area or country)
• Absence of poverty, presence of money (capital) in country
• Many opportunities for employment and higher wages
• Plenty good quality healthcare provision
• Plenty good quality education provision
• Availability of food
• Availability of water
• Impacts of government policy (lower taxes)
• Free of natural disasters
• Sense of security, safety and political stability
• Entertainment opportunities and social amenities (bright lights syndrome)
• Reliable electricity supplies

Advantages and disadvantages for countries from where people emigrated (losing country) and
to where people immigrated (receiving country):
Country Losing country Receiving country

Remittances sent back for investment in Labour supply increases

Advantage

infrastructure Many immigrants will do dirty or low paid jobs

Less pressure on employment Cultural understanding
s

Less pressure on healthcare Provision of services e.g. ethnic restaurants

Less pressure on food supply Increases size of market for local businesses
Less pressure on water supply

smaller workforce Racial tension

loss of skilled workers Pressure on employment
loss to economy Lack of health care
Disadvantages

temporary economic depression Lack of educational facilities

decline in agricultural production
families split by migration
elderly dependents increase
pay more taxes
declining birth rates
ageing population
gender imbalance created
Lack of food
Lack of water
Traffic congestion
Need for more housing and creation of ghettos
Water and air pollution
Waste disposal issues
Loss of income due to remittances

Problems faced by migrants:

• Unable to find somewhere to live and end up living in poor quality housing
• Face language problems and are unable to communicate with others
• Jobs are hard to obtain or are low paid and unlike what they expected

3
 • Racial or religious discrimination against the workers
• Away from family and do not know anyone so feel alone and depressed
• Hard to adapt to the place as there may be different culture or religion
• High cost of living so can’t afford food, schooling, healthcare, or water
• Threat of deportation if entered the country illegally without legal documents
1.3 Population structure:
Population pyramid: is a diagram showing the population of an area or a country divided by gender and
age groups
Population pyramid for LEDC:

Fig 1.1 (from IGCSE past paper)

Description:
Typical pyramid shape - Wide base (impies high birth rate) - Narrow top (implies low life expectancy)
Population pyramid for MEDC:

Fig 1.2 (from IGCSE past paper)

Description:
Barrel shape - Narrow base (implies low birth rate) - Wide top (implies high life expectancy)

1.4 Population density and distribution:

Population density: it is the number of people living per square kilometre of an area
Negative factors: factors that discourage people to live in an area
Reasons why people choose to live in an area:
Positive factors: factors that encourage people to live in an area
4
 Physical:
Favourable climate (eg hot and wet for farming)
Good water supply
Presence of natural resources
Low lying land with gentle slopes
Fertile soil which can be used for farming
Presence of natural vegetation
Economic:
Good transport system
Presence of capital to invest in industry
Social:
Good quality housing facilities
Good quality healthcare facilities
Good quality education facilities
Political:
High government investment in infrastructure and transport
High government stability
Government policy (low tax rates)
Negative factors:
Physical:
Unfavourable climate (eg cold and dry not suitable for farming)
Lack of a reliable water supply
Absence of natural resources
High lying land with steep slopes
Infertile soil which cannot be used for farming
Absence of natural vegetation
Economic:
Poor transport system
Absence of capital to invest in industry
Social:
Poor quality housing facilities
Poor quality healthcare facilities
Poor quality education facilities
Political:
Low government investment in infrastructure and transport
High government instability
Government policy (high tax rates)
Link to areas of high population density effects are same as that of overpopulation and to areas
of low population density effects are same as that of underpopulation

1.5 Settlements (rural and urban) and service provision:

The site is the actual location of a settlement on the earth and is composed of the physical
characteristics of the landscape specific to the area
Situation is defined as the location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places
Types of patterns of settlements:
5
 Nucleated:
Dwellings are clustered together - The shape of the settlement is compact
People can enjoy social benefits living close to neighbours - There is easy access to services like shops
and schools - Being close to others maybe helpful for defence of settlement

Fig 1.3 (from IGCSE past paper)

Dispersed:
Scattered isolated dwellings - Can develop in agricultural areas where soil is not very fertile so people
need to farm large farm areas - Culture can play a role as tradition may be to live far from each other
Sometimes found in modern areas where commercial farms are huge

Fig 1.4 (from IGCSE past paper)

Linear:
Settlements are in long thin rows
often along roads or rivers
Allows each dwelling to have
access to road/river for
transport
Found in valley floor near rivers to
avoid steep slopes in upper
course
Also found in floodplains near river
where soil is very fertile

Fig 1.5 (from IGCSE past paper)

Influence of physical factors in determining settlements:

Relief: low lying land with gentle slopes usually has nucleated settlement pattern
Soil: areas with fertile soil usually have nucleated settlement patterns
Water supply: access to rivers usually develops linear settlement pattern
Accessibility: high accessibility areas have nucleated/linear settlement pattern

6
 Resources: good access to resources can develop nucleated settlements
Hierarchy of settlements:

Fig 1.6 (from IGCSE past paper)

