All Communication Skills-Outline

Fundamentals of Communication Skills Unit 2
Unit 1 Language and Communication

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Concept of Communication
Definition of Communication
Function and Purpose of Communication
1.3 Process of Communication
1.4 Barriers of Effective Communication
1.5 Types of Communication
Verbal Communication
Non-verbal Communication
1.6 Summary
1.7 Terminal Questions
1.8 Answers
1.1 Introduction
Communication is an integral part of a human being’s existence. According to
some estimates, communication takes up nearly three-fourths of an active
human being’s life. When compared to all other professions, it is assumed that
in possessing the skills of communication, a journalist is at the apex. Not only
to succeed in this field, but even to survive, a journalist should be an expert
communicator. In this unit, you will be introduced to the concept of
communication and its process. You will also study the different barriers that
you normally face while communicating.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the definition and purpose of communication.
• describe the process of communication
• identify and overcome the barriers of communication
• discuss the importance of verbal and non-verbal communication
1.2 Concept of Communication
The term ‘communication’ is often heard in any field that you come across. It
covers about any interaction between two persons.
Manipal University Jaipur B1026 Page No.: 1

1.2.1 Definitions of communication

Given below are the definitions of the concept, ‘communication’ that would
help you understand its meaning and purpose.
• Newman and Summer define communication as, “an exchange of facts,
ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.”
• Bellows Gilson and Odirone define communication as, “a communion by
words, letters, symbols, or messages, and as a way that one organization
member shares meaning with the other.”
• Anderson suggests that, “Communication is the process by which we
understand others and in turn endeavor to be understood by them. It is
dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the total
situation.
• Berelson and Steiner define communication as, “the transmission of
information, idea, emotion, skills, etc., by the use of symbols - words,
pictures, figures, graphs, etc. It is the act or process of transmission that
is usually called communication.”
• According to Clevenger, “Communication is a term used to refer to any
dynamic, information-sharing process.”
• Fotheringham defines communication as, “a process involving the
selection, production, and transmission of signs in such a way as to help
a receiver perceive a meaning similar to that in the mind of the
communicator.”
• Bradley calls communication “a process, a series of progressive and
interdependent steps leading to the attainment of an end, in speech the
end being the communication of some specific meaning from one person
to another.
1.2.2 Function and purpose of communication
Chester I Barnard studied the communication process in organizations. He
held the view that Communication linked people together in an
organization to achieve a common purpose. In other words, communication
aims to make people work together for the common good of the organization.
You may say that communication links people together to strengthen
relationships. You may also say that communication links people, who believe
in a common cause. For example: A reporter doing a documentary on lifestyle
or problems faced by the tribes need not know their language. Communication
at that time will unite them towards one cause; the reporter to report and the

tribal people to say their story.

Communication serves the following purposes in organizations:
• Helps establish and disseminate the goals of an organization.
• Facilitates the development of plans for the achievement of goals.
• Helps supervisors utilize manpower and other resources in the most
effective and efficient way.
• Helps in selection, development, and appraisal of members of the
organization.
• Helps higher officials lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which
people are willing to contribute.
• Facilitates control and evaluation of performance.
In a work-place, effective communication not only helps the higher officials
discharge their duties, but also builds a bridge between them and the external
environment of the organization. The external environment consists mainly of
clients, suppliers, stockholders, government, community and others that affect
the success of the enterprise. By means of an effective communication
network, an official can understand the needs of victims, the demands of the
clients, and the expectations of the community, and be aware of the presence
of quality suppliers and relevant government regulations. An organization can
function as an open system only by communicating effectively with the
environment.
When we discuss the function of effective communication between people, we
have to also note the purpose of such communication. Why do we
communicate the way we do? What happens when you receive a letter from
the editor of the press where you are working, to cover a certain news item,
what do you understand from it?
You may come to know some new facts about the news that you have to write
about. You may also know about some common concern between the two of
you; which neither you nor he, as your head, knew before receiving the letter.
We can say that the information in the letter had an effect on his understanding
of you and changed it.
For example, if you replied to the letter that you would be interested in covering
the news that has been planned, the editor may be happy for you. He might
understand that you have agreed to do the assignment which in turn would
help you to have a better chance of upgrading your knowledge in your work
area. Before receiving your consent, he thought of you as an employee who

has basic knowledge of the job that is assigned to you. Now he knows that you
are interested not only in upgrading your knowledge but are also interested in
involving yourself to see the growth of the company you are working in. Such
change in his understanding is the result of your letter. He may also send you
a message of congratulation!
Therefore, we can say that the primary goal or purpose of communication is to
‘effect change’ or to bring about change. Communication also leads to some
‘new action’. In this example you acted as sending your consent and the editor
acted by sending a message of congratulation.
Self Assessment Questions
1. linked people together in an organization to achieve a
common purpose.
2. Communication facilitates ________ and _________ of performance.
3. Say whether True or False:
a) Communication helps officials to motivate the employees.
b) An organization cannot function as an open system by communicating
effectively with the environment.
c) Communication links people together to strengthen relationships.
1.3 Process of Communication

Normally, the communication is meant for Interpersonal purpose. This is also
known as interpersonal communication, where the information or message is
transferred from one person to the other(s). The person who transfers the
message is called the sender or transmitter. The person (s) receiving the
message is the receiver. The transmitter is expected to send the information
in a format that the receiver(s) will understand. The information that has to be
sent is converted into a format that the receiver will understand, which is known
as Encoding.
Messages can be encoded into a variety of formats oral, written or visual. Once
the message is encoded in a desired format, it is transferred through a medium
called ‘channel.’ A channel connects the sender to the receiver. Channels for
communication may include a letter, memorandum, a computer, a telephone,
a fax, a telegram or a television. The choice of the correct channel depends
on the situation of the communication. For e.g., when you have to

communicate extremely confidential information, direct face-to-face or a

sealed letter is better than a telephonic conversation.
The information, which is transferred, has to be interpreted by the receiver.
This process of interpretation is known as decoding. In order to decode the
message, the receiver should be ready to receive the message. He should not
be preoccupied with other thoughts that would distract him.
Finally, the receiver will send a message back to the transmitter. It may be a
reply to the query made by the sender or any apt response to the message
delivered by the sender. This reply confirms whether the information sent has
been understood or not. This back check is known as feedback.
You have just learnt how the communication takes place. This can be
illustrated in the diagram given below.
Fig. 1.1: Communication Process

4. In normal circumstances, when the message is transferred from one
person to another, it is called as ___________ .
5. The person who sends the information is called _______ or _____ .
6. A telephone is an example of ___________ in a communication.
7. Match the following:

i) Transmitter ii) a) interpretation of the received message

Encoding iii) Decoding b) person (s) receiving the message
iv) Receiver c) person who transfers the message
d) reply that confirms whether the information sent
has been understood or not.
v) Feedback e) conversion of the message into a format that a
receiver can understand.
1.4 Barriers to Effective Communication

At each stage in the process of communication - encoding, transferring, and
decoding, there is the possibility of interference. This may hinder the
communication process. Such interference is known as ‘noise.’ Often, a
comparison is made between communication and a leaky bucket. If you carry
water in a leaky bucket, you will lose water at various points in your journey
from the water tap to your destination. The amount of water you lose depends
upon the number of holes in the bucket, the size of the holes, the route you
take to your final destination and the time you take to get to your destination.
Similarly, when information is transferred from the sender to the receiver, all
information may not be received by the receiver because of holes called noise.
Each of the noise may affect the amount of information transferred. Just as in
a leaky bucket, more holes decrease the amount of water, more noise
decreases the amount of correct information received. Let us classify the
different types of barriers as;
i) Language and Cultural Differences: The receiver may not completely
understand the language used by the transmitter. This may occur if the
transmitter’s language is foreign to the receiver. There may also be language
problems (the communication process) if the message contains technical
information and the receiver is not familiar with the technical terms used.
Poorly chosen words, careless omissions, lack of coherence, poor
organization of ideas, awkward sentence structure, inadequate vocabulary,
unnecessary jargon, accent, pronunciation and the failure to clarify
implications are some of the common reasons for the poor transmission of
messages. Cultural differences created by an individual’s background and
experience, affect their perception of the world. Such cultural differences may
affect the interpretation (decoding) of the message sent.
ii) Environment: The environment in which the transmitter or receiver are
present, should be compatible. If it is noisy and full of sound, the sounds may
prevent the message being fully understood. Background noise often created
by colleagues, vehicles, and machinery may hinder proper communication.
iii) Channel: If the channel used to transfer the information is poor, it may
prevent all or some of the information being transferred. A faulty fax machine,
a crackling phone, illegible handwriting or in the case of oral messages
incorrect facial gestures or a bland facial expression, are some of the barriers
of communication.
iv) Receiver’s Attitude and Behaviour: If the receiver is not interested in the
message (or unable to give his full attention to decoding) the amount of
information received may be drastically reduced. It may also lead to hear the
information inaccurately. Similarly the receiver may misinterpret the message
by "jumping to conclusions" or reading the message in a manner that suits his
own interests/objectives and distort the true meaning of the message.
v) Transmission journey: This refers to different and numerous steps in the
message. If the message is complicated or there are lots of steps to be taken
to transfer the message, it may affect the accuracy or interpretation. During
oral communication, approximately 30 percent of the information is lost in each
transmission. Thus in large organizations, you should not rely totally on oral
communication. Another aspect, which is connected with the transmission
journey is the poor retention of information. Studies indicate that the
employees are able to retain approximately 50% of what they are told,
supervisors retain around 60% of the information they receive. Hence, it is
necessary to repeat the message and use more than one channel to
communicate a message.
vi) Lack of Planning: Communication would be ineffective, if the person, who
is communicating did not devote sufficient time to think, plan and state the
purpose of the message. By providing the reasons for a particular instruction,
selecting the most appropriate channel, and releasing the message at the right
time, a manager can ensure his message is understood by the receivers.
vii) Faulty translations: An individual may receive many types of messages
from superiors, peers and subordinates. They, in turn, must translate
information meant for subordinates, peers and superiors into a language that
can be easily understood by them. When a message is transmitted from a
sender to a receiver, it must be accompanied with an interpretation so as to

enable the receiver to understand the message. This requires the sender to
have good communication and analytical skills.
viii) Semantic Distortion: The distortion in usage of words may be a serious
barrier of effective communication. This distortion may be deliberate or
accidental. An advertisement which declares “We sell better products” is quite
ambiguous, as it raises the question “better than what?” Some words may
have ambiguous meanings and may generate different responses from
different people.
8. When Raj from India goes to Canada, he converses with the taxi driver
with his broken French and is misunderstood. This is a good example of
____________ barrier.
9. Workers in a factory with machines making a lot of noise, find it difficult
to communicate smoothly because of _________barrier.
10. Due to thunder and lightning, all telephones in your lab are down. This
situation is a good example of _______ barrier.
1.5 Types of Communication

Can you think of some ways to communicate with your friends?
I am sure you can. You can talk to your friend or you can write letters to him.
When you talk or write you are using words to communicate. This is one type
of communication. But is there any other way in which we communicate with
other people? Let us look at some of the ways in which we normally
communicate with others and try to understand the different types of
communication, their advantages and limitations.
1.5.1 Verbal communication
When an infant cries, the mother rushes to her side, to see if the baby is hurt
or has soiled herself. If it is mealtime, when the baby cried, the mother feeds
the baby. The cry of the baby communicated the need of the baby to her
mother. Although crying is not speaking, the mother was able to understand
the baby's need.
This shows that speaking alone is not communication. We already know that
we can use writing to communicate. Communication through speech is called
Oral communication. Communication by means of written material is called
Written communication. For example, your letter to your friend is written
communication.
Spoken words and written material are called verbal communication because
they use words as the means for communication.
1.5.2 Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication means the messages that do not contain words. In
this type of communication, words are not used in the process of sending and
receiving messages. You may wonder, “How is this possible?” It is a proven
fact that most of our communication through words are laced with non verbal
communication. They can be categorized as:
1) word-less communication like gesture; body language or posture;
facial expression and eye gaze.
a) Gestures: The language of gesture enables us to express a variety of
feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and
affection. Most of us use gestures and body language in addition to words
when we speak.
In every aspect of human life, gestures or hand signals have a
predominant role to play. The art of communication does not involve only
a few well framed words and phrases. More than that, it is about the usage
of non-verbal gestures. These gestures are used in the following
situations:
• In the studio, during broadcast gestures are used during start or end
of telecast
• While reporting the emergency situations during war or strike, etc. the
communication between the reporter and cameraman would be via
gestures
• Reporters during press conferences, use gestures to communicate
amongst themselves
By using hand signals you can be assured that the message you want to
convey will be received clearly without any misunderstanding. The
gestures are also used to avoid the victim or the bystanders from
understanding the message being sent. These gestures may not be
generally understood, but formed by the team for their internal use.
b) Body language: It is a broad term for forms of communication using body
movements instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language, or other
forms of communication. It forms part of the category of paralanguage,
which describes all forms of human communication that are not verbal

language. This includes the most subtle of movements that many people
are not aware of, including winking and slight movement of the eyebrows.
In addition, body language can also incorporate the use of facial
expressions.
In our daily lives we encounter many forms of body language gestures like
-
Self-confidence: hands behind the back, hands clasped in front
Superiority: hands clasped behind the head
Stress: shaking of legs
Defensive: crossing of arms is often considered to be a defensive, closed
posture.
Aggressiveness: hands on the hips
Nervous: biting nails, slumped shoulder
c) Facial expression: The emotional state of an individual is clearly conveyed
by the expression of his face. Facial expressions are the primary means of
conveying social information among humans, but also occur in most other
mammals and some other animal species. Humans can adopt a facial
expression as a voluntary action. However, because expressions are
closely tied to emotion, they are more often involuntary.
Fig. 1.2: Facial Expressions

It can be nearly impossible to avoid expressions for certain emotions, even
when it would be strongly desirable to do so. Examples of feelings such
as, anger, concentration, contempt, desire, disgust, excitement, fear,
happiness, puzzlement, sadness and surprise can take the expressions
like, blank, frown, glare , laughter , pout, shock , smile , smirk , sneer, snarl

, tongue-showing.
d) Eye Gazing: Staring and eye-rolling also may serve the purpose of
communication. Oculesics is the study of the role of eyes in nonverbal
communication. Studies have found that people use their eyes to indicate
their interest. This can be done through eye contact. For example, when a
professor is giving a lecture, a student may communicate disinterest by
reading a magazine instead of looking at the professor's presentation.
Rolling one's eyes can express exasperation or condescension. When one
rolls or rotates the eyes upward, it may indicate contempt or boredom.
Indirectly, it looks like the person hopes for some divine intervention to
rescue him from boredom or frustration. Rolling eyes up with head slightly
risen up, as if pointing upwards, may be the reference to people in higher
hierarchy, e.g., upper management.
e) Nodding: In many cultures, people nod their heads to indicate agreement.
But some ( in Bulgaria and Srilanka) also nod their head to suggest refusal
or negation.
f) Bent head: This is a gesture of shame, subdue, or agreement/
confirmation. An interpretation depends on the way it is being performed
and overall body context.
g) Head shaking: This is the repeated turning of the head to the left and to the
right, which means disapproval or negation in many cultures.
h) Pointing by chin: This gesture is often used when one’s hands are engaged
in doing something else. This indicates a particular direction when the
head is turned in the corresponding direction and the chin is slightly jerked
up and in the pointed direction.
ii) Object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture;
symbols and info-graphics. The most common form of object communication
is clothing. People wear clothes that highlight their personality. However, this
may lead to a form of stereotyping because in the cases of youngsters, the
preference is to wear the clothes they consider attractive. A good example of
clothing as object communication is the uniform.
iii) Prosodic features of speech such as intonation and stress. A segment
in spoken language is an individual consonant, vowel, tone, or stress that
makes up a word. An utterance is made up of both segments and supra-

segmental features. These are broadly divided up into Prosody and Para-
linguistics. Prosody refers to pitch, loudness, duration, intonation and tempo.
Para-linguistics, which is much more difficult to measure, refers to expression
of voice quality, emotion, speaking style and speech clarity. These features of
the speech are responsible for the different meanings an individual can
construe from a simple sentence.
iv) Other paralinguistic features of speech such as voice quality, emotion
and speaking style. The study of nonverbal cues of voice is called ‘Vocalic.’
Things such as tone, pitch, accent, and volume can all give off nonverbal cues.
We can learn about the speaker’s personality, mood, and culture with the
information given by his/her voice.
v) Touches also add to the non-verbal communication. ‘Haptics’ is the study
of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as
communication include: Handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips,
hand), back slap, "high-five", shoulder pat, brushing arm, etc. Each of these
give off nonverbal messages, as to the touching person's intentions/feelings.
They also cause feelings in the receiver, whether positive or negative.
Moreover, they indicate the relation between the receiver and sender of the
message.
Non verbal communication generally takes place as a supportive form of
communication to verbal communication. This is its advantage. For example,
nodding our head when we say ‘yes.’ In this situation, what we say is reinforced
by non-verbal communication.
Non verbal communication is expected to support verbal communication. But
it does not always do so. For example, a political leader in his election
campaign speech addresses people promising them all help when he is
elected as leader. Instead of being humble, if he pounds his fist and talks in a
frenzied manner, the message that is conveyed to the public will be different.
If a speaker or writer's words do not match their actions the message will be
confusing. This is the disadvantage of non-verbal communication.
Thus, non-verbal communication may support or contradict verbal
communication.
11. Continuous shaking of legs while working is an indication of ___ .
a. Self-confidence b. Superiority c. Stress d. Defensive

12. _______ is the study of touches as non verbal communication.

a. Hapatics b. Vocalic c. Oculesics d. Gestures
13. Clothing and hair styles are examples of ___ communication.
a. Subjective b. Objective c. para linguistics d. prosodic
14. Prosodic features of speech are ________ and _________ .
a. intonation and stress b. dress and music c. touch and voice quality d.
Expression and rolling of eyes.
15. _________ is a gesture of shame or subduing.
a. Nodding b. Head shaking c. Head turning d. bent head 16. The primary
means of conveying social information among the humans is .
a. gestures b. facial expressions c. clapping d. nodding
1.6 Summary
We have seen that Communication is a natural activity in any society. It links
people together for achieving common goals. It brings about changes and
leads to action. Historically, the Greek Philosopher, Aristotle is said to have
developed the first model of communication.
In any communication event there is a source (thoughts or ideas or facts),
which the sender wants to convey by encoding it into a message. The
message is then transmitted through preferred channels. The receiver for
whom the message is meant decodes and receives the message. He
proceeds to understand the message and then reacts by giving a feed back.
There are several barriers to good communication. These are called 'noise'.
Barriers to communication could be internal -within the participants - such as
emotions, poor listening, premature evaluation etc. or in the environment in
which communication events occur. The external barriers could be physical,
problems in transmission, location etc. A communication event takes place
within its own context.
In the strict sense the term "verbal" means "of or concerned with words," and
is not a synonym for oral or spoken communication. Thus, sign languages and
writing are generally understood as forms of verbal communication, as both
make use of words - although like speech, both may contain paralinguistic
elements and often occur alongside nonverbal messages. Nonverbal
communication can occur through any sensory channel - sight, sound, smell,
touch or taste. Also, non-verbal communication comes in many forms at the
same time. For example, a person's dress, tone of voice, attitude, and

movement all contribute to the communication going on in a certain situation.

The first scientific study of nonverbal communication was Charles Darwin's
book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). He argued
that all mammals show emotion reliably in their faces. While much nonverbal
communication is based on arbitrary symbols, which differ from culture to
culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be universally
understood. Paul Ekman's influential 1960s studies of facial expression
determined that expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise
are universal. Serious studies of non-verbal communication has led to different
branches of studies like- object communication, Hepatics, Oculesics, Vocalics
The performance of an individual is either enhanced or hampered depending
upon the effectiveness of communication in the work place. Interpersonal trust
is developed by being open and receptive towards innovative ideas of the
subordinates.