Order of settlement: usually refers to the size of the settlement
Sphere of influence: area served by a settlement; settlements of higher order have a larger sphere of
influence
Order of service: depends on the threshold population; services with a large threshold population are
called high-order services whereas services with a small threshold population are called low-order
services
Threshold population: the minimum number of people needed to provide a large enough demand of
service; higher order services need higher threshold population
Smaller settlements provide a limited range of services and goods for sale. People travel short distances
for these services.
Large towns and cities provide a wider range of goods and services. People travel long distances for
some of these services but less frequently
High order goods:These are comparison goods
Before people buy them, they compare prices and qualityPeople do not buy these goods very often
Example; electronic products
Low order goods: These are convenience goods
People use them regularly and do not need to compare prices Example: grocery goods (milk, bread)

1.6 Urban settlements:

Features of urban areas:
Central Business District (CBD):
Location: city centre
7
 Function: contains offices, shops, administrative buildings and some touristic
places
Accessibility: linked to the rest of the city by main roads and public transport
Land value: Highest in the city because the space is limited and there is big
competition to build in this zone
Industrial areas:
Location: Next to CBD
Function: factories and neighbourhoods for workers
Accessibility: linked by train to mines or other factories in the country for good
transport system of manufactured products
Land value: very low since lots of space available
Residential areas:
Location: Outside of industrial area
Function: Serve as housing areas for middle-class closer to the industrial area
and for high class farther from the industrial area
Accessibility: good communication using public transport and many roads to the
CBD
Land value: lower than CBD so cheap to build houses and lots of space
available for building bigger houses with many facilities
Rural-urban fringe:
Location: at the edge of the city
Function: mainly contains big houses for the high-class far from the industrial
area’s polluted region
Accessibility: Roads lead to the CBD but lack of public transport this far from the
CBD
Land value: quite low since lots of space available
Problems of CBD + their solutions:
Increased traffic: underground shopping malls to keep people safe
Increased pollution of cars: pedestrianisation; create pollution free areas
CBD in evening can be unsafe: regular patrols for safety of pedestrians
Can look unattractive: creation of parks, flowerbeds, and planting of trees
Crime can be present: job creation facilities for those who are unemployed and are
resorting to crime to pay for their basic needs
Problems of rest of the areas + their solutions:
Poor quality housing: government housing schemes
Congestion: widening of roads to accomodate more cars
Noise and air pollution: move houses far from industrial areas; government laws and
regulation to control pollution
Decline in industry causing unemployment: government aid
Fewer services near industrial areas: shift houses closer to residential areas
Types of pollution:
Air:
From industries, vehicles and construction work
Causes health problems, traffic hazards and environmental problems
Water:
From improper disposal of sewage and oil spills
Endangers plants and animals species and causes diseases like cholera
Visual:
8
 From ugly looking shanty settlements near urban areas
Deters tourists from visiting the area
Noise:
From traffic, construction work and events such as rock concerts
Causes damaged hearing, increased pulse rate, and poor work performance
1.7 Urbanisation:
Reasons for rapid urban growth:
Presence of multiple employment opportunities in the area
Migration to an urban area due to bright lights syndrome
Developed transport and communications for increased access to the area
Low lying land with gentle slopes that is easy to build on
Reliable and clean water supply to maintain health of the population
Increased tourism attracts people to pursue jobs or for cultural exchange
Greater political stability means more development occurs in the area
Rural depopulation: refer to migration push and pull factors to relate to this rural-urban migration
Effects of urbanisation on the people:
High crime rates
Unemployment
Pressure on housing making people homeless
Traffic congestion
Impacts on people of pollution of water and air
Pressure on schools and healthcare
Creation of squatter settlements
Reducing impacts of urbanisation:
Self-help schemes Reduce urbanisation by investing in the countryside
Building of low cost houses Better security measures
Site and services schemes Provision of education and hospitals
Improvement of infrastructure or examples Creation of jobs for people with low skills
Creation of employment
Problems of squatter settlements:
Poor quality building materials, easily Poor quality roads so difficult access
destroyed by storms Disease spreads easily (eg cholera from dirty
Lack of electricity water)
Lack of clean water supplies since water is Lack of a sewage system and poor sanitation
polluted Risk of fire
Overcrowding and lack of privacy Can be moved on/have no rights to the land
Lack of open space Inadequate waste disposal
Crime levels high and lack of security in
homes

Theme 2: The natural environment:

2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes:
Plate movement:
Heat is produced by radioactivity deep inside the earth
Heat is not evenly distributed so there are hotter and colder areas
At the hotter areas, rocks in mantle become lighter and rise causing convection currents
to set up in the mantle
9
 These convection currents cause the plates above them to move
Types of plate boundaries:
Convergent:
Two plates move towards each other
Usually one oceanic plate and one continental plate
Subduction zone forms as oceanic plate is denser and sinks
Sinking oceanic plate melts and forms magma under the surface
Causes volcanoes to form

Fig 2.1(covergent.png)
Divergent:
Two plates move away from each other
Can be two oceanic plates or two continental plates
Magma rises to cover up the open space forming
Magma cools to form oceanic plate thus mid-oceanic ridges

Fig 2.2 (divergent.png)

Conservative:
Two plates moving past each other
Sudden release of pressure as plates break free causing earthquakes