1. Discuss the functions of effective communication.
2. What is the purpose of communication?
3. Explain the process of communication.
4. What do you mean by the barriers of communication?
1.8 Answers
1. communication
2. control and evaluation
3. a) True b) False c) True
4. inter-personal communication
5. Transmitter or sender
6. channel
7. i) c ii) e iii) a iv) b v) d
8. language 9. environment 10. Channel
11. C 12. A 13. B 14. A 15. D 16. B
Terminal Questions
1. Communication, when effective, helps establish and execute the goals of
an organisation. It helps the officials to be good leaders, in motivating their
subordinates to perform effectively. It also facilitates control and evaluation

of performance.
2. The purpose of communication is to effect change. It also leads to a new
action.
3. During any communication event, there is a source which starts the
process of communication. It could also be a ‘sender’ who encodes the
message. The message, through a channel or medium, reaches the
receiver, who decodes it. The receiver may react to the message by giving
a ‘feedback.’
4. In the process of communication, any hindrance in the stages of encoding,
transferring and decoding may be called ‘barrier’ of communication.
REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Nouns: The word that identifies the ‘who’, ‘where’ and ‘what’ in a language is
a noun. Nouns name persons, places, things and feelings.
Kinds of Nouns
1. Proper Noun: They are the names of a particular place, person or thing.
They name specific or one-of-a-kind items. Proper nouns always begin
with capital letters. E.g.: France, Tim, the Ganges, the Eiffel Tower
2. Common Noun: They are the names given to every person, place or thing
of the same class. They identify the general variety. Common nouns
require capitalization only if they start the sentence or are part of a title.
E.g.: student, city, river, dog.
3. Collective Noun: They are the names given when a number of persons
or things are taken together as a whole. E.g.: crowd, flock, swarm.
4. Abstract Noun: We cannot see them as the other nouns. They are the
names given to qualities, actions and states of being that cannot be felt,
seen or heard. E.g.: beauty, charity, laughter, childhood.
Exercise 1: Pick out the nouns in the following sentences:
1. The shopman hasn’t opened his shop today.
2. After the rains, the grass and plants have started growing well.
3. Children are fond of toys and sweets.
4. This is silk. See how shiny and soft it is!
5. Lots of tea is grown in China.
6. Don’t you think that all religions, more or less say the same thing?
Gender in Nouns
1. A noun that denotes a male is Masculine Gender.
E.g.: father, boy, hero.
2. A noun that denotes a female is Feminine Gender.

E.g.: mother, girl, heroine.
3. A noun that does not denote either male or female, but can fit into one of
the two categories, is Common Gender.
E.g.: baby, parent, student, teacher.
4. A noun that denotes neither male nor female is Neuter Gender.
E.g.: tree, jewel, building, meadow.
Conversion of Masculine to Feminine Nouns:
1. Add - ess at the end of the masculine noun. E.g.: Baron-baroness ; Lion-
lioness ; Duke-duchess; Prince -princess
2. Change either the first or the last word in the case of a compound noun. In
other words, by adding a word indicating sex before or after the main word.
E.g.: Land lord - land lady ; sales man - sales woman ;
peacock-peahen ; cock-sparrow - hen-sparrow ; tom-cat- tabby-cat
3. Add - ine, -ina, -ix, -a, at the end of the masculine noun.
E.g.: hero-heroine; Administrator-administratrix ; creator-creatrix ; sultan-
sultana ; czar - czarina
4. Use a completely different word. E.g.: fox -vixen ; stag -doe ; ram -ewe
marquis - marchioness ; horse -mare
Note: However, the usage of gender difference is breaking down rapidly.
Hence we have a spokesperson instead of spokesman or
spokeswoman. Similarly Chairperson and Salesperson is more
commonly used.
Exercise 2: Change the genders of nouns and make correct sentences:
1. Father helps my sister in doing her homework.
2. The man-servant is chasing the buffalo.
3. A lion and a tiger are chasing the deer.
4. A King’s son is a prince and his daughter is a princess.
5. Uncle is teaching Aunt how to cook.
Number in nouns:
1. Singular: This indicates one thing. E.g.: tomato, boy, card.
2. Plural: This indicates more than one thing. E.g.: tomatoes, boys, cards.
The general rule is that most count nouns pluralize with ‘-s’ and the noncount
nouns do not pluralize at all. However, certain nouns in English belong to both
classes: they have both a non-count and a count meaning. In such cases there

is an exception to the rule.

i) The count meaning concrete and specific. E.g.: I've had some difficulties
finding a job. Here ‘difficulties’ refer to number of specific problems. The
talks are in progress. ‘Talks’ refer to number of lectures or speeches.
ii) The non-count meaning is abstract and general. E.g.: She succeeded in
the examination with little difficulty. (Here, ‘difficulty’ refers to the general
idea of the exam being difficult.). I dislike idle talk. (‘Talk’ refers to talking
in general.)
Conversion and Usage of Singular and Plural Nouns
1. The most common way of converting a singular noun to its plural form is
by adding -s. day-days, girl, girls.
2. Nouns ending in -ch, -o, -sh, -ss, -x form their plural by adding -es. Church
- churches, hero-heroes, brush- brushes, kiss-kisses, tax-taxes
3. Nouns ending in -y with a preceding consonant form their plural by
dropping the -y and adding -ies. E.g.: baby-babies, story-stories.
4. Twelve nouns ending in -f or -fe drop -f/fe and add -ves to form plural.
They are: calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf,
loaf, knife. (calves, halves, knives, leaves, lives, loaves, selves)
Exceptions: However, nouns hoof, scarf and wharf take either -s or -
ves. hoofs or hooves, scarf or scarves, wharfs or wharves. Also, the
other nouns ending in -f/ef add -s to form plural. cliff-cliffs, handkerchief
- handkerchiefs.
5. Instruments having two parts are always used in plural.
E.g.: scissors, tongs, trousers, nuptials.
6. Some plural words are more commonly used in singular.
E.g.: Mathematics, Statistics (as a subject), Politics, News, Measles.
7. Normally compound nouns take the plural of the last noun.
E.g.: boyfriends, travel agents.
8. Nouns of words of foreign origin follow the rule of the original language
to form plurals. E.g.: phenomenon-phenomena, radius-radii.
9. Certain nouns have different forms in their plural, depending on the
context of usage. E.g.: die - dies (device that shapes materials by
stamping, cutting or punching), dice (small cubes used in games) brother
- brethren (members of community); brothers (siblings).
10. Abstract and Material Nouns are not used in plural, except in cases,

where they are used as Common Noun. E.g.: advice-advice, courage-

courage
Exercise 3: Turn the nouns into plurals wherever it is possible. Make
necessary changes.
1. The man and his wife went to the place of worship.
2. The singer can play the piano.
3. A ring is made of gold.
4. A woman knows very little but understand more.
5. A dentist pulls of a tooth.
Articles: In English, articles may be classified as Indefinite and Definite.
1. Definite article: It is used before a noun that is specified. ‘The’ is the
definite article.
2. Indefinite articles: They are used before a noun, which is not specified.
‘A’ and ‘An’ are the indefinite articles.
Definite Article Usage: ‘The’ is used-
1. before singular and plural nouns when the noun is particular or specific.
E.g.: The apple tree is full of fruits. (specific noun - singular).
2. before non-countable nouns that are made more specific. E.g.: The
coffee in my cup is too hot to drink.
3. before a noun refers to something unique. E.g.: The theory of relativity.
4. before names of rivers, oceans and seas. E.g.: The Ganges, the Pacific.
5. before points on the globe. E.g.: The Equator, the North Pole.
6. before geographical areas. E.g.: The Middle East, the West
7. before deserts, forests, gulfs and peninsulas. E.g.: The Sahara, the
Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Indian Peninsula
8. before certain well-known or sacred books. E.g.: The Mahabharata, The
Bible, The Midsummer Night’s Dream
9. before an adjective in the superlative degree. E.g.: Nisha is the shortest
girl in the office.
10. before certain adjectives to give a plural meaning. E.g. The rich = rich
people
Indefinite articles - Usage
• We use ‘a’ when the noun we are referring to begins with a consonant
sound. E.g.: a city, a bird
• We use ‘an’ when the noun we are referring to begins with a vowel (a, e,

i, o, u) sound. E.g.: an apple, an umbrella.

NOTE: If the noun begins with a consonant sound. (E.g.: university), then we
use ‘a’. If the noun begins with a vowel sound (E.g.: hour), then we use ‘an’.
We say "university" with a "y" sound at the beginning as though it were spelt
"youniversity". So, "a university" IS correct. We say "hour" with a silent ‘h’ as
though it were spelt "our". Therefore, "an hour" IS correct.
‘A’ or ‘An’ is used -
1. before nouns that introduce something or someone you have not
mentioned before. E.g.: I saw an elephant this morning.
2. before singular countable nouns. E..g.: I stepped in a puddle.
3. when talking about one’s profession. E.g.: I am an English teacher.
4. before Mr/Mrs/Miss + name to imply that he is a stranger to the speaker.
E.g.: A Mr Smith is outside your office.
5. before a proper noun to make it a common noun. E.g.: Amit is a
Shakespeare.
6. before certain uncountable nouns preceded by nouns + of. E.g.: a drop of
water, a piece of advice
7. after the words many, rather, such, quite in certain structures. E.g.: Such
a show cannot be arranged now.
‘A’ or ‘An’ is not used
1. before names of meals. E.g.: Let us have lunch at 12.30 p.m. Exception:
‘a’ is used before names of meals when they are preceded by adjectives.
E.g.: She gave me a_sumptuous dinner yesterday.
Articles are not used
1. with non countable nouns referring to something in general. E.g.: Coffee
is his favourite drink.
2. before names of languages and nationalities. E.g.: English, Indian
3. before names of academic subjects. E.g.: History, Biology
4. before names of cities, towns, states. E.g.: Miami, Seoul
5. before names of streets. E.g.: M.G. Road
6. before names of lakes and bays. E.g.: Lake Titicaca
Exception: ‘the’ is used with group of lakes. E.g.: the Great Lakes.
7. before names of mountains. E.g.: Mount Everest
Exception: ‘the’ is used with mountain ranges. E.g.: the Andes
8. before names of continents. E.g.: Asia, Australia
9. before names of islands. E.g.: Easter Islands
Exception: ‘the’ is used with the chain of islands. E.g.: the Andamans 10.
before material nouns. E.g. Gold is a precious metal
Exception: ‘the’ is used with an adjunct, which makes the material
noun definite. E.g.: The gold we use in India is all imported.
Exercise 4: Fill in the blanks with appropriate articles (a / an / the)
And they lived happily ever after, say ______ fairy tales. Have you ever
wondered if they really did? They could have in fairy tales but in reality, we are
still chasing happiness and it only gets more elusive by ____________ day.
Mankind has been united in the conviction that happiness is ________ very
desirable state. We are driven by _________ need to be happy behind
everything we do. When young, we study well to get good grades so we can
be happy with ________ accolades. We grow up; get jobs to earn money,
security, status - all for happiness. And then inevitably get into relationships/
marriage all again for - happiness.
We chase money, health, growth, fame, power, property and relationships, not
for what they are, but because we think they could lead to happiness.
Yet, you will acknowledge that this is fleeting happiness. Getting into ___
foreign university is what you always wanted, but leaving your girl friend
behind, that totally kills it. Losing weight may transform your life but it means
never having ‘Death by chocolate’ again. Promotions mean no holidays, and
high-end cars mean gallons of petrol. No matter what or how much you have,
nothing seems quite enough. Is there ___ irrefutable, permanent and absolute
happiness? Or better, What makes people happy? ___ good bank account,
___ good cook, and ___ good digestion, said Jean Jacques Rousseau.
Answers
Exercise1:
1. shopman; shop
2. rains; grass; plants
3. children; toys; sweets
4. silk
5. tea; China
6. religions
Exercise 2:
1. Mother helps my brother in doing his homework.
2. The maid-servant is chasing the she-buffalo.
3. A lioness and a tigress are chasing the stag.

4. A Queen’s daughter is a princess and her son is a prince.
5. Aunt is teaching Uncle how to cook.
Exercise 3:
1. The men and their wives went to the places of worship.
2. The singers can play the pianos.
3. The rings are made of gold.
4. The women know very little but understand more.
5. The dentists pull off the teeth.
Exercise 4:
And they lived happily ever after, say the fairy tales. Have you ever wondered
if they really did? They could have in fairy tales but in reality, we are still
chasing happiness and it only gets more elusive by the day. Mankind has been
united in the conviction that happiness is a very desirable state. We are driven
by the need to be happy behind everything we do. When young, we study well
to get good grades so we can be happy with the accolades. We grow up; get
jobs to earn money, security, status - all for happiness. And then inevitably get
into relationships/ marriage all again for - happiness.
We chase money, health, growth, fame, power, property and relationships, not
for what they are, but because we think they could lead to happiness.
Yet, you will acknowledge that this is fleeting happiness. Getting into a foreign
university is what you always wanted, but leaving your girl friend behind, that
totally kills it. Losing weight may transform your life but it means never having
‘Death by chocolate’ again. Promotions mean no holidays, and high-end cars
mean gallons of petrol. No matter what or how much you have, nothing seems
quite enough. Is there an irrefutable, permanent
and absolute happiness? Or better, what makes people happy? A good bank
account, a good cook, and a good digestion, said Jean Jacques Rousseau.
Unit 2 Oral Communication

Structure:
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication
2.3 One-to-One Oral Communication

Face to Face Communication

Communication through Telephone
2.4 Summary
2.6 Answers
2.1 Introduction
Nidhi was gushing with enthusiasm when she was discussing with me the new
layout she had planned and designed for her magazine. She was the subeditor
of the upcoming youth magazine. Previously the entire management had come
to a consensus about changing the existing layout for better marketing
reasons. She was well prepared with her power point presentation regarding
the layout she had designed. She presented her idea to a gamut of
professionals in the field. The entire top management was awe-struck at the
effectiveness of the presentation and the passion with which Nidhi presented
her design. They decided to go ahead with the changes suggested by her.
What do the two situations convey to you? In both instances, you can observe
there are two things happening. Nidhi initially talks to an individual, me, in this
case, on a personal one to one basis and that too very informally. Next, she
addresses a group. Talking to groups is a different ball game altogether. But
one thing is common to both - talking to an individual informally or addressing
an audience. Both fall under the category of face to face communication.
In this unit, we are going to discuss about Oral Communication. Oral
communication can occur between individuals or before large audiences as in
a meeting. It can be formal or informal and it can be planned or casual. Very
often oral presentations are accompanied by some visual aids to support and
clarify what is being stated. We will learn some basic principles of Oral
Presentations and Visual Aids used in oral presentations.
Objectives :
• discuss the merits and demerits of oral communication
• use some polite expressions/phrases in appropriate contexts, while
making effective one-to-one communication
2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication

When you ask your father for permission to visit your friend's house, he could
say yes or no. In oral communication there is a possibility of immediate

response. This makes speedy interaction and immediate feedback possible.
This is the biggest advantage of oral communication.
Another advantage is that the speaker can observe the listener's reaction to
what is being stated. For instance, if someone comes to you on the date of
your exam results and tells you that you have passed, your reaction to the
message will show that you are happy. Similarly, if someone tells you that your
friend fell down, when he was doing his practical and had an injury, you will be
shocked and the person who gave you the message will notice your shock.
How would you feel if your favourite cinema star saw you somewhere and
spoke to you voluntarily? Yes, you would be happy! And you would also feel
very important, wouldn’t you? Oral communication can therefore give a feeling
of importance.
The disadvantage of oral communication is that it does not always save time.
It is not possible for the Prime Minister to speak to the people at Red Fort every
day. It will cost a lot in terms of money, time, and other important resources.
People have to meet each other all the time to communicate orally. This is
impossible.
Improving oral communication
Speaking to friends and family members is easy because you know them. But
when you are asked to go and speak to a total stranger you may hesitate. It is
even worse when you have to address in a seminar or present a project in
front of your higher authorities in the office. You should pay a little attention to
your oral skills because learning to speak well will improve your personal and
professional life considerably. You should remember that even if the listener
cannot see you (in telephone conversation), it is easy to deduce your
personality with the help of the quality of your voice - its tone will indicate your
age, sex, intelligence, if you are stressed, if you are confident or not; even your
geographical origin is distinguished by noting the accent you use while
speaking.
1. What is the main advantage of Oral communication?
2. Why should we pay attention to learn oral skills?
3. What helps the listener deduce the personality of the speaker in a
telephone conversation?
4. How is the geographical origin of the speaker understood in oral

communication?
2.3 One-to One Oral Communication

In your day to day dealings, you have to interact with people on a one to one
basis. It is central to developing positive working relationship. There are two
ways in which we communicate orally:
i) Face to face and ii) Telephonic conversation
2.3.1 Face to face communication
This may normally take place in any place, in any part of the day; in a lab,
when you are talking to your attendant, or in the college campus when you
direct a newcomer to his desired destination. When you have a face-to-face
conversation with someone, you’re near them, and you can see them. You can
also listen to them and speak to them - by actually looking at them (their facial
expressions and gestures) as well as their surroundings. When you have a
face to face conversation with somebody, you don’t need to spell out
everything in words. Many of things you want to communicate to them would
be clear to them, from the situational context.
Asking the way: Apart from our topic of interest, in the case mentioned above;
we meet many people in our day to day life - people from different cultural
background, with different accents. It would be very difficult to comprehend
most of the expressions and words spoken. But we need to

develop certain skills of acquiring this technique for finding out the necessary
information/enquiry by asking relevant questions.
For examples of asking the way or direction and giving directions, let’s
go though the following table of expressions.
(i) Tourist: (ii) Excuse me, (iii) Excuse me, but (iv) Excuse me,
Excuse me, can please could you tell I’m trying to find the please could you
you tell me where me the way to the Town Hall... tell me how to get
GANDHI street is, station? to the Town
please? (attention, Centre?
asking for
information)
Turn round and turn Take the third on the First right, second
You: Take the left at the traffic lights. right and go straight left. You can’t
second on the left. on. miss it.
And then ask again
(giving Information)
Tourist: Is it far? Should I take a bus? Is it too far to

Will it take me a long walk?
(additional
time to get there?
information)
No, it’s no distance at No, you can walk it in
You: No, its only all! under five minutes. No, its only a
about five minutes couple of hundred
walk (responding). meters.
Tourist: Thanks a Thank you. Thank you very Thanks, very

lot! (gratitude) much. much.
You: Not at all. That’s O K. That’s quite alright. It’s my pleasure.
(responding)

Giving Directions
Study the map carefully and fill in the blanks in the worksheet
Use the map to ask for and give directions.

You are standing outside the Railway station.
1. You: Excuse me, can you tell me the way to the T V factory?
Stranger: Certainly! go along STATION ROAD turn right INTO High street,
and the T V FACTORY is on the RIGHT. You can’t miss it.
2. Tourist: Excuse me, can you tell me the way to the Police Station,
Please?

You: _______ ! Go ________ Station Road, turn _____________ High

street and the Police station is _____________ . You can’t ______ it!
3. You: Excuse me, can you tell me the way to the Bookshop please?
Local:! Go Station High Street.
Go ________ High Street. _________ the third __________ your left.
The bookshop is _______ left, just ________ the Grammar school.
4. Tourist: Excuse me, can you tell me if is a hotel near here
please?
You : Yes, there is.not far really, Go station road,
take _________ on your left. _______ straight _____ High street until
you come to the Bus station. The Hotel is _____________ the corner
________ the Red cow. You _____________ .
5. Tall stranger: , can you tell me if green grocer’s .
Short local:Station road left High Street. _________________________
until _______ come _________ the police station. The green grocer’s
is _________ the chemist, _______________ crown.
Useful phases:
beside, right down, just before, back, next to, between, opposite
to, across, just along, past
Change A’s questions into more polite forms.

Example: A: where is the station?
B: (i) Can you tell me where the station is, please?
(ii) Could you tell me where the station is, please?
1. A: How far is it to Delhi? B: -------------------------------

2. A: Where are the shops? B:
3. A: Which direction is the motorway? B:
4. A: How long is it to the nearest garage? B:
5. A: Which way is the desert? B: -------------------------------
6. A: Where is the restaurant? B: --------------------------------
2.3.2 Communication through telephone
This communication is possible while responding to calls, official or personal,
asking or giving directions, etc. When you have a telephone conversation, the
strongest point of oral communication, body language as well as expressions,
is absent - and you’ve got to rely mainly on the actual words you use in order

to convey your meaning. So, you cannot rely on the extra-linguistic

expressions to add meaning to the words that you use. At the same time, you
cannot be explicit during a telephonic conversation because you speak under
the pressure of time and you can only express yourself by composing and
speaking at the same time, just as you do when you have a face-to-face
conversation. Therefore, this puts more emphasis not only on the words that
we choose, but also, on how we use our voice or tone.
There are two telephone situations: Receiving and Initiating calls.
Receiving an official call: The way you handle a call creates a positive or
negative impression, not only of you, but also your organization.
a) Be prepared; have a pen, notepad... always make a note of the call
b) Answer the phone as quickly as possible. “All calls must be answered
within three rings.”
c) Give the call your full attention.
d) Smile before you speak.
e) As soon as you pick up the phone to answer a call, let the caller know that
you’ve picked up the phone and that he has your attention. You can do
this by saying “Hello”. You can alternatively use the name of the
organisation, where you are working, or your telephone number. Eg: •
Hello, 3468953. • Tata Institute, Good morning.
f) If the caller starts stating the purpose of his call without announcing his
identity, you can ask him who he is before telling him anything or helping
him - if you find it necessary to do so.
g) Find out the caller’s name and use it. This personalizes the
communication.
h) Use your skills to build and maintain rapport, listen actively and question
effectively. If you have to transfer the call, explain why and what you are
doing; to whom the call is being transferred.
i) If you have to put the call on hold for any reason, explain why, and offer
the caller the alternative to be called back.
j) If you need to phone the caller back, agree when you’ll do it- and make
sure you do!
k) When you end the call, summarize any action that has been agreed upon
and check if the caller is happy with the outcome. It’s courteous to thank
them for calling.
Initiating a call: Whenever you dial a number and someone picks up the

phone at the other end, you should follow these rules:

a) Ask the person who picks up the phone at the other end , • Are you
3467983? / Mr. --- or Is that 3467983?
b) If he says it is the right number, it’d be a good idea to go ahead and ask
him if it’s really the place (office, house, etc.) that you want.
Eg: • Is that the XYZ Co.? • Is that the News Desk?
c) Then you should announce your identity. If the person on the other end
has not recognized you, tell him who you are and where you’re calling from
- that is, the place, office etc. you’re calling from.
d) After announcing your identity, you can straightaway ask him if you could
speak to the person whom you want - without asking him who he is. Of
course, if you recognize his voice, and if he’s the person you want to speak
to, you can straight away launch into a conversation.
e) If the person who picks up the phone at the other end voluntarily
announces his identity, and if he’s not the person you want to speak to,
tell him you’d like to speak to the specific person - or ask him if you could
speak to that person.
f) Suppose you are told about the unavailability of the person you want, you
can ask the person who has picked up the phone who he is - before you
start telling him anything else.
Eg: • Who’s this speaking? • May I know who is speaking, please?
But remember one thing: In general, nobody likes to tell you who they are
if you don’t tell them who you are first. So the best policy is to announce
your identity first, before asking for the identity of the person at the other
end.
g) Once you get the person you want on the phone, and once you’re sure that
he’s the person you want, you can state the purpose of your call. But don’t
just rush into explaining the purpose all of a sudden. Instead, start by
preparing the ground - by telling him that you’re now going to state the
purpose. For example, if you’re calling him to tell him something about a
meeting, you can begin by saying something like this: • I’m calling you
about tomorrow’s meeting. Or it’s about tomorrow’s meeting.
h) In the same way, before you speak to him about anything important, start
by telling him that you’re going to speak to him about a particular topic. In
this way, you must always build an expectation in him about what you’re

going to say - before you actually say it. This step is very important if your
telephone communication is to be really effective.
i) Before you actually ring off, say something appropriate that’d indicate to
the person at the other end that you’re going to ring off. Depending on the
context, word groups like the following would help you do this:
• Bye, then. • I’ll get back to you soon. • Well, that’s settled, then.
• Thanks a lot. Goodbye. • Until tomorrow, then. Goodbye.
j) Be prepared to take a message: Be thorough when you take a message.
Include-
1. the caller’s name
2. the caller’s phone number
3. if offered, the caller’s firm or department
4. the date and time of message
5. a message, if the caller chooses to leave one
6. your name.
• Do not screen calls: If the required person is in, please forward the
call immediately. Do not ask, “Who’s calling?”
• Use the caller’s name: There is no sweeter music to a person’s ear
than the sound of their own name.
• When placing a call, always allow a minute for the person required
to answer (Ten rings is equivalent to one minute)
• Take time for a good closing: Let the caller hang up first; then
replace your handset gently.

Self Assessment Question

5. Refer to the following chart and identify whether the telephone call is
formal or informal
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A: 777172 A: 396577 A:6438657 A: 605040

B: Hello, Mohan here! B: Hello. It’s Sam B: Hello, this is
Can I speak to Tulsi, speaking. May I Surinder here. Is B: Hello, my name
please? have a word with Simran there please? is David Smith.
Leela? Could I talk to
Mary please?
A: Hold the line A: I’ll just see if she A: Hang on a A: I’ll find out, If
please is in. moment she’s at home.
B: O K B: Right B: All right. B: Right

A: Sorry, but she’s A: I am afraid she’s A:I think she’s gone A: Sorry, but she
out not here shopping won’t be back till
Monday
B: Would you tell her B: Could you take a B: Would you ask her
I rang? message? to call back? B: Can you tell her
to ring me when
she gets back?
A: I’d be glad to! A: Yes of course! A: certainly!

A: With pleasure!
2.4 Summary
In every area of work, communication stands a prime position. Most of the
communication in our life is oral communication. This is because, we learn to
speak first and then to write. While communicating with the people, polite
phrases and expressions have to be used in their appropriate contexts. We
have learnt the language that has to be used while giving orders to our
subordinates or taking orders from our seniors; giving or asking for directions,
which are the most common oral skills that an individual has to learn and use
in a day to day life.
Pick out the most appropriate response to the questions from the given

alternatives:
i) How do you do?
(a) Hi there!
(b) How do you do?
(c) Fine, thanks.
ii) How are you?
(a) Thank you, Well.
(b) Fine, thanks, and you ?
(c) I havea cold.
iii) Excuse me, could you tell me the way to the station please?
(a) I don’t know
(b) You’ll have to ask someone else
(c) I’m afraid I’m a stranger here myself
iv) Would you mind if I opened the window a little?
(a) I’d rather you didn’t actually. It is quite cold.
(b) Yes, I would
(c) Please, don’t!
2.6 Answers
1. immediate feedback
2. because it will improve the personal and professional life
3. Quality /tone of the voice of the speaker
4. With the help of his accent
5. i) and ii) are informal ; iii) and iv) are formal
Terminal Questions
i) b ii) b iii) c iv) a

REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Pronoun is used as a proxy to the proper
noun to avoid repetition of the nouns.
Suresh said that Suresh bought a new bike.
In this case repetition of the proper noun
‘Suresh’ becomes redundant. It could be
replaced by the pronoun ‘he.’ Suresh said
that he bought a new bike.
You may come across usage of pronouns
that are quite confusing.
I hit myself with the ball.
I myself hit the ball.
Both the sentences have the pronoun ‘myself’ but they mean different. The
first sentence uses reflexive pronoun, whereas the second sentence uses
emphatic pronoun.
Reflexive Pronouns: Here the action reflects back on the noun. When the
subject and object refer to the same person, reflexive pronoun is used.
I must blame myself for this.
Behave yourself.
He killed himself.
Emphatic Pronouns: They are used to emphasize the subject of the
sentence.
I myself will take you there
You yourself are to be blamed
Exercise 1: Pick out the Pronouns from the sentences given below:
i) I am afraid you may have to wait.
ii) Lubna come in. She was quite good looking.
iii) Have you been to Tokyo? Yes, it was very crowded.
iv) It is good to go to bed early and rise early.
v) One should be practical.
vi) Her parents are in Singapore and so are mine.
vii) She stretched herself flat on the sofa.
viii) These are not mine but those are.
ix) Someone should take up the responsibility.
x) Ting and Tang are jealous of each other.

xi) Look at the man in the car. He is the person who helped me in my
difficulties.
xii) Who is the woman at the gate?
Prepositions
Prepositions are the words, which tell us about
the relations of the nouns, pronouns, and
adjectives in a sentence. Their position is
before (pre) the noun. Hence, they are said to
govern the noun. The noun, which follows is
said to be the object of the preposition.
Relations Expressed by Prepositions
1. Preposition of Time: on, in, at, for, before,
after, until, till, between, by, upto. E.g.: She was healthy till yesterday.
2. Preposition of Place: to, at, from, away, on, onto, of, in, into, out, upon,
inside, within, by, over, above, on top of, behind, in front of, below,
beneath, across, through, all over, throughout, between, among. E.g.:
Where do you come from?
3. Preposition of Method and Manner: by, with. E.g.: The boys skipped
going to school, with audacity.
4. Preposition of Reason and Purpose: with, of, for. E.g.: I rented a house
for my holidays
5. Preposition of Possession: of, with, by. E.g.: The tomb of Akbar is in
Sikandarabad.
6. Preposition of Direction and Motions: into, towards, up, round, across.
E.g.: They climbed into the lorry.
7. Preposition of Contrast: despite. E.g.: Despite his mistakes, he is a
sincere worker.
Have these prepositions confused you? Check out their proper usage.
• beside, besides
a) The house is beside the river. (by the side of)
b) Besides being good at Tennis, he is also an excellent player of Golf.
(in addition to/moreover)
• since, for
a) He has been absent since Monday last. (point of time)
b) He was absent for four days. (length or period of time)

• between, among
a) I have to choose between the two pictures.(two persons/things)
b) This is the custom among the tribes. (more than two)
• by, with
a) He was killed by a servant. (doer of the action)
b) He was killed with a knife. (instrument of action)
• in, at
He lives at Juhu in Mumbai. (‘at’ - smaller area/ ‘in’- bigger area)
• in, into
a) He is in bed (indicates rest or motion inside anything)
b) He fell into the well (motion towards the inside of anything)
• on, upon
a) He sat on a chair (things at rest)
b) He lives on his maternal uncle (denoting support)
c) I wrote books on philosophy (denoting concern)
d) He jumped upon the horse. (Things in motion)
• in, within
a) The loan will be repaid in a year. (end of a period of time)
b) The loan will be paid within a year (any time before the specified
period.)
• over, above
a) They saw the peaks towering above them (higher)
b) We hung the picture over the fire place (vertically above)
Exercise 2: Use the suitable preposition in the blanks:
1. It is almost time. Hurry up! The train will leave _____ five minutes.
2. the end of April, we go ____________ holidays.
3. My father leaves me ________ school ___ his way to office
______ scooter.
4. Beautiful resorts are coming up ______ the sea.
5. You can hang grandfather’s portrait __________ the shelves.
6. Do you mind taking your legs _____ the table.
7. When I saw my friend, I was walking _______ the road ___ my dog.
8. A beautiful butterfly flew ____ our window and landed ________ my
bed.
9. Could you help me put this film ___________ the camera?

10. Is that man ____________ a beard a priest?
11. Please don’t go away ______________ telling me!
12. Who was this portrait painted ____________________ ?
13. Leaning _____ the big tree he was recalling ________ his mind, the
pleasant memories ____________his college days.
14. The nose _____________ an elephant is called the trunk.
15. Ramola walked ______ the tree __________ search of her lost ring.
16. We have been living _______ this street __________ three years.
17. There is a parcel __________ books ________ you. It is ________
the Oxford Universit Press.
18. Suman has been waiting ___________ Arun _______ 10 o’clock. He
wonders whether he is coming at all.
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. I; you
2. She
3. you; it
4. It
5. one
6. her mine
7. she; herself
8. these; mine
9. someone
10. each other
11. he; who; me
12. who
Exercise 2:
1. in
2. by; for
3. at; on; by
4. near
5. above
6. off
7. across; with

8. inside; on
9. into
10. with
11. without
12. for
13. against; from; of
14. of
15. around; in
16. in; for
17. of; for; from
18. for; since

Unit 3 Listening Skills

Structure:
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Meaning of Listening
3.3 Types of Listening
3.4 Barriers to Effective Listening
3.5 Strategies for Effective Listening
3.6 Semantic Markers
3.7 Summary
3.9 Answers
3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we have learnt the techniques of oral communication. The
success of oral communication depends largely on the listening capacity of the
listener. In this unit, you will be introduced to one of the fascinating areas of
language learning and that is ‘listening’. This is a skill, which is not given its
due importance in our language learning. We take it for granted that naturally
all listen to language automatically and therefore, there is no need of
developing listening as a skill of language. However, this is not true. Here, you
will identify different hindrances to listening and hence learn to avoid them.
You will also learn different strategies that you can use and practise while
listening, to make communication process easy and productive.
Objectives:
• identify the difference between hearing and listening.
• describe different types of listening
• list different barriers of listening
• apply appropriate strategies to be an effective listener
• explain semantic markers
3.2 Meaning of Listening
Listening is a highly complex, interactive process, “by which spoken language
is converted to meaning in the mind” (Lundsteen, 1979). As this definition

suggests, listening is more than just hearing, although children and adults
often use the two terms, hearing and listening, synonymously. Hearing is only
one important component of listening.
In order to become a good learner, you need to become a good listener. You
may be surprised to know that hearing and listening are not the same thing.
You could say that good hearing is the foundation of good listening. Listening
is a specialized form of hearing and is the primary function of the ear. It is the
thinking or converting to meaning what one hears that is the crucial part of the
listening process.
i) Hearing is a passive process. It is merely the detection of sounds around
us. Normally, we come across ‘hearing’ in certain situations. E.g.: When
your lecturer reprimands you for some of your shortcomings, you just hear
it without paying much attention.
ii) Listening: It is an active process. It involves the conscious desire to
determine the meaning of what is heard. While listening, one is engaged
in processing the data, reconstructing the data and also giving meaning to
the data. Instead of reprimanding you, if the lecturer talks about the
forthcoming examination and discusses the possible questions that could
be asked, you tend to become attentive and listen to him intently. Now you
are listening and not just hearing.
1 In order to become a good learner, one has to become a good listener
(True/False)
2 Hearing is the specialized form of listening (True/False)
3 Hearing is an active process where as listening is a passive process
(True/False)
4 To solve any problems involving complaints, one should master the art of
listening (True/False)
5 Listening is an interactive process. (True/False)
3.3 Types of Listening
Listening can be categorized based on the intention of the listener. They are,
discriminative, comprehensive, evaluative, appreciative, empathetic,
therapeutic and dialogic.
1. Discriminative listening :
As the name itself suggests, Discriminative listening is the most basic type of

listening, whereby the difference between the sounds is identified. If you

cannot hear differences, then you cannot make sense of the meaning that is
expressed by such differences.
We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language first, and
later are unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages.
This is one reason why a person from one country finds it difficult to speak
another language perfectly, as they find the sounds similar and cannot
distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language.
Likewise, a person who cannot hear the slight variation in the tone of another
person's voice will be less likely to discern the emotions experienced by the
person.
Listening is a visual as well as auditory act. As we communicate much through
body language, we need to be able to discriminate between muscle and
skeletal movements that signify different meanings.
2. Comprehensive listening:
When the discriminating of sounds is achieved, you should learn to make
sense of the learnt sound. To comprehend the meaning, you require a lexicon
of words and all rules of grammar and syntax by which you can understand
what others are saying.
The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication, and
an understanding of body language helps us understand what the other person
is really meaning.
In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and
comprehension often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a
verbose communication.
3. Evaluative listening:
Evaluative listening is also called ‘critical listening’ because we make
judgments about what the other person is saying. We seek to assess the truth
of what is being said. We also judge what they say against our values,
assessing them as good or bad, worthy or unworthy. Evaluative listening is
particularly relevant when the other person is trying to persuade us, perhaps
to change our behavior and maybe even to change our beliefs.
4. Appreciative listening:
In appreciative listening, the main intention is to seek certain information,

which will be appreciated. For example, the information that helps meet our
goals and needs are looked for. We use appreciative listening when we are
listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great
leader.
5. Empathetic listening:
When we listen empathetically, we seek to understand the beliefs, moods,
emotions and goals of other people. This requires excellent discrimination and
close attention to the nuances of emotional signals.
In order to get others to expose these deep emotions to us, we also need to
demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively
and in a way that encourages self-disclosure.
6. Therapeutic listening:
In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing with
the speaker, but also to use this deep connection in order to help the speaker
understand, change or develop in some way.
This not only happens when you go to see a therapist but also in many social
situations, where friends and family seek to both diagnose problems from
listening and also to help the speaker cure of those problems. This also
happens in work situations, where Managers, HR personnel Trainers and
Coaches seek to help employees learn and develop.
7. Dialogic listening:
The word 'dialogue' stems from the Greek words 'dia', meaning 'through' and
'logos' meaning 'words'. Thus dialogic listening means learning through
conversation. It is an engaged interchange of ideas and information in which
we actively seek to learn more about the person and how they think. Dialogic
listening is sometimes known as 'relational listening' because with the help of
exchange of ideas while listening, we also indirectly create a relation.
6. The other name for evaluative listening is ________________ .
7. To extract key facts from a verbose communication, one should have the
skills of ________________ listening.
8. The type of listening where different types of sounds are recognized and
differentiated is called as ____________________ .
9. Listening to good music is a type of _________________ listening.

10. listening is also known as relational listening.

11. In ____________________ listening, the listener not only empathizes
with the speaker, but also suggests some change, so that the speaker
develops himself in a desired way.
3.4 Barriers to Effective Listening

Listening is the most important part of the communication process. However,
listening skills do not come naturally to most people; they require willingness,
practice, and patience to develop.
There are many reasons for the failure of individuals to listen successfully.
These include:
1. Interrupting
2. Faking attention and tuning out
3. Becoming emotional
4. Jumping to conclusions
5. Becoming distracted
6. Prejudging the subject
7. Wrong focus
8. Gathering only facts
9. Inflexibility while listening
10. Avoiding complicated subjects
1. Interrupting is a problem for many reasons. First, it is aggressive
behaviour and will most likely bring a negative response from the speaker
being interrupted. Second, it is difficult to listen and speak at the same
time. When the listener is interrupting, he or she is certainly not listening
fully.
2. Faking attention and tuning out can be offensive and is usually hard to
hide. This is hurtful and sends the message to the speaker that the
listener doesn’t really care about what the speaker is saying. If an
individual cannot listen actively in the present moment, it is best to let that
be known and suggest that the communication process be put off until a
point when there are no distractions.
3. Becoming emotional can hinder one’s ability to listen. It is important that
the receiver be aware of his or her emotions. If the sender is sending a
message that is offensive, it is important to acknowledge that fact and be

aware that something is threatening a breakdown in the process. When

a receiver is vexed, it is easy for him or her to miss the most important
part of the sender’s message.
4. Jumping to conclusions is often considered the most common barrier to
listening. The listening, to be effective, should be done with full attention
to whatever the speaker has to say. Only then there should be any
reaction. More often we tend to jump to conclusion regarding the
speaker’s message, which is one of the important barriers of effective
listening. It may be helpful for the listener to wait until the speaker is
finished before responding. It can also be helpful to ask questions
throughout the conversation to clarify issues, or to let the speaker know
that he or she is communicating in a way that suggests a certain thing,
which may not be what they are intending to say.
5. Distraction is easily possible while trying to communicate. Often one has
many tasks to do or there are a lot of other activities taking place, while
someone is trying to communicate. This can be a problem because it
leads to miscommunication, faking attention, and tuning out all together -
all of which threaten future communication.
6. Instead of listening to the speaker, many people tend to assume that the
subject is boring or dull. During any conversation, presentation or speech,
they turn their attention to other things or simply day-dream.
7. Another barrier of listening is the focus of the listener on appearance and
delivery of the speaker. The listeners observe the appearance and the
delivery style of speaker instead of listening to what is being said. They
keep looking for faults in the speaker’s appearance instead of judging the
speaker by the content of his speech.
8. Many people listen to gather facts instead of trying to understand the
underlying idea and integrating it with non-verbal communication. By
focusing too much on the facts, the listener may miss the message that
the speaker is intending to convey.
9. Many formal speeches are not carefully outlined and organized. As a
result, many listeners try to mentally outline the presentation instead of
paying attention to what is being said.
10. When the subject is technical or complicated, many people stop listening
altogether. The listeners decide beforehand that since the subject is not

familiar, they will not be able to understand what the speaker is trying to
say.
12. Turning one’s attention to other important things instead of listening to the
speaker at a point of time is considered a good habit of listening.
(True/False)
13. Paying attention to the presentation of the speaker instead of the subject
is a barrier of listening. (True/False)
14. A technical or complicated subject is not at all a barrier for effective
listening. (True/False)
15. Too much attention to the facts told by the speaker may result in missing
the underlying message. (True/False)
16. A good listener should always jump to conclusion at the beginning of the
speech without waiting for the speaker to complete the facts and
messages that he intends to pass on to the listener. (True/False)
3.5 Strategies for Effective Listening