10
 Fig 2.3 (conservative.png)
Fold mountains:
Powerful compression of two tectonic plates squeezes layers of rocks
The rocks bend, buckle and fold up and down
Folding of rock happens in regions of earth where there is high temperature and
pressure (conditions required for rocks to bend, buckle and fold)
Types of volcanoes:
Composite volcano (stratovolcano):
Steep slopes Consists of lava and ash
Narrower Contains parasitic cones
Higher (taller) Smaller magma chamber
Small crater

Fig 2.4 (from IGCSE past paper)

Shield volcano:
Gentle slopes Consists of only lava
Wider Has no parasitic cones
Shorter (low in height) Larger magma chamber
Larger crater

11
 Fig 2.5 (from IGCSE past paper)
Features of volcanoes:
Crater: is an circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity
Vent: is an opening exposed on the earth's surface from where volcanic material is
emitted
Magma chamber: is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth where
the magma is under high pressure
Dangers of volcanic eruptions:
Ash falls: can damage buildings in the area and can block transport routes 9for eg by
settling on roads)
Pyroclastic flows: can kill people en route since it is very hot and erupted in all
directions from the volcano
Lateral blasts: destroys buildings in the area
Mudflows: when ash mixes with water and travels down river valleys destroying
anything that comes in its way
Volcanic gases: toxic gases released that can cause respiratory problems
Acid rain: can damage buildings and also plants in the area
Post-eruption famine and disease: affects the people of the area
Tsunamis: underwater volcanoes cause tsunamis to form affecting nearby areas
Lava flows: can destroy buildings and kill people if they come in the way
Minimising these dangers:
Lava flow diversion
Mudflow barriers
Improve building design (eg stronger roofs)
Volcano monitoring (using equipment)
Remote sensing
Hazard mapping and planning
Advantages of volcanic areas:
Geothermal power generation
Fertile soils for farming
Tourism in the area creates employment for locals
Minerals and mining industry can develop
In addition to that, why people live in areas where active volcanoes are present:
hey have lived there all their lives so have emotional ties
friends and family live in the areas
their jobs or school are there
scenic beauty
12
 scientists live there to study the volcano
cannot afford to leave
hot springs
confidence in prediction
people are prepared to task the risk
Features of earthquakes:
Focus: it is the point in the Earth where the earthquake originates
Epicentre: it is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus
Seismic waves: vibrations inside the Earth; also called shock waves
Magnitude: the intensity of the earthquake, usually measure on Richter’s scale
Amount of damage done by earthquakes depends on:
Amount of energy released (the greater the amount, the more damage done)
Depth of focus (the smaller the depth, the more damage done)
Population density (the denser the population, the more damage done)
Building design (the stronger the design, less the damage done)
Solidity of bedrock (the solid the bedrock, less the damage done)
Reducing damage done by earthquakes:
Monitoring to predicts earthquakes Earthquake drills
Tsunami warning systems Hazard mapping
Evacuation of people Building design

13
2.2 Rivers:
Characteristics of rivers:
Width: the distance between the two river banks
Depth: the distance between the surface of water and the river bed
Speed of flow: the velocity of water in the river
Discharge: the volume of water in the river
Characteristics of drainage basins:
Watershed: marks the boundary of the drainage basin
Tributary: small rivers joining into the main river
Confluence: the point where the tributary joins the main river
Processes of erosion:
Corrasion (abrasion): where sand and Attrition: where rocks and stones wear each
pebbles are dragged along the river bed, other away as they knock together,
wearing it away becoming smaller and more rounded
Hydraulic action: where fast-flowing water is Solution (corrosion): where rocks such as
forced into cracks, breaking up the bank limestone are dissolved in acid rainwater
over time

Fig 2.6 (erosion.png)

Processes of transportation:
Traction: large stones are dragged along the river bed
Saltation: smaller stones or pebbles are picked up and then dropped again in a
“leapfrog motion”
Suspension: tiny particles of sediment are carried as a suspension in the river water
making it look murky
Solution: dissolved salts and minerals are carried by the river water

14
 Fig 2.7 (transportation.png)
Drainage basin: area of land drained by a river and its tributaries
Processes in a drainage basin:
Interception: Leaves and branches of trees catch rainwater
Infiltration: Rain soaks into the ground
Throughflow: Some water flows through the soil
Groundwater flow: Some water continues into solid rock to form groundwater
Evaporation: Due to the sun’s heat, some river water evaporates
Overland flow: If ground is hard or very wet, rain flows overground

Fig 2.8 (from IGCSE past paper)

River course:
Upper course: steep long profile with a steep and v-shaped cross profile
Middle course: gentler long profile and cross profile
Lower course: gentle long profile and almost flat cross profile

Fig 2.9 (river_profiles.png)

River landforms:
Waterfall:
Alternating layers of hard and soft present Overhang collapses
Hard rock resists erosion whereas softer Plunge pool deepens
rock is eroded rapidly Process repeats causing waterfall to retreat
Plunge pool forms Gorge forms
Overhang develops

15
 Fig 2.10 (waterfall.png)
Potholes:
Smooth ,rounded hollows formed in the river bed by vertical erosion
Formed by stones trapped in hollows on the river bed
Eddies in the water swirl the trapped stones around, causing corrasion
This causes the stone to drill down into the river bed
Hollows become deeper and wider and may join together to form larger potholes