Although the reasons for listening breakdowns are numerous, there are many
ways to improve listening skills. These are:
1. Provide clues that you are actively involved
2. Concentrate
3. Refrain from formulating an immediate response
4. Try to prepare beforehand
5. Be prepared to accept revisions
6. Be sure the environment is conducive to listening
1. Clues that you are actively listening can go a long way. It is important to
the speaker to feel that you care about what he/she is saying. This is
because it tends to send a message about whether or not the listener
(you) cares about the speaker in general. When people don’t feel that you
care about them, they don’t trust you and the communication process
quickly breaks down. Therefore, it is important to use verbal and non-
verbal clues that you are listening, including eye contact, gestures, and
acknowledging statements.
2. Concentration requires willingness and practice. Practising active listening
helps with concentration but there are other elements that contribute to

your ability to concentrate on what someone is saying. Assuming you’re

attending an invited lecture on a topic of current interest, you have to
concentrate on the speaker’s words completely without being distracted
by any other sound or event. It is important to position yourself in a way
that maintains eye contact with the speaker.
3. It is important to refrain from formulating an immediate response. You won’t
be able to fully concentrate on forming a genuine understanding of what
the speaker is trying to say if you are too busy thinking about what you are
going to say in response to them whenever it is your turn to talk.
4. Preparation can have a huge impact on the outcome of a dialogue or any
form of communication. To prepare for an interaction where effective
listening will be important, it is essential to keep in mind the purpose of the
exchange. What decisions need to be made and how the collaboration
between sender and receiver relates are important factors to keep in mind.
It is also helpful to approach the situation with the attitude of really caring
to know the truth. The dialogue should be viewed as an opportunity to
uncover the truth and make progress, rather than as a challenge or conflict.
5. A willingness to accept revisions will keep the communication process
running smoothly. Often people are so busy trying to defend their positions
that they fail to really stop and think whether they could be improved upon
or viewed in a different way. This is what is often referred to as “spending
90 seconds expressing an opinion and 900 seconds blindly defending it.”
Every complaint that you receive, should enable you to find ways of
improving the unaccepted behavior rather than defending yourself and
finding reasons and explanations for such behaviour.
6. Choosing the right environment is important because it will help the listener
focus and avoid distractions. Although you cannot create or call an
environment perfect for all types of communication, in general it is best to
avoid areas where there are high levels of activity, loud noises, an
uncomfortable temperature, poor air flow, etc.
Implementing these techniques takes willingness and patience. The effort is
worthwhile however, as the long-term benefit of improved communication skills
will greatly increase one’s chances of success in the business world. Effective
listening is the most important part of the communication process. It is also
probably the most difficult to master. There are many barriers to effective

listening, but practising listening techniques will help one overcome these
barriers and become a good listener.
Listening Activitiy
Let us learn to listen. Ask your friend to read the story given below. Listen while
the story is being narrated and answer the questions that follow. (Listen to the
information only once.)
A plane flown by John F. Kennedy Jr. crashed on July 16, 1999. He was flying
from Fairfield, New Jersey to Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. His wife,
Carolyn, and her sister Lauren were also on the plane. All on board died. July
16 marks the anniversary of Kennedy's tragic plane crash
When Heidi Golledge heard JFK Jr's plane was missing Saturday, she tried to
buy an Internet address with his initials. She got two. Now they're up for
auction.
Heidi Golledge says, "I'm selling johnfkennedyjr.cc, that's ten thousand and
then I have jfk--jr.com (jfk dash dash jr dot com). That's fifty thousand." The
son of Camelot had yet to be buried, but collectors and the curious are cashing
in. [What is] up for sale? Any and all souvenirs even remotely related to the
Kennedy family. The most popular JFK Jr. Internet items are back issues of
George, the magazine he published. Some items range from the truly
tasteless, like a shirt alleged to be from JFK Jr's suitcase washed ashore, to
legitimate souvenirs like an autographed baseball. Auctioneers are well
acquainted with the craving for celebrity memorabilia. Michael Schwartz of
Butterfield and Butterfield says, "It does fulfill some sort of emotional need that
they have to own these items." In the emotional times following a celebrity
death it's a seller’s market. But some Internet users angered by the
commercialism are sending hate e-mail to the souvenir sellers.
There are even public messages left in eBay auction files that say, "Don't bid;
have respect for the Kennedy family." Golledge has received several hate e-
mails but feels their criticism is unjust. "It's a separate thing. It's business; it's
not a negative thing against JFK Jr. at all." This seller has six different Internet
addresses to be sold as a set for one hundred twenty thousand dollars.
Another address has already sold for two hundred thousand.
Heidi Golledge says, "There's never really been a time in history that I could
see that you could purchase something for seventy dollars and an hour later

it's worth two hundred thousand. If you could show me a stock like that on the
Internet I'd be happy to buy it." Investing in a tragedy, emotionally or financially,
for some it's paying off.
A. Select the appropriate answer

1. What sort of things are being sold by Heidi Golledge
a) JFK tee-shirts
b) Baseball cards owned by JFK Jr.
c) Internet addresses that include the initials of JFK Jr.
d) Back issues of the magazine George
2. Why does Ms Golledge say she is selling such items?
a) She wants to make money
b) She wants to honour celebrities
c) She believes in the internet
d) She is a happy person
3. Michael Schwartz thinks that collecting celebrity memorabilia fills a/an
need.
a) Financial
b) Emotional
c) Health
d) Greedy
4. Some internet users are angered by ___

a) Commercialism
b) Prices
c) Hate e-mail
d) Auctions
B. Number the items below in the correct order in which they occurred
in time.
i) Auctioneers know about the craving for celebrity memorabilia
ii) There has been criticism of this commercialism about celebrities
iii) JFK Jr., his wife, and her sister were all killed in an airplane accident.
iv) Many souvenirs of the Kennedys are now up for sale on Internet
online auctions.
(for answers, refer to section 3.9)

Source: http://www.world-english.org/listening-news.htm
3.6 Semantic Markers

When you are listening to the directions given by an instructor or reading a
text, you need to pay attention to the use of ‘semantic markers.’ They are the
link between two sentences. So they mark the beginning of a sentence. They
indicate a shift or change in the tone of the speaker. The semantic markers
should not be limited to listening skill alone. They also help you to learn to write
well. In an analysis, the writing must be logically organized, whereas narratives
require a chronological ordering; and a commentary presents an opinion with
supportive facts. Whatever the case, organizing a paragraph or a text requires
an understanding of semantic markers.
The semantic markers are used according to the functions they perform:
1. They indicate how ideas are being developed. They can also be used to
list the ideas, such as, first, secondly, finally, to begin with, first and
foremost, next, etc.
2. Markers for illustrations and examples such as, for instance, for example,
let’s take for example, etc.
3. They introduce an idea that runs against what has been said earlier, such
as, but, nevertheless, yet, although, by contrast, on the other hand,
however, in spite of, etc.
4. They are used to show a cause and effect relationship between one idea
and another. They include, so, therefore, because, since, thus, hence,
consequently.
5. They show the speaker's intention to sum up his message. Some of these
phrases are to summarize, in other words, it amounts to, etc.
6. They indicate the relative importance of different items, e.g., it is worth
noting, it is important to note that, the next crucial point is, etc.
7. They are used to rephrase what has already been said. These are in other
words, put differently, that is to say, let me put it like this, etc.
8. They express a time relationship, e.g., then, next, after, while, when,
previously.
Activity 2 : Listening to the radio news as well as other programmes has to
be very carefully practised. Most precisely because everything would happen

within a fraction of a second and there is no visual impact as on TV. Given

below is a news text from a news broadcast on Air on 23rd June 1985. Ask
your friend to read it only once. Listen carefully to the news item. Take outline
notes as you listen to the news.
NEWS ITEM
“This is All India Radio” The news read by Spoorthi Sinha. Headlines.
“An Air India Jumbo jet has crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, off the Ireland
coast. All the three hundred and twenty five passengers and crew are feared
killed. A judicial enquiry has been ordered. The president and the Prime
Minister have expressed grief and shock.
The Sri Lankan President says he will consider decentralisation of powers if
Tamil Militants give up separatist activities.
A central Intelligence Directorate is to be set up soon to deal with economic
offences.
The Southern Command has lifted the Murugappa Gold Cup in Hockey.
An Air India Jumbo Jet “Kanishka” with 325 people on board crashed into the
Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Ireland, this morning, The crash occurred 40
minutes before it was to land at the Heathrow Airport, in London for refuelling.
Agency reports from London say that there are no signs of survivors.
According to PTI, 33 bodies have been recovered so far. The wreckage has
been sighted spread over a 7-kilometre area about 30 kilometres west of Cork
in Southern Ireland.
The flight number AI 182 was coming in from Toronto and Montreal in Canada,
to Bombay via London and New Delhi. The radio contact with the plane was
lost at 8:15 this morning local time, i.e.: 12:45 Indian Standard Time, when it
was 200 kms off the coast of Ireland. It then disappeared from the radar screen
of the Shannon Airport in Ireland. A big search and rescue operation has been
launched. The weather in the area was being described as moderate but sea
conditions were slightly unstable.
A spokesman of Ireland Air traffic control said. “The plane was in routine
contact with air-controllers and was cruising at an altitude of 9450 meters when
it suddenly disappeared from the screen. A short time later, two nearby aircraft
picked up electronic distress signals indicating that the plane had gone down.
It is believed that it is the first time that a commercial jet plane has crashed on

the busy Trans Atlantic Route..."

Now answer these questions:
1. Out of the four news headlines, which item has been dealt with at length?
2. What is the reaction to the news? (feeling)
3. What is the name of the Jumbo Jet that crashed into the Atlantic?
4. How many people were on board?
5. How many bodies have been recovered so far?
6. Where has the wreckage been sighted?
7. Where did AI 182 start its flight? And what was the destination?
8. What was the altitude at which it was cruising?
9. Did a commercial jet plane crash on the busy Tans Atlantic Route earlier?
10. Who lifted the Murugappa Gold Cup in hockey?

17. Nodding of the head and repeating some words of the speaker, is a
strategy to be used while practicing passive listening. (True/False)
18. When a client has called you to complain about the service of your
office, you should thank him for calling. (True/False)
19. A sincere apology from you will usually diffuse a lot of frustration that
the client has. (True/False)
20. As a professional and a practiced listener, you should stay the course
and remain calm and level headed even when the client is using harsh
or vulgar language. (True/False)
3.7 Summary
“We have two ears and one mouth and should use them in that proportion." -
Epictetus.
The communication process is a unique sharing of thoughts and feelings that
defines us as humans. It can be visualized as a dynamic circle because of the
constant changing relationships among its various parts - the source, idea,
message, medium, receiver and response. This process occurs within a
communication environment. Most people can hear, but a good listener is hard
to find. Without effective listeners, the dynamic circle of communication is

broken. Hearing is a passive, generally involuntary process, in which the brain

receives and interprets sounds from the external environment. In contrast,
listening is an active, voluntary process, in which the listener deliberately pays
attention to, interprets the meaning of, and responds to a message.
There are many types of listening such as Discriminative, Comprehensive,
Evaluative, Appreciative, Empathetic, Therapeutic and Dialogic. Listening
skills are not innate in human beings. One needs exhaustive practice to be a
good listener. There are barriers, which hinder the listening process.
Interruption, faking attention, becoming emotional during conversation,
jumping to conclusions even before dialogue is completed and becoming
distracted are all causes of incomplete listening.
Even though one is not a born ‘perfect listener,’ one can train himself to be a
very good listener, which is the foremost quality to become a successful
professional. The strategies that one has to develop in order to be a good
listener are - Provide clues that one is actively involved, concentrate while
someone is talking, refrain from formulating an immediate response, try to
prepare beforehand, be prepared to accept revisions and be sure that the
environment is conducive to listening. The best way of making your task of
listening easy is by concentrating on the semantic markers. They hint the tone
to be changed and the links between the ideas formed or to be expected in the
mind of the speaker.

1. Differentiate between listening and hearing.
2. List the types of listening.
3. What do you mean by the barriers to effective listening?
3.9 Answers
1) True 8) Discriminative 15) True
2) False 9) Appreciative 16) False
3) False 10) Dialogic 17) False
4) True 11) Therapeutic 18) True
5) True 12) False 19) True
6) Critical 13) True 20) True
7) Comprehensive 14) False

Activity 1:
A. Select the appropriate answer
1. c 2. a 3. b 4. a
B. Number the items below in the correct order in which they occurred
in time.
1-iii 2-iv 3-i 4-ii
Activity 2:
1. Crashing of Air India Jumbo Jet
2. Grief and shock
3. Kanishka
4. 325 people and crew
5. 33
6. The wreckage has been sighted spread over a 7- kilometre area about
30 kilometres west of Cork in Southern Ireland.
7. The AI 182 started from Toronto and Montreal in Canada. Its destination
was Bombay
8. It was cruising at an altitude of 9450 metres.
9. No
10. The Southern Command
Terminal Questions
1. Hearing is a passive process, which involves a mere detection of sounds
around us. Listening is an active process, where the conscious desire is to
determine the meaning of what is heard.
2. Listening can be categorized as, discriminative, comprehensive,
evaluative, appreciative, empathetic, therapeutic and dialogic.
3. The reasons or hindrances, which are responsible for the failure of a
person to listen effectively, are called barriers to listening.
REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Verbs
A verb indicates the action done by the subject. E.g.: He arrived late.
Verbs can be categorized into two groups:

1. Main verb: This tells us of what exactly happens. They are also called the
‘action words.’ E.g.: Srinivas went to his village. The word ‘went’ tells us
what the subject ‘Srinivas’ has done.
2. Auxiliary verbs: They indicate the number and tense in the sentence. They
are also called ‘helping verbs’ or ‘linking verbs.’ E.g.: Mohan did not go
with him. The helping verb ‘did’ decides the time of action. So the main
verb will be in the original form of ‘go’.
Verb - Tenses
Tense refers to the time of action. With the change of tense, the form of the
main verb also changes.
Present Tense: Simple Present, Present Continuous, Present Perfect,
Present Perfect Continuous
1. Simple Present: (Subject + V1 (present )
• It is used to indicate a regular or habitual action and permanent or
verifiable truths/facts.
E.g.: Mary goes to school every day (regular action) Henry always
swims in the evening (habitual) The sun rises in the east. (permanent
truth)
• It is used to express a planned future event/actions, exclamatory
statements with ‘here’ and ‘there’.
E.g.: We go to New Delhi next Thursday (planned future event) Here
comes the great player of the year!
• It is used to indicate verbs of perception.
E.g.: I hear someone sing.
2. Present Continuous: (Subject + {is, am, are}+V1 + ing)
• It is used to indicate present time when an action is going on. E.g.: The
secretary is typing the letter now.
• It is used to indicate the action in progress and will be continued, but
not necessarily at the moment of speaking.
E.g.: My son is drawing scenery.
• It is used to indicate the actions that have been arranged to take place
in the near future and one’s immediate plans.
E.g.: We are going to a party this evening.

• The following verbs are never used in the continuous forms (with ‘ing’)
see, hear, smell, notice, understand, have, believe, hate, need, love,
appear, like, seem, sound, want, taste, wish, own, notice, desire,
refuse, forgive, care, admire, mean, remember, recall, forget, belong,
possess, contain, consist, keep, seems, cost.
• When some of the above verbs are used in the continuous tense, their
meanings change.
E.g.: I have a house at Colaba.
The professor is having the class in Room. 2 (taking)
3. Present Perfect: (Subject+{have, has}+V 3 (verb in the past participle)
a. It indicates an action that has happened at an indefinite time in the past.
E.g.: Maria has seen this movie three times.
We haven’t written our reports yet.
• It is used to indicate actions that have started in the past and are
continuing at present.
E.g.: I have been sick for a long time.
• It is also used to show the activities completed in the recent past.
E.g.: My father has just left.
• We should not use present perfect tense when the time is
specified.
E.g.: I have read this book last week (incorrect) I read this book
last week (correct)
4. Present Perfect Continuous: (Subject + {have, has}+ been +V1 + ing)
a) It indicates an action that began in the past and is still occurring in the
present.
E.g.: He has been working in Washington for 5 years.
Exercise 1: Use the four present tense forms of verbs given in the
following:
1. We don’t buy vegetables. We _______ them in our garden. (grow)
2. Look outside. It ________ . (rain)
3. We came to live here in 2000, so we ________ for a long time. (live)
4. The room is very clean today. I think someone _____ it. (clean)
5. Father _______ one more room for my study soon. (build)
Past Tense: Simple Past, Past Continuous, Past Perfect, Past Perfect

Continuous
1. Simple Past: (Subject + V2 {verb in the past})
a) It is used for a completed action that had happened in the past. It also
indicates habits of the past.
E.g.: Bob went to America last year.
We always played together.
2. Past Continuous: ( Subject + {was, were} + V1 + ing)
• It indicates an action, which was occurring in the past and was
interrupted by another action.
E.g.: Seema was watching the Television when her brother called.
• It describes two or more actions going on at the same time. The
clauses are usually connected by the conjunction ‘while’.
E.g.: While Maya was watching the movie, Mark was playing hockey.
• It expresses an action that was in progress at a point of time in the
past, having begun before that point and probably continuing after it.
E.g.: I was watching cricket at 8.00 in the morning.
3. Past Perfect: (Subject + {had} + V3 {past participle})
a) It is used to indicate an action that happened before another action in
the past. Usually two actions are mentioned in the sentence. E.g.:
Ram had gone to the store and brought some groceries.
(Past Per.) (Sim. Past)
4. Past Perfect Continuous: (Subject + {had} + been +V1 + ing)
a) It is used to convey an action which happened in the past and
continued for certain time.
E.g.: Ramu had been working at the university before he retired.
Exercise 2: Use the right past tense form of verb in the following gaps:
1. The postman ___ at the door when I ______ mother. (knock, help)
2. Uncle _________ a letter, ________ it and __________ it to me.
Afterwards, I ______ to the post office. (write, seal, give, go)
3. Yesterday I _______ an old friend of mine after a long time. (see)
4. ‘How did you learn to sing so sweetly’. My mother ____________ me.
(teach)
5. Yesterday, Ritu and Chintu ________ tennis. (play). They began at
10 o’clock and finished at 11.30. So at 10.30 they __________ tennis.

(play)
Future Tense: Simple Future, Future Continuous, Future Perfect, Future
Perfect Continuous
1. Simple Future: (Subject + will/shall + V1)
a) It is used to express the speaker’s opinions/ assumptions about the
future.
E.g.: They will wait for us.
• It is used for future habitual actions.
E.g.: Birds will build nests.
• It is used in sentences containing clauses of condition, time and
purpose.
E.g.: If I drop this glass, it will break.
2. Future continuous: (Subject + will/shall + be+ V1+ ing)
• It is used to express an action as going on at some time in the
future.
E.g.: I shall be playing piano in the concert.
• It is used to express future without intention.
E.g.: I will be helping Marie tomorrow.
3. Future Perfect: (Subject + will/shall/ + have + V3)
• It is used for an action which at a given future time will be in the past.
It is usually used with a time expression ‘by then’, ‘by that time’.
E.g.: By the end of next month he will have been here for ten years.
4. Future Perfect Continuous:
(Subject+ will/shall + have +been+V1 +ing)
• It can be used instead of future perfect tense (when the action is
continuous).
E.g.: By the end of next month he will have been living here for ten
years.
• It can also be used when the action is expressed as a continuous
action.
E.g.: By the end of the week he will have been training pupils for
ten years.
* However, if we mention the number of pupils, we must use future
perfect.
E.g.: By the end of the week he will have trained 5000 pupils for ten
years.

Exercise 3: Use the right future tense form of verb in the following gaps:
1. I think your brother ____ the present I have bought for him. (like)
2. Johnson _____ a novel at this moment. He says he _______ it next
month. (write, complete)
3. We have decided to have a party. We are ___________ many of our
friends. (invite)
4. Every day Maria watches TV between 9 and 10 at night. If you go to her
house at 9.30 she ________ TV (watch).
5. What ____ you _____ at this time tomorrow? (do)
Auxiliary verbs and their forms:
A. Auxiliaries are twenty-four in numbers. They are all helping verbs, but not
all of them can independently function as verbs.
The twenty-four auxiliaries are:
am is are was were

have has had
do does did
will would shall should
can could may might
dare ought to used to
need must
B. The ones which can function independently as verbs are thirteen:
1. I am a student.
2. Thailand is a wonderful place.
3. They are tired.
4. He was in Delhi yesterday.
5. The mangoes were sweet.
6. Sue and Santa have new friends.
7. She has a headache.
8. Last summer we had great time on the beach.
9. They do things effortlessly.
10. She does her part well.
11. He did the job before my telling.
12. We need a sharp knife to cut this cord.

13. Susan dared her friend to eat ten apples. (challenged)

The remaining eleven auxiliaries do not function as independent verbs, but
all the twenty four function as helping verbs.
I have understood everything. (In this sentence have is the helping verb have
understood is the verb.)
• Auxiliaries are useful to change a sentence from affirmative to
negative just by adding not after them.
All are present today. (affirmative)

All are not present today. (negative)

• By placing the auxiliaries in the front. The sentence can become a
question.
Smith will come early (affirmative)
Will Smith come early? (negative)
• Can frame negative questions
Hasn’t she attached college yesterday?

Don’t you understand Arabic?
• Can have contracted or shortened forms of not. They make spoken
language natural.
Is + not Isn’t
are + not aren’t
will + not won’t
shall +not shan’t
need + not needn’t
can + not can’t
• Can help us to give short answers:
Does he listen to his parents? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t
(to mean he listens to his parents/he does not listen to his parents)
• In conversation, there is a common device of making a statement and
at once asking the listener to confirm it. In English it is done with tag
questions.
We are learning English, aren’t we?
(statement) (question tag)
Auxiliaries repeat themselves in the tag. A positive statement is said with the
negative tag.
He can speak good English, can’t he?
Negative statement is said with positive (affirmative tag)
They don’t attend office on holidays, do they?

Note: The tag should always be spoken in the falling tone.

2. Of the twenty four auxiliaries, twenty are grouped into modals. They are can,
could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, need, have to, used to,
ought to etc and the tags negative. In the remaining four, the statements
are negative and the tags affirmative.
1. The ocean is deep, isn’t it?
2. The sun rises in the east, doesn’t it?
3. In the eastern world people work hard, don’t they?
4. Our team won the match, didn’t it
5. You are not interested in painting, are you?
6. Parents don’t tell lies, do they?
7. A bear doesn’t fly, does it?
8. Doctors looked after the patients well, didn’t they?
Note: In the statements when the action word (verb) is in the present
tense (as work, write, sing) negative or in the question do is
supplemented (added)
Birds fly, do they?
They don’t eat fish, do they?
When the verb is used with ‘Third Person’ (He, She, It - as reads, swims,
lives, etc.) does is supplemented.
Exercise 4: Add the correct question tags for the statements:
1. Your mother cooks well, ____ ?
2. He made you carry the box, ____ ?
3. I haven’t played the piano, _____ ?
4. They are wonderful people, ____ ?
5. Some people don’t eat fish, ____ ?
Answers:
Exercise 1:
1. Grow
2. is raining
3. have been living
4. has cleaned

5. is building
Exercise 2:
1. knocked; was helping
2. wrote; sealed; gave; went
3. saw
4. taught
5. had played; had been playing
Exercise 3:
1. will like
2. is writing; would complete
3. going to invite
4. will be watching
5. will you be doing
Exercise 4:
1. doesn’t she? 2. hidn’t he? 3. have I? 4. aren’t they? 5. do they?

Unit 4 Reading Skills

Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Definition and Meaning of Reading
4.3 Purpose of Reading
4.4 Types of Reading
Skimming
Scanning
Extensive Reading
Intensive Reading
Loud and Silent Reading
4.5 SQ3R Technique of Reading
4.6 Summary
4.8 Answers
4.1 Introduction
Several skills are required for effective communication. We have already dealt
with the oral and listening skills. To gain and master these skills, you need to
acquire knowledge and wisdom, which depends on your extensive reading
habits. The more you read, the more words will you learn, which will be helpful
in making sentence variations and good oration. It will also widen your thinking
horizon, helps you analyze situations and give you insight into varied
experiences. Therefore, it is the primary skill that helps us acquire knowledge
about everything in this world. Those who cannot read or write are prone to
exploitation and suffering. Hence, it is important for all human beings to read
and learn. In this unit, we will learn about the various aspects of reading, as a
skill.
Objectives
• define and explain the meaning of reading
• list the purposes of reading
• select and use different types of reading for different purposes.
• describe and use SQ3R technique of reading
4.2 Definition and Meaning of Reading

The following are a few definitions regarding the process of reading.
• Reading is thinking under the stimulus of the printed page (Webster,
1982:30)
• Reading is a Psycho-linguistic guessing game (Webster, 1982:19)
• Reading Comprehension means understanding a written text.
Understanding a written text is extracting the required information from it
as efficiently as possible. (Francoise Grellet 1991:3)
The above definitions suggest that when you read any piece of text, you
understand the given text at three levels: -
i) Pure, literal response to the familiar words on the page - there is no in-
depth understanding.
ii) Recognition of the writer’s meaning. In other words, you read and
recognise the intention of the author in writing the given text.
iii) Personal experience, which aids you to understand the given matter.
All these three levels could be described thus: When you read, you read the
lines, read between the lines and also read beyond the lines. So, reading is
nothing but a decoding process.
Reading, for most of us, is a ‘passive process’, where we sit down, relax and
run our eyes through the words on the page. This is the method we incorporate
to understand the information that is given in the book. But today, reading is
considered an active process. A reader can understand a text only when s/he
actively uses her/his mental faculties. Hence, to read efficiently one has to
have:
• the knowledge of the writing system of the language
• the knowledge of the language (grammar, vocabulary)
• the ability to interpret
• a reason for reading and the appropriate method of reading
• the knowledge of the world (experience/background knowledge)
When all these requirements are used efficiently while reading, understanding
would be effective and meaningful. Thus, reading is a skill, which has to be
acquired by constant experimentation and struggle.

1. How does Webster define the term, reading?
2. What is the first level of understanding while reading?
3. To read efficiently, one need not have the knowledge of the grammar.
(True/False)
4.3 Purposes of Reading

We read many things in our day-to-day lives. Let us name a few of them:
• Newspapers and magazines
• Advertisements, leaflets, pamphlets
• Textbooks, novels, short-stories
• Letters, telegrams
• Recipes, puzzles, menus
• Articles, reports, legal documents
• Dictionaries, telephone directories
• Cartoons, comic strips
• Time-tables, maps, statistical graphs and diagrams
We have just listed the different texts that we normally read with certain definite
purpose in mind. They are read either for personal interest, for pleasure, to
acquire information or to participate in society. For you, as students, the
purpose of reading is emphasised on either for interest or for pleasure and
reading to acquire information and knowledge. Reading for interest or pleasure
is usually fulfilled through reading fiction, while reading to learn is associated
with informative articles. Reading for information may be both internal and
external. When you read for necessary background information about what is
going on within the institution where you work, or within your group, it is called
reading for internal information, example annual report of your institution,
previous meeting reports, etc. Reading for the information of what is going on
in your field, but outside your own work place is called External Information.
You may need to do something concrete in the not too distant future after you
have read whatever it is you are reading- this is Action Reading. Professional
reading is done when you need to continue learning and studying so that you
develop your own thinking and skills. But you should bear in mind that the text
itself is not written strictly for any one purpose. For instance, any biography or
autobiography will be read as personal interest to understand the life story
of an individual. The same maybe read by a research scholar for his research
purpose. People’s interest in reading is so varied, that any text could meet any
purpose.

4.4 Types of Reading
As we have already said, we read in different ways depending on the purpose
for which we are reading a text. Let us look at a few types of reading.
4.4.1 Skimming
Let’s say that you need to buy a reference book for English grammar as
suggested by your professor. You go to a book store and see a rack full of
books, with the same title, but different authors. You don’t have time to read
the pages before deciding on buying the book. Hence, you quickly go through
the contents, title page and the blurb (It is a slang meaning, a short piece of
writing that praises and promotes something, especially a paragraph on the
cover of a book). By now, you have decided to buy one book. The type of
reading that you did in the bookstall is ‘skimming.’ Thus, skimming means,
“looking quickly over a text/book to get a general superficial idea of the
content.”
Activity 1:
Match these publications to the extracts below:
1. A clinical publication
2. Book Summary
3. News Report - Nick Thorpe, BBC
4. An extract from P G WoodHouse’s novel
5. A company’s annual report
6. “My Struggle for Education” Booker T Washington’s autobiography
a) Covey says that world has changed dramatically since he wrote The Seven
Habits in 1989. The challenges and complexities for magnitude and
dimension and calls for a paradigm shift in our us - both at personal and
professional front - are of a different thinking. The book addresses to the
8th habit as potential energy that is a timeless part of human beings and
has often gone unnoticed and unrealized. It is the voice of human spirit and
hope that is embodied in people like Muhammad Yunus who had a vision
of poverty free world. Finding the inner voice enables the individuals and
the organisations not to do things right but to do right things.
b) As they went on describing the school, it seemed to me that it must be the
greatest place on earth. Not even heaven presented more attractions for
me at that time than did the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute on
Virginia. I wanted to go to that school, although I had no idea where it was,
or how many miles away, or how I was going to reach it. I was on fire
constantly with one ambition, and that was to go to Hampton. This thought
was with me day and night.
c) Asthma, a condition that affects the lungs, is a disease that many people,
the majority of whom are children, have. Asthma is most commonly thought
to be hereditary. One known cause for an attack is an allergic reaction, but
stress and vigorous activity are thought to be causes as well. This disease
can be fatal if it is not taken care of immediately, but with the medical
technology of today, mild asthma is more of a nuisance than a life
threatening disease. Although not proven, asthma is thought to be
hereditary. The majority of asthmatics tend to have asthmatics in the
family. In most cases, asthma usually is present at birth, although some
cases have developed after age forty.
d) ‘Without presumption, sir. I feel that if you were to give me another chance
I should work to your satisfaction. I should endeavour-‘ Mr. Ferguson
stared at him in dumb horror. He had a momentary vision of a sleepless
night spent in listening to a nicely-polished speech for the defence. He was
seized with a mad desire for flight. He could not leave the building, but he
must get away somewhere and think.
He dashed from the room and raced up the dark stairs. And as he arrived
at the next floor his eye was caught by a thin pencil of light which
proceeded form a door on the left.
e) Red Dawn: It sounds like a paperback thriller from the Cold War. In fact it
is the air raid siren in Sderot and the Israeli towns and villages like it around
the Gaza Strip. It is supposed to warn the local people of a Qassam rocket
attack by Palestinian militants. If the system works, they have nine seconds
to run for cover. But sometimes there is nowhere to run.
In a kindergarten in the middle of Sderot, the mere mention of Red Dawn
makes one little girl burst into tears. This kindergarten has lost two children
- on their way here in the morning - to rocket attacks in the past few years.
Unlike some kindergartens in the town, this one at least has a reinforced
concrete roof and blast-proof windows. If the children are outside and the
siren goes, everyone sprints for the door. The children reach it first.
f) Towards the end of the year we saw a slight improvement in our market
share in the United States. A more optimistic economic situation there
helped our sales to grow by just under 15% in the second half of the year.
This was partly due to some very strong competition from other firms.
4.4.2 Scanning
As you read a text, editorial or an article, you suddenly come across a word
that is not familiar to you. Naturally, you would like to know the meaning of the
word, for your own benefit. So you get the dictionary and carefully find the
word. You see the spelling, pronunciation, meaning and also the various uses
of the same word (if any). This type of careful reading, to find out the specific,
clear details, is known as Scanning. Here, you don’t just run your eyes across
the page, but look into the information for specific details. Let us go through
the following exercise to be familiar with what scanning is all about.
Activity 2:
Jesse Owens was a great short-distance runner and an Olympic Champion.
This passage is one of his personal experiences at the 1936 Olympic Games
held in Berlin. About that time, Hitler was preaching to the Germans his theory
of ‘a master race’ Did all Germans believe in this theory?
It was the summer of 1936. The Olympic Games were being held in Berlin.
Because Adolf Hitler childishly insisted that his performers were members of a
‘master race’, nationalistic feelings were running high. I wasn’t too worried
about all these. I’d trained, sweated and disciplined myself for six years, with
the Games in mind. While I was going over on the board, all I could think about
was taking home one or two of those gold medals. I had my eyes especially on
the long jump. A year before I’d set the world record of 26 feet 8.5 inches.
Everyone expected me to win that Olympic event hands down. I was in for a
surprise. When the time came for the long-jump trials, I was startled to see a
tall boy hitting the pit at almost 26 feet on his practice leaps. He turned out to
be a German named Luz Long. I was told that Hitler had kept him hidden away,
evidently hoping he would win the jump. I supposed that if Long won, it would
add some new support to the Nazis’ Aryan-superiority theory. After all, I am a
Negro. A little hot under the collar about Hitler’s ways, I was determined to go
out there and really show Der Fuhrer and his master race who was superior
and who wasn’t.
An angry athlete is an athlete who will make mistakes, as any coach will tell
you. I was no exception. On the first of my three qualifying jumps, I leaped from
several inches beyond the take-off board for a no-jump. On the second jump,
I was even worse. “Did I come 3,000 miles for this?” I thought bitterly. “To fall
in the trials and make a fool of myself?” Then Luz Long approached me and
encouraged me to do my best with a calm mind. I obeyed him and got qualified
for the finals. The next day in the finals I won the Olympic Gold Medal defeating
my nearest rival Luz Long. Long was the first one who came to congratulate
me just in front of Hitler. You could melt down all the gold medals and cups I
have, and they wouldn’t be a plating on the 24 carat friendship I felt for Luz
Long at that moment.

Read the article and answer the questions that follow:
1. What preparations did Jesse Owens do for the Olympic games?
2. Why was everyone sure that Jesse Owens would get the gold medal in the
long jump event?
3. What did Jesse Owens expect to get from the 1936 Olympic Games?
4. What mistake did Jesse Owens make?
5. Why did he make that mistake?
6. Give the words from the passage that means the same as
i) to turn from something solid to liquid
ii) to do something unexpected which surprises someone.
4.4.3 Extensive Reading
Does reading give us pleasure? As we have already mentioned our way of
reading is influenced by the purpose of our reading. Most of us have the habit
of reading especially when we are free or have a lot of leisure time. We might
get hold of a novel, a comic strip, a magazine etc. When we read for the pure
pleasure of reading we call it extensive reading. But, we should not give it a
lesser priority because it is extensive reading. It is enjoyable as well as
informative. Here, we practise rapid reading to get the global/overall
understanding of the matter.
Activity - 3:
Read the passage given below and try to insert words in the blanks. The
words that you choose should be contextual based.
I was born into middle - class Tamil family in the island town of Rameshwaram
in the erstwhile Madras State. My father, Jainulabdeen, had neither much 1
(formal /informal) education nor much wealth; despite these disadvantages, he
possessed great innate wisdom and a true generosity of spirit. He had a 2 (idol
/ ideal) helpmate in my mother, Ashiamma. I do not recall the exact number of
people she fed everyday, but I am quite certain that far more 3 (insiders
/outsiders) were with us than all the members of our own family put together.
I was one of their many children - a short boy with rather undistinguished looks,
born to tall and handsome parents. We lived in our ancestral house, which was
built in the middle of the 19th century. I would say mine was a very secure
childhood, both materially and 4 (emotionally/superficially).
I got 5 (rejections/admissions) at Schwartz High School at Ramanathapuram.
I knew my father had invested great hopes in my 6 (success/failures). He
wanted me to become Collector so I thought it’s my duty to realize his dream.
My teacher, Iyadurai Solomon, used to say that a good student could learn
more from a bad teacher than a poor student from even a skilled teacher. He
used to say, “to succeed in life and achieve results, you must understand and
master three mighty forces - desire, belief, and expectation.” By the time I
completed my education at Schwartz, I was a self-confident boy determined to
succeed. Fur further 7 (recreation /education) I joined St. Joseph’s College,
Trichi. For my engineering, I managed to be on the list of selected candidates,
but admission to this prestigious institution was an expensive effort. At that
time my sister, Zohra stood behind me, 8 (mortgaging/buying) her gold bangles
and chain. What fascinates most at MIT was the sight of two decommissioned
aircrafts displayed there for the demonstration of the various subsystems of
flying machines.
In the 9 (coarse/course) of my education at MIT, three teachers shaped my
thinking. Their combined contributions formed the 10 (foundation/ facade) on
which I later built my professional career. They shared a common impulse - the
capacity to feed their student’s intellectual hunger by sheer brilliance and
untiring zeal.
(Excerpts: Wings of Fire - An Autobiography by A P J Abdul Kalam with
Arun Tiwari)
Note: Now see the possible answers and try to check whether you have
selected the appropriate words. This exercise proves that you can understand
the overall meaning of the passage even if some words are missing.
4.4.4 Intensive Reading
When we read shorter texts like a research paper, for getting specific details/
information we read slowly with a lot of concentration. This is intensive reading.
When you read a book as a resource material for research you read it
intensively because the overall understanding is not the objective/purpose of
your reading. When you read an article in order to write a review on it, you read
it intensively. We use all the skills of reading when we do intensive reading.
Activity 4: Read the following paragraph. At the end of each sentence you
will find the letters M (main idea) and S (supporting detail). Identify in
each case, whether it is M or S and tick the correct letter.
At a time when orphanages and old age homes have become the icons of
civilization, grandparents seldom exert any influence on grandchildren. (M/S)
After the end of the Second World War, the concept of nuclear family became
quite widespread and acceptable. (M/S) The moulding of the behavioural
patters of future citizens became by and large the responsibility of the parents.
(M/S)Psychologists are of the opinion that 50% of an individual’s traits are
genetic in nature and that the other 50% are influenced by the environment.
(M/S) Here also, the parents, especially the mother, has an important role to
play. (M/S)
4.4.5 Loud and Silent Reading
Most of our day-to-day reading is done silently. When we read an article or an
advertisement, we are engaged in the process of deriving meaning from the
passage. Actually when we read aloud our concentration is divided between
reading and speaking. This makes reading difficult and may cause problems
in understanding the matter. But there are situations when we have to read
things aloud, like the notices and circulars, when others don’t have access to
it. You need to read the instructions aloud to students or employees so that
there is no confusion later. Besides these extra-ordinary situations, most of the
time the natural way of reading is silent reading which is ideal and helps
comprehension.
4.5 SQ3R Technique of Reading

This technique of reading is evolved by Robinson in his book "Effective Study"
(1970). SQ3R stands for the initial letters of the five steps in studying a text.
Survey S
Question Q
Read R
Recall R
Review R
Let us briefly go through these steps in the given order:
1. Survey: Survey refers to a quick glance through the title page, preface,
chapter headings of a text. By surveying, you will be able to gauge the main
ideas of the text. Besides, the author's name, date and place of publication
and title page can give you an idea of the general subject area. The table
of contents, preface or foreword in a book would give you an idea of the
themes and how they are organised. A survey of the index or bibliography
tells you immediately whether the book contains what you need.
Let's take an example. Choose the appropriate reference by a quick survey:
Here is a Bibliography (List of Books) on POLIMERIZATION.
Bibliography
(a) Billmeyer, F.W. 1962. A Text Book of Polymer Science
New York: John Wiley and sons
(b) A condensed Chemical Dictionary
(c) International Encyclopedia of Sciences
(d) Encyclopedia Britannica
(e) Stille, J. K. 1962. Introduction to Polymer Chemistry: New York: John
Wiley and sons. Wassermann, Leonard G 1974.
(f) Chemistry: Basic Concepts and Contemporary Applications_California:
Wadsworth Publ CO Inc.
(Adapted from ELT Documents, 1980)
(Decide which of the publications in the list are likely to give you: (encircle the
appropriate letter)
A brief Introduction to the subject: a b c d e f
Current development in the field abcdef
Historical study of the subject a b c d e f
Various opinions by experts on the subject a b c d e f
2. Question: The second step in SQ3R technique of Reading is ‘question.’ A
Survey of the text will surely raise a few questions in your mind, regarding
the text. Some of the questions could be:
• Is the book useful or relevant to my study?
• Does it provide some guidelines/information on the subject at hand?
But, as you go through the individual chapters, you might get specific
questions regarding the topic. This will surely lead to gaining some insights
into the text, topic and the author's comments. We will be surprised to see
how our questions are answered in the process of reading and
understanding the text. Hence don't take reading as an automatic process.
It has to be conscious, deliberate, and purposeful with a definite purpose
where you interact with the topic and the author.
3. Reading: After surveying and questioning, you begin the actual reading.
You need to develop a critical approach in reading anything for that matter.
Read the text over and over again and each time with a different question
in mind and a different purpose in mind. "I read it once and understand
everything" kind of attitude is nothing but a myth. Hence, while reading for
the first time, you just focus on the main points/ideas and supporting details
only.
4. Recall: The fourth stage in Reading Comprehension is recalling. Reading
is not an isolated activity. Every reading exercise increases your
background knowledge. You should be able to connect the information
gained to the already existing background knowledge. Recalling whatever
you have read would enable you to connect, relate the content to the
previous and future learning of the subject. This leads us to the next stage
in reading i.e., Review.
5. Review: Reviewing is nothing but checking whether we have followed the
earlier stages promptly and efficiently; whether we have surveyed the
book, article, and magazine properly. Have we asked the appropriate
questions relating to the content, have we read critically and have we
recalled the most significant details/information required for our study?
These are questions that we would like you to ask in the final stage of
reading. Review will sharpen your critical faculty and you would be able to
form your own opinions on the topic and express them to others.
Isn't this process a rewarding experience? Try to practice these stages
consciously in your reading and research and know for yourself what a
revelation this could be to you.
4. The technique of reading evolved by Robinson is commonly called as
5. By surveying one will be able to gauge the ____ of the text.