Fig 2.11 (pothole.png)

Oxbow lake:
River flows around a meander River becomes more sinuous, winding
Erosion on outer bends due to faster flowing around meanders
water Neck of meander reduced in thickness
Hydraulic action and abrasion involved Eventually river erodes across neck and river
Helical flow of water adds to the faster flows straight on
erosion During time of flood, deposition seals former
Deposition on inside bends due to slower meander
flowing water An oxbow lake is now formed

Fig 2.12 (from IGCSE past paper)

Delta:
large amounts of sediment brought downstream
16
 deposition in lower course as speed of flow is reduced
flocculation occurs due to salt in water
deposited silt blocks course of river which splits into distributaries to reach sea
deposited materials are not washed away due to lack of current
colonization by vegetation occurs and delta is formed

Fig 2.14 (from IGCSE past paper)

Levees and floodplains:
Floodplains and levees are features which are found together in the lower
course of the river
Floodplain:
It is a wide and flat piece of land found on both sides of a river
It is covered with alluvium (rock particles such as sand, clay and silt)
deposited by the river
Levees:
They are naturally raised banks by the river sides made up of the
deposited coarser materials

Fig 2.15 (floodplain.png)

Opportunities presented by rivers:

Fertile land Land is flat so easy to build on
Farmers obtain high yields of crops
17
 Communications on land are easy along Jobs in tourism
flood plain HEP
River can sometimes be used for Wash clothes
navigation Religious significance
Fishing Irrigation
Water supply from river Leisure activities
Scenic beauty
Hazards of living near rivers:
River erosion causes houses and farms ot Flooding can cause destruction of building
collapse and farms nearby
Marsh land not suitable for building firm Transport problems as roads cannot be
houses built over the river
Mosquitoes can causes diseases and Contaminated water can cause diseases
contaminate drinking water like cholera
Difficulty of crossing river to get to the other Homes destroyed by river
side Deaths due to flooding
Managing river flooding:
Build reservoirs or dams upstream Straighten channel
Increase height of banks and build artificial Dredging
levees Widening river
Afforestation and reduce deforestation Warning systems
Overflow channels Land zoning
Managing river erosion:
Strengthen banks by adding hard rocks to banks or by placing rock barriers in front of
banks
Use gabions
Concrete river channel
2.3 Coasts:
Erosional processes:
Hydraulic action: water forced into cracks compressing the air inside forcing rock apart
Corrasion: loose rocks thrown against the cliff by waves
Attrition: loose sediment in water constantly collides with other sediment disintegrating
into smaller and rounder sediment
Corrosion: acids in seawater dissolve material of cliff rocks

Fig 2.16 (erosion.png)

Transportation processes:
Traction: larger pebbles and cobbles rolled along seabed

18
 Saltation: small pebbles bounced along seabed in “leapfrog motion”
Suspension: fine sediment carried as suspension in water making it look murky
Solution: dissolved material carried along in solution

Fig 2.17 (transportation.png)

Headlands and bays formation:
Hydraulic action Joints (bedding planes)
Corrasion Differential erosion: soft rock erodes more
Corrosion rapidly forming bays and hard rock
Hard and soft rocks present alternately erodes less rapidly forming headland

Stack formation:

19
 Fig 2.18 (stack.png)
Cliff retreat:

Fig 2.19 (waves.png)

Swash: wave that approaches the beach Lower energy
Backwash: wave that leaves the beach into the Stronger swash
sea Less than 8 waves per minute
Constructive waves: Lower height

20
Deposit material on the beach Further distance between wave crests
Longer wavelength Spill forward gently
Destructive waves:
Higher energy Erode beach material
Stronger backwash Shorter wavelength
13-15 waves per minute Smaller distance between wave crests
Greater height Plunge forward

Fig 2.20 (waves.png)

Longshore drift:
Prevailing winds cause waves to approach at an angle to the shore
Swash carries loose material up the beach at an angle (in same direction as prevailing
wind)
Backwash takes material back out at 90 degrees (perpendicular)
Zigzag motion moves materials along the beach

Fig 2.21 (LSD.png)

Spit:
21
 long and thin
(curved) hooked end
attached to land at one end only
stretches partly across estuary
made of sand shingle
low in height (just above sea level)
salt marsh develops behind spit

Fig 2.22 (spit.png)