6. Which is the fourth stage of reading technique evolved by Robinson?
7. What do you mean by reviewing?
4.6 Summary
In this unit, we have discussed what reading is, and the various purposes of
reading. You have learnt the different types of reading like, Scanning,
Skimming, Intensive, Extensive and SQ3R method of reading. You have to
interact with the given piece of writing/information and derive meaning out of
it. For this, a basic knowledge of the language system, vocabulary, grammar
and some background knowledge of the topic is required. You should also vary
your speed of reading according to your purpose of reading. We have given
you examples of how you can practise the different skills of reading in your
day-to-day life. It is up to you to exercise your knowledge on reading skills and
systematically put the same to practice.

1. What do you mean by ‘S’ in the SQ3R method of reading?
2. Differentiate between internal information and external information.
3. What do you mean by reviewing?
4.8 Answers
1. According to Webster, Reading is a Psycho-linguistic guessing game.
2. The first level is the literal response to the matter that is read.
3. False
4. SQ3R
5. main ideas
6. recalling
7. Reviewing means checking whether the earlier stages of reading were
followed promptly and efficiently.
Activity - 1
1-c, 2-a, 3-e, 4-d, 5-f, 6-b
Activity - 2
1. Jesse Owens trained, sweated and disciplined for six years inorder to
compete in the Olympics
2. In the previous year, he had set the world record of 26 feet 8.5inches.
Hence people expected him to win the long jump event.
3. He expected to get one or two gold medals, especially in the long jump
event.
4. He leaped from several inches beyond the take-off board for a no-jump.
5. He was angry and could not concentrate. So he made the mistake.
6. i) melt ii) startled
Activity - 3
i) Formal vi) Success
ii) Ideal vii) Education
iii) Outsiders viii) Mortgaging
iv) Emotionally ix) Course
v) Admission x) Foundation
Activity - 4
At a time when orphanages and old age homes have become the icons of
civilization, grandparents seldom exert any influence on grandchildren. (M)
After the end of the Second World War, the concept of nuclear family became
quite widespread and acceptable. (M) The moulding of the behavioural patters
of future citizens became by and large the responsibility of the parents.
(S)Psychologists are of the opinion that 50% of an individual’s traits are genetic
in nature and that the other 50% are influenced by the environment. (S) Here
also, the parents, especially the mother, has an important role to play. (M)
Terminal Questions
1. ‘S’ refers to Survey which means to quickly glance through the title page,
preface, chapter headings of a text.

2. When one reads for the necessary background information about one’s
institution where he is working, it is called internal information.
Reading for the information of what is going on in your field, but outside
your own work place is called External Information.
3. Reviewing is checking whether the earlier stages of reading, i.e.survey,
questioning, reading and recalling have been followed promptly and
efficiently.
Remedial English
Adjectives
Any word that adds more meaning to the Noun is called an Adjective. It
qualifies a noun.
Eg.: Ankur is a good player.
Kinds of Adjectives:
1. Adjectives of quality (They answer the question - What kind?) Pankaj is
a fantastic player.
2. Adjectives of quantity (They answer the question - How much?) She
drank a little water.
3. Adjectives of number (They answer the question - How many?) The
teacher met fifty students.
4. Adjectives of demonstration (They answer the question Which?) This
story is very interesting.
Give the papers to those girls.
5. Possessive Adjectives (They answer the question Whose?) My son is in
school.
It is their car.
6. Interrogative Adjectives
Which fool did this?
What kind of sweet should I order?

7. Adjective of Distribution
Each person has to sign on every paper.
Neither Srinivas nor Mohan went to the cinema.
8. Proper Adjectives
Malaya rubber is noted for its quality
(Rubber produced in Malaya (describes rubber)
Japanese style of flower arrangement is called Ikhbana.
(the style used by Japanese).
9. Participial Adjectives : This can be either present participle or part
participle. Present. Present participle refers to Verb+ing - Write+ing =
Writing, Sing+ing = Singing
Past participle refers to verb form liked, written, walked, sung etc.
The smiling child is happy. Smiling describes child. (The child who is
smiling) - Participal
Don’t buy stolen goods. Stolen describes goods which means goods which
are stolen.
Correct Use of some adjectives:
a) Little (practically no chance) Deepak has little chance of being
elected.
A little (some chance) There is a little hope of his success.
I shall give him the little money I
The little (whatever available) have.
Few people are good.
b) Few (practically none) I have a few friends in my office.
A few (a small number) I will pack the few things I have.
The few (whatever available) Yuri Gagarin was the first man to go
c) First (first in order) into space.
Einstein was the foremost scientist
Foremost (leading, eminent) of his day.
She is my eldest sister.
d) Elder - eldest (of the same family) He is the oldest man in the village.
Older - oldest (of age) The nearest bus stop is two
e) Nearest (in space) kilometers away.
She sits next to her friend.
Next (in position)
f) Later (in time) This is the later edition of the book.

Latter (in order) Of the two boys, Raj and Ram, the
latter is clever.
This is the latest print.
Latest (in time) Last (in order) This is the last bottle.
g) Less (smaller) I have less money than needed.
Lesser (not as bad as the other) This is the lesser of the two devils.
h) Farther (distance) Let us walk a little farther.
Further (additional, beyond He may be given further
punishment what exists now)
Exercise 1: Pick out all adjectives

1. Planning requires careful thought.
2. You cannot learn swimming in a shallow river.
3. Tagore had a long white beard and broad forehead.
4. This interesting story is being filmed at the Gemini studio.
5. Throw away that broken glass.
Adverbs
Adverbs add more meaning to the verb, adjective, or another adverb in a
sentence. It ‘modifies’ that word. E.g.: Radha sings melodiously.
Formation of adverbs:
1. By adding -ly, to an adjective: beautifully, strongly.
2. By adding -wise, -ways, -wards: otherwise, sideways, upwards.
3. By combining a prefix and a noun: asleep, ahead, away, besides.
4. By combining a prefix and an adjective: alone, around, below.
5. Two adverbs joined by conjunction: by and by, over and above, now and
then.
Types of adverbs: Adverbs tell us about the time, place, manner, quantity,
reason, and frequency of an action. They are recognized by asking certain
questions to the verb. We can use a few questions to find them.
1. Adverb of time: It answers the question ‘when’.
He left immediately. ( When did he leave? - immediately.)
2. Adverb of place: It answers the question ‘where’.
She lives here. (Where does she leave? -here)
3. Adverb of manner: It answers the question ‘how’.
They lived happily. (How did they live? - happily.)
4. Adverb of reason: It answers the question ‘why’.
All these happened because of you. (Why did all these happen -because
of)
5. Adverb of frequency: It answers the question ‘how often’.
He rarely spoke. (How often did he speak? - rarely)
6. Adverbs of degree/quantity: It answers the questions ‘how much’, ‘in
what degree’.
There is enough sugar.(How much sugar is there? - enough)
7. Relative adverb: E.g.: Show me the place where you were born.
Useage of adverbs:
• An adverb is often placed as near as possible to the word it modifies (verb).
He writes carefully.
• If the verb is in the simple tense form, the adverb is usually placed between
the subject and the verb it modifies.
He often visits his home town.
(Sub.) (Adv.) (V)
• If the verb is in the form of ‘to be’ (is, am, was, are, were) the adverb comes
after the verb.
She is a very sober girl.
• If the verb is compound, the adverb comes after the auxiliary.
He will always return home in time.
• If the sentence is negative, the adverb of frequency follows ‘not’.
They are not generally selfish.
• If the sentence is interrogative the adverb takes position immediately after
the subject.
Has he ever spoken to you?
• In case of infinitives (to + simple form of verb + do), adverb should not be
placed in between ‘to’ and ‘do’.
He refused to do the task quickly.
(Inf.) (Adv.)
• Use of ‘hard’, ‘hardly’ - ‘Hard’ as an adverb usually follows the verb.
He works hard to make both ends meet.
‘Hardly’ as an adverb conveys a negative meaning of scarcely or barely.
Hardly had he spoken when the bell rang.
• Use of ‘scarce’, ‘scarcely’ - ‘Scarce’ as an adverb means hard to find. Coal
has become scarce in England.
‘Scarcely’ as an adverb is almost synonymous with ‘hardly’.
I can scarcely hear you.
Note: ‘hardly’ and ‘scarcely’ are followed by ‘when’. ‘No sooner’ is followed
by’ than’.

Exercise 2: Identify the adverbs in the sentences given below
1. This picture is precisely what I am looking for.
2. Unfortunately, the sky quickly grew dark.
3. Have you traveled recently?
4. The Adverb is one of the most important parts of speech in English
Grammar.
5. I work more on the product development side.
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. careful 2. Shallow 3. Long, white, broad
4. Interesting, Gemini 5. broken
Exercise 2:
1. precisely 2. Quickly 3. Recently
4. most 5. more

Unit 5 Writing Skills

Structure:
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Paragraph
Qualities of a good paragraph
Parts of a paragraph
Writing a paragraph
5.3 Static Description
5.4 Process Description
5.5 Describing Facts and Figures
5.6 Summary
5.8 Answers
5.1 Introduction
In the previous unit you have learnt the skills of reading; the other basic forms
of communication, oral skills and listening skills are already dealt with. Now
we have come to a juncture where advanced form is necessary to
communicate, in a more formal setting. Writing is one such skill, which can be
mastered, if right skills are learnt and practised. Faced with an intense or
complicated writing task, you may often struggle to write. However, the best
style of writing is clear and simple English, contrary to the belief that the writing
overflowing with difficult sounding words will be more effective! More than
being methodical - typing neatly, following all structural formats, etc., you
should also know to use the right word at the right time. In this unit, we shall
learn how to put sentences together, to form a paragraph, in a coherent and
logical manner in order to express our ideas effectively. Paragraphs are like
gift boxes. They have three parts: a topic sentence (which is like the box),
detail sentences (which are like the things present inside the box), and the
conclusion or closing sentence (which is like a bow that ties the whole thing
together).
Objectives:
• define paragraphs
• explain the qualities of a good paragraph

• classify the types of paragraphs and write a paragraph

• use appropriate words in describing any facts or figures
• explain the description of any process given as a figure
• read the facts and figures in the records and describe them with precise
words
5.2 Paragraph
The smallest unit of prose composition is the paragraph. A paragraph may be
defined as a group of sentences relating to a single topic, or developing a
single central idea. Just as a sentence contains one main thought, in the same
way a paragraph contains one main topic or theme. All the sentences should
be so grouped that they must serve to develop the main theme. Letters,
essays, stories, etc., are divided into paragraphs with each paragraph
developing a single idea. A good paragraph is like a strong chain, it has no
loose or weak links.
A paragraph may be long or short, but it is best to keep the paragraph just as
long or short as is necessary for the development of a particular theme.
Moreover, you are allowed to vary the length of the paragraphs because a
short paragraph after a long one gives variety and relief to the eye as well as
the mind.
5.2.1 Qualities of a good paragraph
A good paragraph, like a good sentence must possess the following:
1. Unity
2. Order
3. Variety
1. Unity: A good paragraph NEVER contains more than one main topic or
theme. A good paragraph is one whose theme can be expressed in one
sentence, which is called Topic Sentence.
2. Order: In a good paragraph the sentences are always arranged in a logical
manner. The events are given in a particular order - the order in which they
occur. A well written paragraph shows clear thinking and logical
arrangement. To achieve this effect certain conjunctions and coherence
words may be used. Hence, so, therefore, but, or, and, then are some
such words which connect sentences to make the paragraph a well-knit
organic whole.

3. Variety: A good paragraph must contain both long and short sentences,
sentences of varied construction and those of differing length. However,
your style of writing must be simple and clear.
5.2.2 Parts of a Paragraph
The parts of a paragraph are:
i) Topic Sentence
ii) Supporting Details
iii) Closing Sentence
i) Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph. It introduces the main
idea of the paragraph. To write the topic sentence, summarize the main idea
of your paragraph. Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about.
Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best
countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system.
All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second,
Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained
teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally,
Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many
parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable
place to live.
Here, the first sentence summarizes the entire paragraph. Therefore, it is the
topic sentence.
ii) Supporting Details
They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of a paragraph. They
give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph. You write
supporting details by giving supporting facts, details, and examples.
Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries
in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians
have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has
a high standard of education. Students are taught by well- trained teachers
and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities
are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots
of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
Here, the supporting details are given in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7th sentences.

iii) Closing Sentence

The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph. It restates the main
idea of your paragraph. You write the Closing Sentence by restating the main
idea of the paragraph using different words.
Example: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries
in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians
have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has
a high standard of education. Students are taught by well- trained teachers
and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities
are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots
of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
Here, the last sentence restates the main idea.
5.2.3 Writing a Paragraph
Given below are the steps that you have to follow while writing paragraphs:
i) Prewriting Paragraphs
ii) Writing Paragraphs
iii) Editing Paragraphs
iv) Publishing Paragraphs
i) Prewriting Paragraphs
The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for
your paragraph before you begin writing.
Six Prewriting Steps:
1. Think carefully about what you are going to write: Ask yourself: What
question am I going to answer in this paragraph? How can I best answer
this question? What is the most important part of my answer? How can I
make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from the most
important part of my answer? What facts or ideas can I use to support my
introductory sentence? How can I make this paragraph interesting? Do I
need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this topic?
2. Open your notebook: Write out your answers to the above questions.
You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this; just write enough to help
you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph or
essay.
3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic: Look for and
write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Make sure the
facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going to
answer in your paragraph or essay.
4. Write down your own ideas: Ask yourself: What else do I want to say
about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is
this topic important?
5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay: Choose the most
important point you are going to present. If you cannot decide which point
is the most important, just choose one point and stick to it throughout your
paragraph.
6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea:
Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph, you
must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you
have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and
ideas will best support the main idea of your paragraph. Once you have
chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which order to
put them in the paragraph. Write down your own points so that you can
use it to guide yourself as you write your paragraph.
ii) Writing Paragraphs
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.
Five Writing Steps:
1. Open your notebook or word processor.
2. Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence.
3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.
4. Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.
5. Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your ideas
iii) Editing Paragraphs
The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and
correct them.
Grammar and Spelling
1. Check your spelling.
2. Check your grammar.
3. Read your paragraph again.
4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.
5. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.

6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.

7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.
Style and Organization
1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.
2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.
3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.
4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.
5. See if your paragraph is interesting.
iv) Publishing Paragraphs
The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of your paragraph to
hand in.
Three Publishing Steps:
1. Make a paper copy of your paragraph.
2. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents.
3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your writing.
You have now learnt everything that you need to know to write a paragraph.
But wait, before you start to write a paragraph, have a look at these samples:
1. My Favourite Hobby
My favorite hobby is stamp-collecting. I have a stamp-album in which I have
pasted all the foreign stamps I have been able to collect. It is really a nice
collection. I have stamps from all over the world- from Russia, from Japan,
from Turkey, from China, from U.S.A. and from Egypt. I have also some rare
stamps which were issued in Afghanistan and Tibet. How pretty they are!
How I like to enjoy the pictures of natural scenery, crowns, arms, shields,
historical monuments, lovely knights and ladies printed on these stamps!
Stamp Collecting is really a very useful and instructive hobby.
2. Where There is a Will There’s a Way
If you have the determination to do something you can find a way to do it.
There is usually nothing that is impossible to do. If you fail to do a thing it is
mainly because you have not the will to do it. Many men who have become
famous as scholars, statesman, inventors, had to struggle against seemingly
insufferable difficulties to win success. Napoleon, who rightly believed that
nothing, would be impossible, ordered the army to march into Italy. “Sir, the
Alps,” said the general. “There shall be no Alps,” the Emperor asserted. And
no Alps came in his way. To determine to succeed is a sure way to success.

What seems impossible will turn out to be possible, if you carry on with
determination.
3. Smoking
A bad habit is often harmful but not every bad habit is as harmful as smoking.
Besides being expensive, smoking does injury to one’s health. A smoker gets
nothing but smoke for his money. In the long run he may get something worse-
a dreadful disease called lung cancer. But habit, they say, is second nature;
most smokers remain smokers for life. And even when they know that smoking
can cause disease or even early death, they continue smoking. Can anything
be more unreasonable than that?
1. Define a paragraph.
2. sentence expresses the theme of a good paragraph.
3. What steps do you follow while writing a paragraph?
4. What do you mean by editing paragraphs?
5.3 Static Description

Very often we have to describe the appearance of a layout, apparatus, a place,
thing or a person. We refer to this as static description. Some of the important
things that you have to keep in mind while listening to a description or giving
instructions are:
1. It should be orderly. You should have some organization in your
description. E.g. general to particular, more important to less important,
front to back and so on.
2. It should be clear. The listener should get a clear picture in his mind about
what you are describing.
3. It should be accurate. No external, unnecessary details have to be
included.
4. It should be complete. All the significant and important details should be
included.
Example:
This document provides the manufacturing specifications for the entire line of
Cosy Home Collection, ‘The Coy Lass’ salt shakers (Home Industries model #
1255). A hand-painted ceramic collector’s item, ‘the Coy Lass’ salt shaker
represents cute, Barbie-like lass, her head bowed as if she is shy. A baby pink
flower-print skirt is painted onto the body of the girl. The salt is dispensed
through the girl’s matching bonnet, via a circular array of six small holes. The
bonnet twists off to allow the consumer to fill the dispenser cavity.
Activity
Pick one of the shapes below. Write as accurate a description as you can, to
a fellow learner and see if he/she can recognize the shape from your
description of it. To aid your description, you can pick up the words from the
following vocabulary guide.
VOCABULARY GUIDE: STATIC
Above Below Over close to apart at the top
Underneath In the front away some at the foot/base of
at the back to the right distance from bottom of
to the left on the right front, back rear beside alongside on inverted inside
hand side on the left upside down one side shaped like within outside
hand side in the middle upper higher attached to leading to circle square
(centre), near lower on top of supporting fitting into triangle
covering rectangle
straight spiral
slanting
diagonal wavy

Use this space to describe one of the above shapes and see whether others
can listen to your description and draw that shape more or less accurately.
This is a challenging task but with every exercise you will be able to express
and describe the shapes and things more accurately. Make use of the
vocabulary guide profusely.
Your description
Discussion
Now go through your description of the shape and see what element in your
description is faulty or incomplete. Using the vocabulary guide provided,
improve your own description so that when you describe that to your friend
orally, he should be able to draw the shape that you have in mind. Once again
you check and find out what detail is missing in your description till you get an
accurate/complete description. Isn’t that mind-boggling?
5.4 Process Description (Narration)

Two very common kinds of narrative skills are:
a) describing how to do something b) describing how something works

In describing how to do something, the main aim should be to arrange the
information in such a way, that the process can be done straight through
without unnecessary interruptions. In describing how to repair something for
example, it is best to list all the tools needed beforehand, so that the workman
does not have to go away in the middle of this job to look for a hammer or a
saw. Once again your description should be accurate, clear and complete.
Example
When your pet comes to stay at the Happy Stay Vacation Home, he will get a
daily grooming and exercise ritual designed by a local veterinarian to keep him
happy and healthy. Each morning, our canine guests are gently woken by your
choice of music, radio station, or even a tape of your own voice! After a quick
mouthwash and a bacon-flavored doggie biscuit, your pooch will be taken out
in our spacious recreation area for a breath of fresh air and a few minutes of
healthy exercise with an imported Italian doggie ball or a favourite toy he has
brought with him ...................................
(Source: http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/technical/process.htm)
Now let us practise process description.