Formation of sand dunes:
Winds blow from the sea Dunes increase in size due to more build up of
Winds pick up sand particles; sand (deposition)
Winds drop them around an obstacle Colonisation by vegetation anchors sand forming
sand dune
Conditions required for coral reefs:
warm water (water temperatures between 18–27 plentiful supply of plankton
°C) calm water (no strong currents)
shallow water (not more than 60 metres deep) pH is alkaline (8 or above)
water free from sediment high salinity
plentiful supply of oxygen in water
Mangrove swamps:
Mangrove swamps are areas of vegetation found along sheltered tropical coastlines and
estuaries between 32°N and 38°S where there is a large area between high and low water
mark. They are made up of different species of evergreen mangrove trees and other plants.
Mangroves need to live in salty water as they are halophytes. They only grow in areas
where the temperature remains above 20°C and the seasonal temperature range should
not exceed 5°C. The areas where they grow should be calm with no strong waves or tidal
currents.
Mangrove trees are able to withstand being covered twice a day by saltwater. They have
specially adapted aerial and salt filtering roots and salt excreting leaves that enable them to
22
 occupy the wetlands where other plants cannot survive. They prop the tree up with their
prop roots and take in oxygen at low tide with their aerial roots.
Mangroves are the home to a diverse number of species including fish, birds, frogs, snakes,
insects and crocodiles. Mammals also live in these areas, ranging from small animals like
swamp rats and monkeys to large carnivores like tigers. (Mangroves protect coastlines
from erosion by acting as a natural barrier and flood defence.
Coastal hazards:
coastal erosion which causes properties to collapse or results in loss of farmland or
damage to roads
coastal flooding
tropical storms which damage port installations (eg boats)
tsunamis
cliff collapse
Managing coastal hazards:
Hard engineering methods:

23
Fig 2.23 (protection.png)

24
 Soft engineering methods:

Fig 2.24 (protection.png)

Coastal opportunities:
Water supply and irrigation Transport
Farming Ports and trade
Tourism Industry
Settlement
25
2.4 Weather:
Weather: conditions of the atmosphere from day to day
Stevenson’s screen:
Contains barometer, six’s thermometer and hygrometer
Wooden construction
Painted white
Louvres for ventilation
Insulated roof
Above ground level (1.25 metres approximately)

Fig 2.25 (from IGCSE past paper)

Rain Gauge:
Measures mm of precipitation Measure every day
Take collecting jar out of casing Measure at same time
Record level of water in jar Empty jar after measuring
Pour water from overflow container into
measuring cylinder

26
 Fig 2.26 (from IGCSE past paper)
Six’s (max and min) thermometer:
Read off maximum temperature/minimum temperature
Read at lower end of each index
Right side shows maximum and left side shows minimum temperature
Read at eye level
Reset indices with magnet

Fig 2.27 (from IGCSE past paper)

Hygrometer:
measures RH (Relative Humidity)
read off wet and dry bulb temperatures
use relative humidity table
work out depression of wet bulb by subtracting wet bulb from dry bulb reading
read off figure at intersection of dry bulb and wet bulb depression figures on the table

Fig 2.28 (from IGCSE past paper)

Sunshine recorder:

27
Measures sunshine throughout the day
Sunshine recorder is placed south facing in
northern hemisphere
Put sunshine recorder in open space
Lens (glass ball) focuses the sun’s rays onto a
piece of card
Sun’s rays burns a line in the card
Measure length of burn line
Length of (burn) line shows hours of sunlight
Discontinuous or interrupted line if sun is
obscured by cloud
Replace card each day

Fig 2.29 (from IGCSE past paper

Barometer:
Measures air pressure in millibars
Index pointer shows previous recorded value
Pointer needle moves on dial
Difference between index pointer and pointer needle shows change
Read value on dial

Fig 2.30 (from IGCSE past paper)

Anemometer:
Measures wind speed
28
 Cups revolve
Read speed off meter
Shows reading as km per hour

Fig 2.31 (from IGCSE past paper)

Wind vane:
Arrow pushed by wind
Letters N/E/S/W (compass) shows direction
Arrow points to the direction which the wind is coming from

Fig 2.32 (from IGCSE past paper)

2.5 Climate and vegetation:
Climate: average weather conditions of an area over a long period of time (25 years)
Factors affecting climate:
Latitude Distance from sea
Pressure systems Altitude
Winds Ocean currents

Equatorial climate:
Features:
29
 High temperatures (above 20°C) Rainfall all year round
Low temperature range No seasons
High rainfall

Fig 2.33 (from IGCSE past papers)

Why the climate is like this:
On and near Equator Low pressure
Overhead sun Large amounts of evaporation
Rising air causing convectional rainfall Large amounts of transpiration
Vegetation adaptations:
Large leaves to allow more transpiration Lianas wind up tree barks to reach sunlight
Tall trees to compete for sunlight Canopy has crests adjoining to block sunlight
Buttress roots to help support trees to grow and maximize it for their own
tall photosynthesis
Drip-tips on leaves to remove heavy rainfall
Hot desert climate:
Features:
Hot in summer Winter average around 15–20°C
Cooler in winter 250mm of annual rain or less
Summer average around 30°C–40°C High diurnal temperature range

Fig 2.34 (from IGCSE past papers)

Why the climate is like this:

Overhead sun High atmospheric pressure
Clear skies (lack of cloud cover) Descending air
30
 Little evaporation of moisture and little Winds blow over large areas of land
transpiration Rain shadow effect
No condensation Cold ocean current
Vegetation adaptations:
Aridity results in scattered and sparse vegetation
Seeds remain dormant during long dry spells
Narrow and spiky leaves reduce rates of evapotranspiration
Because of high temperatures spreading roots to search for water
Some plants store water in order to survive long periods of drought
Causes of deforestation:
Logging Road building
Tourism Dams, reservoirs, HEP
Commercial agriculture Railways
Cattle grazing Government policy encouraging economic
Mining (quarrying or mineral extraction) development
Building settlements
Effects of deforestation:
Destroys animals and plants Sedimentation of rivers
Threatens species with extinction Carbon dioxide build up
Impacts on food chain Enhanced global warming
Loss of habitat Rise in sea levels
Reduces interception Coastal flooding
Increases surface runoff and can cause floods
Reducing deforestation:
Selective logging
Clear cutting results in destruction of all vegetation
Heli logging
Rubber tapping
Tribal reserves
Conservation areas
Ecotourism
Restricting logging and imposing quotas
Afforestation or replanting trees
Agroforestry
Small scale hunting or hunting by indigenous groups
Shifting cultivation (slash and burn)