Exercise 1 Fill in the blanks to describe how olive oil is produced:
From September to the beginning of November olive gathering starts: ___ ,
trees are shaken. __________________ , olives are sorted out _______ ,
the ones for making oil are picked and they are brought to the oil-mill. There,
they are poured into round baskets which are piled up into the oil-press. __ ,
the oil-press is sealed and a lever is inserted in its hole. _______________ ,
the oil press is worked round by hand. ____________________________ ,
the oil is collected.
5.5 Describing Facts and Figures

You have learnt the meanings of static and process description. Now, after
practising to describe using the suggested words, it will be easier to express
in words what you see in figures. Factual information is provided in either
graphic or diagrammatic form. In your daily work schedule, you may come
across many records to be filled in or you may see figures, tables, pie charts
and bar charts that have to be interpreted correctly. Graphs can be used to

visually represent the relationship of data. It can help organize and show the
statistics. Organizing data graphically can come in handy in fields like
business, sports, teaching, politics, advertising, etc.
All safety facilities maintain registers or records of various kinds. These
provide the vital keys to the wealth of information contained in the records of
the work place. One of the records used in the Safety department is the
‘Ladder Inspection List.’ It is the key to ensure safety of the workmen while
using the fixed ladder.
Exercise 2:
Given below is an example of the Fixed ladder Inspection List. Read it carefully
and answer the questions given below:

Ladder Safety: Fixed Ladder Inspection Checklist

Department: Field Safety and Building Inspection
Program: Ladder Safety
Owner: Program Manager
Authority: ES&H Manual, Chapter 15, Ladder Safety1
Building Number: 23E/556 Location: warehouse
Date: 15 January, 2009 Tracking Number: _________
Fall Protection? yes ^ no _ Cage? yes ^ no __
Material: Metal ^ Wood__ Length: 6.5 metres
Vertical bars less than 9.5" ? yes ^ no __
Back of ladder clearance: > 7 inches? yes ^ no ___
Ladder width: > 16 inches? yes ^ no ___
Climbing clearance: > 15 inches from rung center? yes ^ no __
Rail extension length: > 42 inches? yes ^ no __
Are unavoidable obstructions greater than 4.5 inches above rung
and more than 1.5 inches below? yes ^ no __
Are the rung and rail surfaces acceptable? yes ^ no __
Are the rungs spaced uniformly at 12 inches or less? yes ^ no __
OSHA compliant? yes ^ o ___
Notes:
A. Answer the following questions:

1. The owner of the programme is ______
2. The building number is ____
3. What is the length of the ladder?
4. Name the location of the inspection.
5. When was the inspection held?
B. Say whether the following sentences are true or false
1. The ladder is made of wood.

2. According to the checklist, the rungs of the ladder are spaced

uniformly.
3. The ideal clearance for the back of the ladder is > 7 inches
4. The climbing clearance is not > 15 inches from the rung center
5. The Rail extension length of the ladder is > 42 inches
Exercise 3
Given below is a bar graph. It shows the number of people holding various
jobs. Read it carefully and answer the questions given below.
(No. of workers in thousands)
Questions:
i) About how many people work for medical department?
ii) About how many people work in the political field?
iii) About how many people work for the armed forces (Navy, Air Force, and
Army)?
iv) Which job listed has the most workers?
v) About how many people have opted to work as teachers?
vi) Which is the department that is least opted by people?
(Source: http://www.wtamu.edu)
When you see any record, graph or chart, you should be able to decipher the
meaning or the terms that are given in them. The charts or records have to be
observed carefully before you conclude any aspects of them. Once you know
to point out the key details of the graph or record, it is easy to describe it in
your own words. The next step will be in describing the pattern or the trends
of the graph. As we already know graph is not static, it shows some change
from the original pattern. The figure gives us the clue as to the changing trend

of the data that is supplied in the graph. There are certain words or adjectives
that will help you to describe the changes that you see in a graph. They are:
i) for upward trends: rise, increase, peak
ii) downward trends: drop, fall, decline, dip
iii) any trend that is steady: gradual, sharp, considerable, comparative iv)
any trend that is constant: stable, same.
Exercise 4:
Look at the graph given below and read the questions. Answer them as you
have tried in the previous two exercises. This gives you the basic data that
you need to collect from any given graph. Now try to analyse the graph by
writing a paragraph on the same.
This graph shows the profit a toy manufacturing unit made over the last four
months of the year.
Given below are questions that help you collect the data. If you are able to get
the answers to these questions, half your work is done! The correct answers
mean you have been successful in collecting the data that you require.
a) About how much was the profit in the month of October?
b) Which month had the lowest profit?
c) What is the difference between the profits of November and December?
Paragraph: The line graph shows the profit that a toy manufacturing company
has made over the months of September through December. The month of
September shows Rs. 5,000 profit, which is the lowest point. So the company
saw the least profit in the month of September. At the same time, the month
of October has recorded the highest profit made by the company showing Rs.

23,000 mark. Again the profit dipped to Rs. 15,000 in the month of November
and showed a convenient rise to reach Rs. 20,000 in the month of December.
Exercise 5:
Given below is the histogram giving the mortality rates for coronary heart
disease in men by number of cigarettes smoked in the age group 35-44. It is
taken from. Medically Speaking: English for the Medical Profession., P.L.
Sandler (P. 61). Go through the paragraph that follows. It has been built up
from the data of the histogram.
Paragraph: The histogram shows the relative mortality rates between non-
smokers and cigarette smokers. The figures are death rates per 100,000 men
a year, and among the smokers they are based on the average daily
consumption of cigarettes. Thus it can be seen that the mortality rate among
those who did not smoke was 18 per 100,000 per year, whereas for those who
smoked less than ten cigarettes a day the rate was 41 per 100,000 per year.
For those who smoked between ten and twenty a day the rate was 73 per
100,000 a year, whereas for those smoking twenty-one to thirty-nine cigarettes
a day it was 88 per 100,000 a year. Those who smoked more than forty a day
had a mortality rate of 94 per 100,000 per year.
5.6 Summary
In this unit, you learnt the importance of the conciseness of a paragraph. You
also understood how to write a compact paragraph. You practised reading the
graph and learnt to comprehend the given contents. With the help of the given
clues or data, you also learnt to develop the same into a paragraph. This kind
of static and process description will help in filling the forms that you come
across in your daily administration. It will enable you to choose the essential
data from any records and build up the same.

1. Name the different parts of the paragraph and explain with an example of
your own.
2. What is static description? Explain with examples.
3. Observe the water jacket type testing of hydrostatic pressure testing and
describe the same in writing.
Practice Exercises
Write a paragraph on each of the following topics:
1. Empty vessels make the most noise
2. A stitch in time saves nine.
4. Rome was not built in a day
5.8 Answers
1. A paragraph is a group of sentences relating to a single topic. In other
words, it develops a single central idea.
2. Topic Sentence
3. The four steps that have to be followed while writing a paragraph are:
Prewriting, Writing, Editing and Publishing
4. The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and
correct them
Exercise 1
From September to the beginning of November olive gathering starts : In the
beginning, trees are shaken. Then, olives are sorted out first, the ones for
making oil are picked and they are brought to the oil-mill. There, they are
poured into round baskets, which are piled up into the oil-press. Later, the
oil-press is sealed and a lever is inserted in its hole. After that , the oil press is
worked round by hand. In this way, the oil is collected.
Exercise 2
A. Answer the following questions:
1. Programme manager
2. 23E/556
3. 6.5 metres

4. Warehouse
5. The inspection was held on 15th January 2009
B. Say whether the following sentences are true or false
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
Exercise 3:
1) 225000 ii) 40000 iii) 375000 iv) Marketing v) 325000 vi) politics
Exercise 4:
a) About 23,000 Rs. b) September c) 5,000 Rs
Terminal Questions
1. The parts of a paragraph are:
Topic Sentence, Supporting Details and Closing Sentence (Give your own
example and explain the three points given above)
2. Explaining any object which is stationary is called Static description.
3. To maintain the quality and safety of the portable fire extinguishers, water
jacket type testing of hydrostatic pressure testing must be utilized. All
critical components of the fire extinguisher must be tested to ensure proper
function. First, the extinguisher valve is removed and the threads and
interior of the cylinder are checked for corrosion, pitting, and any other
abnormalities. If the cylinder passes the visual inspection, it is placed into
a steel chamber, which is then filled with water at normal pressure. A glass
burette attached to the side of the steel chamber will read zero, indicating
normal or zero pressure of the chamber water. Water is then applied at
high pressure to the interior of the extinguisher's cylinder. As the pressure
increases, the cylinder will expand and push water from the steel chamber
through a small hole and into the glass burette. After the pressure is
released, the cylinder will contract and the water will move from the burette
back to the steel chamber. Depending on the results, the tester will either
pass or fail the cylinder.
Practice Exercises
You have the freedom to write your own paragraphs in varied ways, here’s a
sample of how paragraphs on these topics can be written:

1. Empty Vessels Make the Most Noise

A humble man often tells you that he knows very little when in reality he
may know a lot. A braggart does the opposite-he boasts of his knowledge
when in reality he knows nothing much about the topic. The former is like
a vessel full of grain; if you tap it hardly produces any sound at all. The
latter is like an empty vessel- it needs very little tapping to produce big
noises. Empty headed people always think a world of themselves!
2. A Stitch in Time Saves Nine
A small tear becomes a big hole, in just the same way as a small illness
grows into a big disease or a small quarrel among children leads to a major
feud between families. For diseases, prevention is better than cure; so too
for tears or holes in one’s clothes. A good mother does not allow the tear
that appears on her child’s clothes to become big; she stitches it or darns
it in time to save much greater work later and to keep the clothes as good
as new. Her stitch in time thus saves many stitches and a lot of
unnecessary labour. Good neighbours do much the same; they do not
allow children’s quarrels to grow big and become family quarrels. They
help the children to forget and forgive and to live happily together. Timely
actions always save situations from becoming worse.
3. Rome Was Not Built in a Day
Rome, the greatest city of the ancient world was not built in a short time.
It took several years to build Rome and to bring it to the state of glory. And
it is the same with any great achievement. When we wish to achieve
something, we cannot expect success in a moment. We should not be
impatient. We must stick to the work till it is finished. We must bear in mind
a saying similar to the above: ‘If at first you don’t succeed, try, try and try
again. An important task cannot be done without patience and
perseverance.
Remedial English
Conjunctions
A Conjunction is a word, which connects words, phrases, clauses or
sentences. There are two classes of conjunctions. They are:
1. Co-ordinate conjunctions
2. Subordinate conjunctions.
Co-ordinate conjunctions join two ideas or sentences, which are of
importance. They also join two words of equal grammatical rank. The chief co-

ordinate conjunctions are - and, but, for, nor, or, otherwise, so, else, either
--------------- or, neither ------ nor, yet, only, both ------ and, however.
At 10, she went to bed, and fell asleep.
Yesterday was sunny but cold.
He was angry for he had missed the bus.
Neither owls nor bats come out during the day.
Turn down the heat or the cake will burn.
You can go to Tokyo either by land or by sea.
Don’t drive so fast, otherwise you will crash.
English examination was easy; however, biology was difficult.
It rained and so the match was cancelled.
She worked hard yet failed to pass.
I would like to be there, only I would be out of station.
She plays both the piano and the violin.
Exercise 1: Use correct coordinating conjunctions in the blanks.
1. You sang well ___ you need a little more practice.
2. She opened the door ___ walked in.
3. The river was not deep enough, ___ they returned home.
4. He ____ remembers your name _____ your face.
5. Father doesn’t want to send me to Australia, ____ I am continuing my
studies here.
Subordinate Conjunctions: are the conjunctions that connect the in
complete idea to the main.
The patient had died before the doctor arrived.
Before the doctor arrived - incomplete idea.
The patient had died - main idea.
Before - subordinating conjunction.
There are many subordinating conjunctions. They are used to express
different incomplete statements, or function as a part of them. They tell us
about:
1. time
2. manner
3. place
4. condition
5. reason
6. concession

7. result
8. purpose
9. comparison
1. Subordinate conjunctions express a period of time: when, while, as
since, after. before, until, as soon as, no sooner, whenever, till, hardly
.... when.
When the baby cried, mother ran towards him.
The workers had hardly left when the building collapsed.
2. Manner expression is linked with the subordinating conjunctions as, as
if / as though
Sometimes Pinky talks as though / if she knew everything. (actually
she doesn’t know anything)
3. Place expression are linked with conjunctions - where, wherever. Do
not park you car where there is no enough room to take a U-turn. You
can sleep wherever you like.
4. Conditional expressions are made with - whether, if, unless Mother
asked me whether I wanted nice or bread for the night. If we win the
match, we shall be greatly honoured.
Many of us do not go to a film unless it has a good story and music.
5. Reason is expressed using conjunctions like - because, since, as.
Children did not go out to play because it was raining heavily. Since
Joe failed to get a reservation, he cancelled his trip to Darjeeling.
6. Concessive (used to contrast what follows) expressions are linked with
conjunctions - though, although, even though
Though it was a difficult climbing, they managed to reach the top of
the mount in the end.
Although your ideas are well organized, you need to improve your
pronunciation.
Even though I have been learning painting for over ten years, I
have not been able to achieve perfection.
7. Idea expressing result is associated with conjunctions - so — that.
The athlete ran so fast that he reached the winning line in 30 seconds.
8. Idea of purpose is expressed with conjunctions - so that, in order that
People work hard so that they can earn money for a dignified living. We eat
in order that we may live.
9. Comparison is linked with - than, as---as
Your essay is better than mine. (is)
I think the Pacific ocean is as deep as the Atlantic Ocean. (is)

Exercise 2: Spot the coordinating conjunctions in the sentences below:
1. The bird perched on the branch of a tree and ate up the worm.
2. Food was very well prepared but it was not hot enough.
3. My grandmother has no teeth, so she cannot chew carrots.
4. Keep off the grass otherwise; the gardener will shout at you.
5. When my parents are away, I prepare my own food or eat out.
Interjections
A word, which expresses a sudden and intense feeling of surprise, joy, fear,
sadness is interjection. The exclamation mark put after it indicates. (Ah!
Hurrah! Well! Dear! Oh!) Interjection is not grammatically connected with the
rest of the sentence.
Hurrah! We have won the match.
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. but 2. and 3. so 4. neither-nor 5. so
Exercise 2:
1. and 2. But 3. So 4. Otherwise 5. when
Unit 6 Business Writing

Structure:
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Business Letter Writing
Principles of writing letters
Structure of a business letter
6.3 Types of Business Letter
6.4 Job Application
6.5 Other Business Communication
6.6 Summary
6.8 Answers

6.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learnt to write paragraphs with short and lucid
sentences. The flow of ideas should be easy and connected with linkers. This
also holds well with the letter writing skills that you will be learning in this unit.
To make your writing task easy, you should learn to put yourself in the shoes
of the reader of your letter. When writing a letter or report, think of your readers’
likely response to the contents, the style and the tone. If your readers are
laymen, the technical jargon that you use may not be understood at all. At the
same time, if the readers are experts who understand technical language, you
should not go on explaining the terms in detail. While concentrating on the
style of writing, use formal tone for the business letter and try not to impress
your readers with complicated words. The simpler you write, the better it is
understood. Or it may just not serve the purpose and land unread in the trash
bin. Now we don’t want that to happen, do we?!
Objectives:
• discuss the principles and structure of a business letter
• distinguish between letters and use effective language and style for
different letters.
• write an effective covering letter to apply for a job.
• draft an effectual resume.
• write a fax message, telegram and e-mail.
6.2 Business Letter Writing

When you enter any profession, you will come across one task that you have
to perform which is of utmost importance, writing letters as a part of your
routine work. You will be writing letters to other organizations and institutions,
customers, clients, suppliers, government officers, credit agencies, employees
etc. These letters are commonly called ‘business letters.’ Business letters are
usually written to inform readers of specific information. However, you might
also write a business letter to persuade others to take action or to propose
your ideas. Business letters can be challenging to write, because you have to
consider how to keep your readers' attention. This is particularly the case if
your readers receive large numbers of mail and have little time to read.
Writing business letters is like writing any other document: First you must

analyze your audience and determine your purpose. Then you gather
information, create an outline, write a draft, and revise it. The key to writing
business letters is to get to the point as quickly as possible and to present your
information clearly. While doing this you should always bear in mind the
‘audience’ of your letter, the person who is going to read your letter. So your
letter should appeal to the reader. Ask yourself “How would I react if I received
this letter?” The answer to this question will help you to decide about editing
your letter.
6.2.1 Principles of writing letters
We have discussed the purpose of writing business letters. Now let us learn
how to write them efficiently; we shall find out the principles that should be
followed to make our letters effective.
1. Courtesy and Consideration: To build a good rapport with business
acquaintances, we should be courteous and considerate. Courtesy is like
the oil which removes the friction, it makes life smooth and helps win
friends. It softens the sting of an unpleasant piece of information, creates
goodwill, and produces a favourable response. Look at the following
sentences that help you word your business letter in a polite manner.
• Thank you very much for your letter of / dated ...
• We are glad to note that you are now in a position to pay our bill.
• We appreciate your writing to us so promptly.
• We regret to inform you that we cannot meet your order immediately.
• We are sorry that you did not receive your order in time.
2. Conciseness: While writing a business letter it is important that your letter
be concise and direct. Avoid verbose language and long winded
sentences to state simple matters. In the present times, people are very
busy and will be easily irritated to read unnecessarily lengthy letters. So
you should focus directly on the message to be told.
3. Clarity and Precision: Whenever you write a letter, be clear about what you
want to say and say it clearly. Use short, simple words and language to
relate whatever you want to tell in the letter. Use concrete words - two
words in English will have similar meaning - in such cases, use the word
which is commonly understood. E.g.: if you use the word ‘house’ and it
conveys the meaning that you intend, don’t use the word ‘residence’,
which will make the message more complicated. Avoid long winded

sentences (running into five lines and more). Spare your reader the
tedious task of understanding your letter and try to make smaller
sentences. To make your letter clear, break it into different paragraphs
when you have to discuss more than one main point. Finally, you have to
understand that writing a good business letter involves a lot of practice,
which will gradually enable you to be an effective writer.
6.2.3 Structure of a business letter
We have discussed in detail about the language that you should adopt while
writing a letter. Now, let us come to the arrangement of a business letter. To
make your letter effective, remember that your presentation of the letter also
has to be effective. Usually, the letter is drafted in two styles - Blocked and
Semi Blocked.
Blocked - Every line in this style begins flush with the left hand margin.
Paragraphs are differentiated by leaving a blank space in between them.
Semi blocked - The first line of each paragraph is indented in this style of
writing letters.
You can follow any one style of writing a business letter.
The business letter contains the following elements:
1. Heading: Many organizations use their letter head for writing business
letters. This covers one fifth of the total space of the page. The name
and address of the organization is centred at the top and other
information like the telephone numbers, telegraphic address, etc. are
divided in the margin space.
2. Date: This is very important as it might act as a proof that you wrote on
a particular date. Type the date two spaces below the last line of the
heading at the left hand margin of the letter. E.g.: Remember to give the
name of the month. Avoid the form 10/9/2005. In Britain it means 10th of
September(first date and then month is written) whereas in USA, people
understand it as 9th of October(first month and then date is written). E.g.:
14th July, 1995; 14th July 1995; 14 July 1995; July 14th 1995, July 14,
1995.
3. Reference: The advantage of writing a reference is that it helps to trace
the letter at a later date. Writing reference number is of two types: one
indicates the reference number that you allot for the letter that you write;
the other indicates the correspondent’s previous letter to which you are
replying now. This is placed on the left hand side, two lines after the
salutation. However, some prefer to write it in the body of the letter. E.g.,
With reference to your letter no...... dated .... Or Thank you for your letter
no ............................................
4. Inside Address: The complete address of the person whom you are
addressing should be written. You should place it two line-space after
the date. Do not abbreviate or spell wrongly the name of the person. Add
Mr before the name of a man, Miss before the name of a woman if she
is unmarried, Mrs if she is married. Nowadays, the trend is towards
writing Ms before a woman’s name irrespective of her marital status. If
the lady whom you are addressing to has a special title, such as Dr or
Professor, you can mention the titles and put Ms inside the brackets after
the title E.g.: Dr (Ms) Anita McGrath
5. Salutation: This is the vital part of the letter which is as good as wishing
the person. It is important that you address the name of the person if you
know it. E.g.: Dear Mr Blackwell. You may use Dear Sir/ Sirs or Dear
Madam only if you do not know the name of the person. In government
departments, letters that are addressed by name is known as ‘demi-
official letters.’ They are written to draw the attention of the concerned
officer so that prompt action is taken. Sales and circulars are addressed
as ‘Dear Customer’, ‘Dear Reader’, ‘Dear Subscriber’ etc. Salutation is
written two line space after the last line of the address.
6. Subject: This indicates to the reader of the letter what the letter is about.
It saves the time of the reader. The subject of the letter is written two
line-spaces after the salutation.
7. Body: This contains the text of the letter that you write. You should
organize the body of the letter into paragraphs depending upon the
matter of your communication. In the opening paragraph, indicate
reference to any previously corresponded letters. If it is the first letter,
then write the intention of writing the letter. The second paragraph
should contain the main message and the following paragraphs, further
details if any. Finally, while concluding, you should clearly state any
action that you would take or expect the reader to take.
8. Conclusion: The conclusion is also known as ‘complimentary close.’ You
should always end the business letter with a firm or positive note. Don’t
be vague in your closings such as, ‘Thanking you ...’ ‘Hoping to hear

from you’ etc. The close should agree with the salutation that you have
written. The following examples will help you decide the correct
conclusion.
Salutation Conclusion
Dear Mr. Rahul (address by Yours sincerely
name)
Dear Sir / Dear Madam /Sir Yours faithfully / Yours obediently / Yours
respectfully / Yours truly
Dear Member / Customer / Yours sincerely
Subscriber
Note: Yours obediently is written by a student when he addresses his

teacher. Yours respectfully is written if you are addressing a high
dignitary (even in business correspondence). Do not put apostrophe
after ‘r’ in the word ‘yours’.
9. Signature: You should place your signature below the complimentary
close. Four line spaces are left after the complimentary close to write your
name in full. This space is meant for your signature. Do not write any title
(Mr Ms Mrs) before the name. However, a woman may put a title after the
name in brackets. E.g.: Kiran (Mrs). Beneath the name you may specify
your position - CEO, Manager, etc.
10. Enclosure: If you have to enclose any documents along with the letter,
you must mention it. The word in abbreviated form encl. is typed two line
space below the name/ position that you had specified indicated.
Given below is a sample of business letter. For other samples refer to the
appendix.
(Letter of booking a room in the Hotel for a Guest)
Manipal University of Jaipur

of Health, Medical & Technological Sciences
Directorate of Distance Education
1st Floor, Syndicate House, Manipal 576104
2nd June, 2009
Mr. Rahul Srivastava
Front Office Manager
Valley View
Manipal - 576104