Theme 3: Economic Development:

3.1 Development:
Indicators of development:
GNP per capita: is the dollar value of a country's final output of goods and services in a
year, divided by its population. It reflects the average income of a country's citizens
31
 Literacy rate: percentage of population with the ability to read and write
Life expectancy: the number of years an individual in a country is expected to live
Human Development Index (HDI): the indicator of development consisting of mean
years of schooling, life expectancy and GNP per capita
Why is HDI a useful indicator of development?
It takes into account a variety of factors giving an overall indication of development
Takes into account life expectancy and mean years of schooling
Produces an index of 0 to 1 so easy to carry out comparisons between countries
Reasons for inequalities between countries:
variation in climate government policies and political system
variations in relief corruption
variations in soil fertility varying levels of education and skills
presence or absence of rivers and water trading policy and free trade
supplies investment from abroad
accessibility and transport links presence of TNCs
length of time development has been war or unrest
occurring degree of reliance on primary production
impacts of colonisation development of a specific industry like
presence or absence of raw materials tourism
presence of ports or landlocked commercial agriculture
Different sectors of production:
Primary:
Extraction of natural resources from the earth or sea
Eg mining, fishing , farming
Secondary:
Converts inputs (raw materials i.e mainly natural resources) into outputs
Eg manufacturing and processing
Tertiary:
Service sector
Eg doctors, police, firefighters
Quaternary:
Research and high-tech industry
Eg Microsoft, Apple, Google

Employment structure: shows the proportion of people working in each sector

Development in LEDCs:
Very high proportion of people in primary sector
Low proportion of people in secondary sector
Low proportion of people in tertiary sector

32
 Fig 3.1 (created by Preetish Juneja)
Development in NICs:
High proportion of people in primary sector
Very high proportion of people in secondary sector
High proportion of people in tertiary sector

Fig 3.2 (created by Preetish Juneja)

Development in MEDC:
Very low proportion of people in primary sector
High proportion of people in secondary sector
Very high proportion of people in tertiary sector

33
 Fig 3.3 (created by Preetish Juneja)
Why changes in employment structure changes with the development of a country:
mechanization of jobs in primary sector reduces need for workers
some primary industries may close due to exhaustion of resources
growth of secondary sector as technology improves
countries want to manufacture their own goods rather than import
eventual decline of secondary due to automation and competition from abroad where labour is
cheaper
rise in tertiary as education so skills levels increase
growth of secondary due to globalization as MNCs or TNCs locate there
growth of tourism as a tertiary industry because a country has become more industrialized
closure of primary or secondary industries due to import of items
demand for services e.g. medical increases increasing tertiary sector employment
Globalisation: the increased links between different parts of the world, such as the availability of
food and clothing from other countries and increased international population migration
Impacts of globalisation:
Positive impacts:
Increase in world trade International migration providing more
Countries more benefited if economic skilled worker in certain countries
boom in another country Increase in tourism so more jobs
Spread of different cultures and created and money earnt by
languages country
MNCs can find countries with cheaper
land and labour
Negative impacts:
Countries more affected if economic World-wide environmental effects like air
decline in another country and water pollution
Cultures and languages in different International migration causing
countries becoming more similar increased emigration of skilled labour
Production and employment by MNCs from certain countries
lost in countries that are unable to Tourism causes increased problems like
compete with cheap land and labour using up limited resources of certain
prices of other countries areas making them scarce for local
people
34
 TNCs: companies that manufacture in more than one country
Advantages of TNCs for LEDCs where they locate:
Employment for people and higher wages Improvement of transport network
Skills development Encourages development and economic growth
Multiplier effect New technology
Improvement of electricity and water supply Government income from taxes
Disadvantages of TNCs for LEDCs where they locate:
Low pay Depletion of resources
Exploitation Traffic congestion
Profits go abroad Competition for local industry
High paid jobs filled by foreigners Can pull out at any time
Air and water pollution
3.2 Food production:
Features of agricultural systems:
Inputs: materials that are put onto the farm
Processes: the things that happen to the inputs to make them into outputs
Outputs: materials that come out of the farm
Types of farming:
Commercial: for profit as most output of farms is put on sale
Subsistence: to feed oneself and their family; mainly in LEDCs
Arable: growing of crops and ploughing of land
Pastoral: growing of pasture and grazing of land by reared animals
Mixed: rearing of animals and growing of crops on te same farm
Intensive: an agricultural intensification and mechanization system that aims to maximize yields
from available land through various means, such as heavy use of pesticides and chemical
fertilizers
Extensive: an agricultural production system that uses small inputs of labor, fertilizers, and capital,
relative to the land area being farmed; it is the opposite of intensive farming
Influence of climate on farming:
Temperature determines crops grown
Crops need to be grown where there is an adequate growing season
There must be sufficient rainfall for crops to grow or irrigation needed if insufficient rain
Cereal crops need sunshine to ripen
Too much rainfall may flood crops and require a drainage system
In areas with frost, hardy animals may be kept
If it is windy wind breaks are needed

Causes of food shortages:

Floods
Drought
Tropical storms
Pests
Low capital investment
Poor distribution of food
Transport difficulties
War
Corrupt government
Effects of food shortages:
35
 Starvation
Death
Malnutrition
Deficiency diseases like marasmus and kwashiorkor
People become too weak to work therefore cannot harvest crops or earn money
Solving food shortages:
Emergency famine relief Educate farmers about use of fertilisers
Improve distribution network Foreign investment to create jobs so people
Use land for food crops for local people rather can buy food
than export of crops or production of non- Mechanisation
food crops; Better storage
Provide irrigation Reduce corruption
Government grants Crop rotation and avoid monoculture
Better quality seeds like HYVs or GM crops Anti-natalist policy (eg give free contraception)
Fertilisers Greenhouses
Herbicides and pesticides Hydroponics
Charities send in experts to advise farmers Aeroponics

Methods for soil conservation:

Contour ploughing Irrigation
Terracing Dry farming
Crop rotation Windbreaks
Strip cultivation Gullies

3.3 Industry:
Features of industrial systems:
Inputs: things that go into the system (usually raw materials)
Processes: things that happen to the inputs to turn them to outputs
Outputs: manufactured products produced in factories
Types of industry:
Manufacturing: engage in the transformation of goods, materials or substances into new
products
Processing: the primary production processes are either continuous, or occur on a
batch of materials that is indistinguishable
Assembly: a sequence of machines, tools, operations, workers, etc., in a factory,
arranged so that at each stage a further process is carried out
High tech: an industry using or involving advanced methods and the most modern
equipment
Factors affecting location of factories:
Physical:
Distance from raw materials Water supply
Site (land where factory is built) Natural transport routes
Energy sources
Human:
Transport networks Government policies
Capital Quality of life
Labour supply Technology available
Markets
36
 Research and
Development (R&D) capacity
Sunset industries: industries now in decline and large numbers of jobs have been lost as
companies have closed down or reduced their output
Sunrise industries: growth industries with modern factories and high R&D capacity using
high-tech equipment
Factors affecting location of high-tech industries (creation of science parks):
Links with universities Fast and reliable internet
Capital Pleasant environment
Airport or port connections
3.4 Tourism:
Tourism takes place due to:
Specified climatic attractions Historical buildings
Specified scenic attractions Purpose built tourist attractions
Flora and fauna Government investment or policy
Religious buildings
Tourism has seen a sudden exponential growth due to:
Greater affluence Cheaper air travel
Development of transportation More travel agencies
More advertising More affordable
Package holidays People want to experience new cultures
Investment in tourist facilities Countries opening up their borders such as
Paid holidays from work China and Russia
Longer holidays Development of infrastructure
Benefits of tourism for local people:
Attracts foreign exchange Improvement of airports
Provides employment and people can earn Enables better links with other countries
money Attracting further investment
Money spent in local businesses e.g. Improvement of utilities
souvenir shops Water, electricity, gas supplies extended
Money earned by hotels Tax to government
Creates multiplier effect More goods and services are produced
Building of roads and railways therefore increasing GDP
Improved access within the country
Disadvantages of tourism for local people:
Seasonal employment Disruption to fishing
Traffic congestion Streets get overcrowded
Noise Increased prices of products and locals have
Large amount of waste produced to pay more for products
Loss of culture Tourists disturb farm animals or destroy
Loss of farmland crops by walking across farmland

How can tourism be made sustainable:

National Parks
Biosphere reserves
Fencing and limited access
Signs

37
 Education
Ecotourism
Use of local resources and labour
Limiting numbers of people and vehicles
3.5 Energy:
Non renewable: rate of consumption greater than rate of formation
Renewable: rate of formation greater than rate of consumption
Advantages of non-renewable Disadvantages of non-renewable

Easy to transport Produces greenhouse gases when burnt

Raw material in chemical industry Oil spills cause water pollution
Widely use for vehicles World oil production concentrated in some countries
Also used as coke in steel industry (monopoly form)
Oil and natural gas cleaner than coal Work on oil rigs dangerous for workers
Power plants cause visual pollution
Noise from machinery
Deforestation to clear space for their extraction
Will only last maximum 300 years
Factors affecting location of coal power plant:
Close to coal extraction sites since coal is bulky
Close to railway so coal is efficiently transported
Near rivers for supply of cooling water
Large flat site for building the power plant
Advantages of geothermal Disadvantages of geothermal

Extremely cheap Restricted to areas with specific geology

Reduces dependence on fossil fuels Affected by volcanoes and earthquakes
Does not produce greenhouse gases Each well cannot be used for more than 25 years
Water pumped back into ground and re-used Groundwater is saline and can be poisonous
Not affected by the weather

Advantages of wind Disadvantages of wind

Does not cause air pollution or global warmingOccasionally kills birds

Little effect on local ecosystem
Production is very cheap
Wind farms can provide extra income for
farmers
Cannot be used during calm or stormy weather
Form of visual pollution
Requires large number of turbines to generate small
amounts of electricity
Expensive to set up initially

Advantages of solar Disadvantages of solar

Safe and pollution-free Initial capital input is high

Production is very cheap Depends on the weather (presence of sun)
Effective for low-power uses Less effective in cloudy regions
Can be exploited in sunny regions Less effective in high-latitude regions
Less effective for high-power uses

38
 Site required for hydroelectric power stations:
Large river Stable geological conditions, so the dam does
Large falling distance of water not collapse
Constant flow of water Sparsely populated land, so large number of
Narrow valley to provide good dam site people do not have to be relocated to build
Impermeable rocks, so the reservoir does not the dam in the region
leak
Advantages of hydroelectricity Disadvantages of hydroelectricity

Electricity produced at a constant rate Dams are expensive to build

Power stations can quickly respond to Flooding of large areas of land
changing demand People living downstream are at risk of flooding and
No fuel costs have to move
Reservoir formed behind dams can be used Building of large dams can trigger earthquakes
for water sports Dams can collapse and cause flooding and deaths
Stored water can also be used for irrigation Conflict between countries upstream and downstream to
No atmospheric pollution avoid flooding
Dams prevent sediment flowing downstream and fertile
soils cannot be formed downstream
Factors affecting location of nuclear power plant:
Large flat site to build on
Pure water needed for cooling so should be close to rivers
Medium to dispose off of radioactive waste
Far away from areas of population
Advantages of nuclear Disadvantages of nuclear

Only small amounts of fuel needed to
produce large amounts of energy
Fuel will not run out in the near future
Does not cause atmospheric pollution
Safety standards have improved
Serious incidents causing disasters can occur
Radioactive leakage can occur
Cost of shutting down nuclear power plants is very
high
Radioactive waste can remain a hazard for 100s
of years
Initial capital costs are very high
Nuclear weapons can be manufactured using the
same technology

3.6 Water:
Methods of water supply:
Reservoirs & dams (hydroelectricity as described in previous chapter)
Wells
Bore holes
Desalination
Proportion of water used for agricultural purposes:
LEDCs: Very high
NICs: Low

39
 MEDCs: Very low
Proportion of water used for domestic purposes:
LEDCs: Very low
NICs: Very low
MEDCs: Low
Proportion of water used for industrial purposes:
LEDCs: Low
NICs: High
MEDCs: Very high
Increasing water supplies in a country:

Dams & reservoirs Cloud seeding

Use of aquifers (underground water) Collection in tanks
Desalination Purification of water sources such as
Import of water treatment plants
Use pipelines to transfer water from one Repair leaking pipes
part of the country to another
Improving sanitation of a country;
Installation of running water in taps Taking regular baths
Sewage systems Use soap or cleaning products
Build toilets Educate people about hygiene
Sewage treatment works
Impact of reduction in water supplies:
There is less water for drinking, washing, Poorer pasture for animals
sanitation, and cooking Need to emigrate
Dehydration which can lead to death Less areas to fish
Less water available for irrigation More land for cultivation or settlement
Reduction of food supply due to drop in Can’t use for transportation
yields
3.7 Environmental risks of economic development:
Human activities affecting the environment:
Agriculture Quarrying and mining
Tourism Fishing
Manufacturing industry Forestry
Energy supply
Impacts of these activities:
Soil erosion Air pollution
Loss of vegetation Death of wildlife
Destruction of habitats Global warming
Loss of food chains Acid rain
Water pollution
Causes of global warming:
Burning fossil fuels Shipping
Transport Factories
Aviation Deforestation
Generating electricity in power stations Rice production
Cattle grazing Landfill sites
Effects of global warming:
40
Melting of ice caps and glaciers Crop production will be reduced therefore more
Loss of habitats starvation
Extinction of species More incidence of weather related hazards
Impact on food chains Tropical insects such as mosquitoes may
Loss of biodiversity spread to other areas
Flooding of coastal area Loss of income from skiing resorts
Some area will become drier as desertification Loss of life due to higher temperatures
occurs leading to more droughts Coral reefs bleached due to higher sea
temperatures
Managing sustainable development (taking airports as an example):
Restricting size of airports Do not incorporate water features at airport
Avoid building runways on parts of dunes Build waste water processing plant for airport
Using local labour Use wastewater from airport for water of
Using local materials grounds
Using 3Rs in conserving resources:
Uses less resources so there are fewer Resources last longer
resources wasted Saves energy
Saves resources for the future Waste products become useful
Can use resources again so make more use of
them
Importance of conserving resources:
Many are non–renewable so will run out as they are finite
Life in future would not be possible without clean water
Life in future would not be possible without clean air
Life in future would not be possible without land for cultivation
To protect habitats;
Conserving natural environment will ensure ecosystems remain in balance
Species do not become extinct and animals do not die
To prevent global warming, acid rain and desertification
Creates conflict
Forests act as carbon sinks

41