Dear Mr. Srivastava

Sub: Booking of single room (a/c) for 25th December
This letter is to confirm our recent telephone conversation regarding Mr. Kishan
Majumdar’s stay at your hotel, next week, in connection with the ‘The New Media
& Freedom of Speech’ symposium organized by us. All charges are to be directed
to me at the address on our letterhead.
Mr. Majumdar will arrive at the Mangalore airport on 12th June 2009. He should be
checking in around 12.30p.m.
The rate for his room will be Rs.3200 plus tax per day. He will probably be staying
for 2 days.
Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.
Yours sincerely
( XXX)
Symposium Convenor
1. While writing letters, avoid verbose language and long winded sentences
to state simple matters. (True/False)
2. While writing letters, you should write as you wish. (True/False)
3. Simple words should be used while writing letters. (True/False)
4. Courtesy should be of prime importance while writing business letters.
(True/False)
6.3 Types of Business Letter

Letters have to be drafted differently for different occasions. The tone,
language and style vary based on the circumstance, which makes you write
the letter. The different letters are complaint letter, apology letter and, covering
letter for job application. In this section, we shall learn how to write complaint
and apology letters. ‘Covering letter’ has been explained in section 6.4.
Complaint letter: Writing a ‘complaint letter’ is often an undesirable task, but
if it is done well, the end result can be very rewarding. Complaint letters can
be used for the purpose of having products replaced or money refunded, for
changing company policy or government legislation, for influencing the media,
and so forth. Often a complaint letter is more effective than a simple phone
call or e-mail message. Furthermore, in many cases, the formality of a
complaint letter can add seriousness to the situation that will bring results.
When writing your complaint letter, identify a definite purpose and outcome
that you want to achieve, and indicate those ideas clearly in your letter.
Points to keep in mind while writing complaint letters
• Be sure that the complaint you are making is legitimate. Check out the
facts of your complaint.
• Let your language be diplomatic. Avoid being sarcastic, angry or
threatening even if your complaint is genuine. Remember that the person
to whom you address your letter may not, after all be the person
responsible for the problem.
• Let your letter be concise and limit it to one page if possible. However,
include important dates or places (for example, when and where you
bought the product or received the service), and include any additional
relevant information you can (such as the product number or type of
service).
• If you have to enclose any documents do so but remember to send only
the photocopy and keep the originals with you. Also keep a copy of your
complaint letter for your records.
Apology letter: An effective apology letter is an important part of the business
correspondence that would make your life in work place easy. To err is human,
so instead of dwelling on the mistake committed, it is better to act quickly in
order to resolve the problem.
Points to keep in mind while writing apology letters
• While writing an apology letter, concentrate on the rectification of the
error committed than on the problem that you have caused the
receiving person.
• If possible along with the apology, state any compensation that you
can give to the person who has suffered the damage.
• Take full responsibility on the problem caused.
• Don’t be dramatic while apologizing. Your words should express your
feelings clearly and simply. The tone of your letter should be
considerate and respectful.
6.4 Job Application

Advancement in the career front is the most desired aspect of an individual’s
life. Writing a job application is the first step towards such goal. A job
application is nothing but a medium to sell your services. So it should show all

qualities that are required by the buying agent i.e. the employer. Normally a
job application contains two parts: a covering letter and a Resume. It is also
known as Bio-data or Curriculum Vitae. We will learn in detail the method of
drafting the covering letter and a Resume.
1) Covering Letter: This is the first paper that is read by a Personnel
Manager, which suggests to him whether you are fit or not for the requirements
of his company. The covering letter will have the following elements.
• The position you are applying for. You have to give the reference of the
post that you have applied for. It is important to indicate where you came
across the advertisement of the job vacancy. Your opening paragraph
should be very effective to attract the employer’s interest in you.
• Your interest in the job. You should indicate your keenness to get the job.
• Your suitability for the job. Here you can write a brief paragraph about your
experience and skills that make you fit for the job. Your most impressive
details from the Resume may be included here.
• A statement of your availability for interview.
• Make sure you use good English and do the proof reading before you send
the letter with the resume.
Structure of the Letter:
1. Address of the applicant and date: This is written on the top of the letter
flush with the right margin. It may also be written on the left margin. The
address is written first and after two line spaces the date is written.
However, some may start with the date and then after two line spaces the
address is written.
2. Salutation: Even if you know the name of the person whom you are
addressing to, it is better to keep the salutation as ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Sirs.’
If you know that you are writing to a lady, make it ‘Dear Madam’ This is
typed two line spaces after the last line of the address written above.
3. Subject: It is better to write the subject, which contains the vacancy you
are applying for. This is written immediately below the salutation. Make it
bold if you are printing it, or you should underline it in the case of written
application.
4. Body: We have already discussed how to write a covering letter. You may
follow those hints while writing the job application. Leave two line space
after writing the subject to start the body of the letter.

5. Complimentary Close: You can follow the rules given in the unit ‘structure
of business letter (5.2.3).’ Leave four spaces to sign in your name after the
complimentary close.
6. Signature: After your signature, don’t forget to write your full name clearly
below it.
7. Enclosures: This is written two line spaces after writing your name. Write
clearly all the documents that you are enclosing with your covering letter.
Check out this sample covering letter, which may help you to make a start in
writing impressive covering letters!
Smitha P
Shri Vilas
R.D. Road
Jamshedpur.
May 1, 2009
The Editor
‘News Today’
Patna
Bihar
Dear Sir,
Subject: Application for the position of Sub Editor
I am mailing in response to your advertisement in ‘The Hindu’, dated 29
April, 2009 for the position of Sub editor, in your esteemed Organisation. I
have attached my bio data for your consideration
I have obtained my Masters in Journalism from the Manipal University of
Jaipur and also a Diploma in Creative Writing from National College, New
Delhi. I am working as a trainee from the last six months in The Business
India, Ranchi.
I look forward to working with you on your new project.
Yours sincerely,
Smitha. P

ii) Writing a Resume

When you apply for a job, you should always remember that your application
is not the only one which is seen; but your aim is to see that you write a resume
that makes you really stand out as a superior candidate for a job you are
seeking. So, even if you face fierce competition, with a well written resume
you should be invited to interview more often than many people more qualified
than you. Such a resume needs conceptualization of your accomplishments
and experiences all into one document. Your focus should be on the
requirements of the employer. Therefore, your resume should contain,
• Your aims, goals,workexperiences, achievements, qualifications
• Your projects orresearches ifdone.
• Your skill sets
• Your objectives
• References
• Your experience in the previous company
• Your strengths and weaknesses depending on what is the requirement of
the job. Be careful while writing the weaknesses; they should appear as if
in the long run they are, after all, your strengths!
• Your detailed contact information where the employer can reach you
• Any other information that you fee can be relevant for you to portray
yourself to get the job based on your experience and qualification.
All these matters that are the requirements of the vacancy you are applying to
should be written in a precise and concise manner. Remember that no
employer has enough time to go through extensive and detailed resumes. So
your resume should be easy to read and should impress the employer at the
first glance.
Structure of Resume (Ref.: Katharine Hansen)
1. The ‘one-page resume’ rule is now outdated. Try to keep your resume very
compact and to the minimum required pages. The language should be
very official and not general.
2. Include and highlight all important words, so that they stand out and your
resume gets recognized among others.
3. Avoid using the personal pronouns - I, You, Me.
4. List your job information in order of importance. In listing your jobs, what's

generally most important is your title/position. So list in this preferred order:

Title/position, name of employer, City/State of
employer, dates of employment.
5. List your jobs in reverse chronological order. Your present job being the
first, the previous being second and so on.
6. Education also follows the principle that you followed while listing jobs.
Thus the preferred order for listing your education is: Masters, Graduation,
Pre-University Exams.
7. Avoid mentioning the reasons for leaving previous job(s), names of former
supervisors, specific street addresses or phone numbers of former
employers, salary information, the title "Resume," or any information that
could be perceived as controversial, such as religion, church affiliations,
or political affiliations.
8. Don’t list references right on your resume. References belong in a later
stage of the job search. Provide them only when they are specifically
requested.
9. Proof read carefully. Misspellings and typos are deadly on a resume.
Grammatical and other mistakes are to be totally avoided since that shows
the incompetence of the candidate.
6.5 Other Business Communications

We have already learnt certain methods that enable effective communication,
such as writing different types of letters. We should now divert our attention to
some other mediums of communication that enable the smooth functioning of
an organisation. These include short message methods like fax, telegram and
more modern style of communication through e-mails.
Fax Message, Telegram and E-mail
Writing smaller messages depend on the technical instruments that are used
while sending the message. Hence, concentration should be on writing short
messages. Avoid all words and phrases that do not add significantly to the
message that you want to send. Brief reference to the context should be
provided to make your message complete. So you may skip writing salutation,
complimentary close, etc. But don’t forget to include your name at the bottom.
Fax and e-mail are used to send formal business letters. E-mail may also be
used as informal medium of communication.
While composing a telegraphic message (telegram), only key words and
phrases are used. Function words such as articles and prepositions should
not be included. If essential, they may be used to a minimum. See the samples
given below.

1. Fax
Fax from Beacon Towers
22 Alma Street
Sampangi Park 575222
Fax: 650 325 8723
Fax to: Sanjay Memon, Manasvi Inc.
Fax no: 235 266 3122
Date: 17 December 2001
Subject: Remittance of draft for Registration of classes
No. of pages including this one: 1
From: Ashish Jain, Registration Manager
Refer to our telephonic conversation on 15 December. The bank draft for
Rupees Seventeen thousand has not yet been received. Please send by return
post or by courier.
Ashish Jain
2. Telegram:
Training Manager
Beacon Consultants
10, Janpath
New Delhi - 110001
Sixty five copies of Registration form Books sent today by courier.
Buvan Patel
Manager Logistics
Not to be telegraphed:
Bhuvan Patel, Manager Logistics
Accord Company Pvt. Ltd.
24, Akashganga Marg
Kolkatta - 432001
3. E-Mail
Previous Next Reply Forward

Date: 17 December 2006
From: Bhuvan Patel, Accord Company Pvt. Ltd.

To: Training Manager, Beacon Consultants

CC: General Manager- Training, Beacon Consultants
Subject: Despatch of Registration Form Books
We have sent today 65 books of Registration Forms by courier. Sorry for the delay.
Bhuvan Patel

5. should not be provided in the resume; it should be provided only
on request.
6. mistakes in the resume shows the incompetence of the writer.
7. While composing ___ , only key words and phrases are used.
8. While writing _______ letter, take full responsibility on the problem
caused.
6.6 Summary
Writing effectively is an art that needs to be practiced to be perfect. The
language used, structure and tone-all reflect the character of the person
writing. It is the same with the writing of letters, be it a formal or informal letter.
The letters written by you in any position of your career reveals the character
of your organization. There are different circumstances that come across when
a business letter is written. It may be a letter of booking a room, a complaint
letter, an apology letter, business proposal, invitations, accepting the invitation
or declining it, a covering letter for a job, a fax, press release, e-mail so on.
Though there are many styles and structure of writing such letters, one should
follow what is widely practised in the world of business. A successful business
letter is one which is courteous, clear and concise. The readers’ interest is of
prime consideration while writing a letter. This would ensure quick
transmission of message and evoke the desired response.
1. How can you be ‘concise’ while writing a business letter?
2. Why do you write ‘reference’ in a business letter?
3. Name some mediums that you would use to send small messages.
6.8 Answers
1. True 5. Reference

2. False 6. Grammatical
3. True 7. Telegraphicmessages
4. True 8. Apology
Terminal Questions
1. Write short and simple sentences. Verbose language should be avoided.
Focus directly on the message that needs to be informed.
2. With the help of reference, the letter can be traced at a later date.
3. Small messages can be sent through fax, email or telegram.
REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Sentence
A group of words that makes a complete sense or gives complete meaning is
called a sentence. It expresses the thought of the person who speaks or writes
the sentence. Traditionally, a sentence is considered as a largest grammatical
unit. A sentence also consists of the choice of right words, proper arrangement
of those words according to the prescribed grammatical rules. It is also
imperative that a sentence has a verb in it to consider it as a sentence.
Kinds of Sentences
From the point of view of expression of thoughts, the sentences are divided
into four kinds.
1. Declarative Sentences: Look at the sentences below.
Tsunami hit the southeast coast of India.
Press is considered the fourth pillar of democracy.
They state or assert certain facts. So they are called declarative
sentences. A declarative sentence makes a statement. It begins with a
capital letter and ends with a period (full stop).
2. Interrogative Sentences: Look at the following examples: -
Where are you going?
Whom did Ajith meet last night?
Notice the question marks in the end of the sentence. This suggests that
the sentences are asking questions. Such types of sentences that ask
questions are called Interrogative sentences.
3. Exclamatory Sentences: Now, look at the sentences that follow- Wow,
what a win that was!
How tragic his life is!
The sentences in the example express strong feelings either of happiness

or sadness. The feelings are also sudden. Also notice the exclamatory
mark at the end of the sentences. Such sentences are called Exclamatory
sentences.
4. Imperative sentences: Finally, read the sentences given below.
Go out of the class
Call the electrician, please
May the Lord bless.
The first sentence is an order, the second, a request and the third is a
wish. We use the above sentences when we are talking directly to
someone. Hence the subject (you) is omitted because it is understood in
the meaning. Such types of sentences that are used to express order,
request or wish are called as Imperative sentences.
Exercise 1: Identify the type of sentence
1. Peel me a grape
2. Zubin sat beside me.
3. Do you like Mexican food?
4. What a bad luck!
5. My car was stolen last week.
Subject:
The complete subject is the simple subject (a noun or a pronoun) plus any
words or group of words modifying the simple subject that tell who or
what the sentence is about. Thus, a subject is the person, place, or thing that
acts, or is described in the sentence.

Christopher Columbus discovered America I I
Subject Verb
The action of the sentence is expressed by the verb - ‘discovered.’ The noun
‘Christopher Columbus’ is doing the action of discovering. Hence ‘Christopher
Columbus’ is the Subject in the sentence.
Himalayas are tall mountains.

II
Subject Verb
The verb ‘are’ in this sentence does not express action.
Instead, it tells us about the ‘being’ or ‘existence’ of Himalayas.
The noun ‘Himalayas’ is doing the existence or being. So it is the subject.
Sometimes the verb will express ‘being’ or ‘existence’ instead of action.

Predicate: The predicate is the action or description that occurs in the
sentence. Sometimes a verb will express existence instead of an action. Verb
is an essential part of the predicate. In other words, we can say that the
predicate is the ‘telling part’ of the sentence because it tells us what the subject
is doing and to whom.
Shakespeare advised us not to borrow books.

In this sentence, ‘Shakespeare’ is the noun or the
doer of the action.
‘Advised’ is the verb, which expresses the action done by Shakespeare. So
Subject Predicate
‘advised’ is the predicate.
Exercise 2: Complete the following with appropriate predicate

1. Two roses ____________
2. The copy writer __________
3. She ___________
4. The newspaper
5. All of us _______
Phrases: A group of words without a finite verb is a phrase. In other words,
phrases are just a group of related words that do not express a complete

thought. They also do not have a subject and predicate pair. So, they cannot
be considered as a sentence.
The house at the end of the street is very beautiful.
In the example given above, the underlined part is the phrase.
Clauses
Words and phrases can be put together to make a clause. A group of related
words that contain both a subject and a predicate and that functions as a part
of a sentence is a clause. A clause is different from a phrase because a phrase
is a group of related words which lacks either a subject or a predicate or both.
Look at the following sentence
My grandfather snores when he sleeps
In the above example there are two clauses. Only one of them (My grandfather
snores) is a sentence. i.e. which can stand on its own to make a complete
sense. In other words, it is independent of other words. So it is a Principal
clause. It is also called Independent clause.
The other clause of the above sentence, ‘when he sleeps’, gives an incomplete
thought or idea, one that cannot stand by itself, one that needs some more
words to make it meaningful. The word ‘when’ changes the meaning, making
the thought incomplete. After reading this clause, we are left hanging.
The clause raises a question ------ ► what will happen when he sleeps...?
So, the second clause which depends on the first to give meaning to it is called
a Dependent Clause or Subordinate Clause
Subject - Verb Agreement
The subject and verb agreement is an important aspect of the English
language. It is very important that the verb and subject agree in number and
person.
The two smart girls in the class were chosen to win the award.

In the given example, there are three ways in which the subject (girls) is shown
to be plural:
1. the adjective ‘two’.
2. the plural marker ‘s’ attached to the subject
‘girl’.
3. the verb ‘to be’ in its plural form ‘were’. V* if
* While trying to determine whether a verb should be in singular or plural
form, find the subject and ignore all the words coming after it. If the subject is
singular, then the verb is singular or vice versa.
The problems with the student have not yet been resolved.
In this example, the subject is ‘problems’ which is in the plural form. So the
verb should be in the plural form. Hence we use the verb ‘have’ (plural form).
1. When two subjects are joined by ‘and’, the verb is plural. John and Jinny
are friends.
Exceptions:
• When two singular nouns are joined by ‘and’, but refer to the same
person, then the verb is singular.
E.g.: 1. the secretary and treasurer is on leave. (article ‘the’ is
used only once.)
2. The secretary and the treasurer are on leave. (article ‘the’
is used twice).
• When two different singular nouns express one unit, the verb is in
singular. E.g.: Rice and curry is my staple diet.
• When two singular subjects are practically synonymous, the verb is
in singular. E.g.: Peace and Prosperity is the need of the day.
• When two singular subjects are joined by ‘and’ which are preceded
by ‘each’ or ‘every’, the verb is in singular. E.g.: Every man, woman
and child has been rescued.
2. The nouns that end in -s (certain countries, fields of study, activities,
diseases) take a singular verb.
The United States doesn’t have a cricket team. Mathematics
was my favorite subject in school. The aerobics class is held
every Tuesday. Measles is a serious childhood disease.

3. Most collective nouns take the singular form of the verb.

The committee doesn’t have to come up with a solution until next week.
Exception: However, the nouns ‘people’ and ‘police’ are considered plural,
so they take a plural verb.
The police are here to protect us.
The people were happy to see the return of their king.
4. The expression of time, distance, and money are often seen as collective
items and hence take a singular verb.
Two miles is too far to walk in this lashing rain.
Five hours has already passed since his surgery ended.
Five thousand rupees is a fair price for such an old painting.
5. When the words ‘all’, ‘most’, ‘some’, and ‘any’ are followed by a noncount
noun, the Verb is singular.
All of the cake has been eaten.
Some fat is good for you.
Most car exhaust contains pollutants that threaten all living things.
Exception: However, if the words are followed by a plural count noun, the
verb is plural.
All men are created equal.
6. “None” and “neither” always take a singular verb, whether followed by a
plural or a non-count noun.
None of the cats belongs to me,
Neither of the women is the one who spoke to me yesterday.
7. When the subjects are joined by “either .. .or”, “neither ... nor”, “not only ...
but also” “both ... and”, the verb agrees with the subject which is close to
it.
Neither the children nor the mother wants to leave.
Either you or I am going to call an end to this charade.
Not only she but all her friends also were in the list of failures.
Both my brother and I am interested in joining the team.
8. When two subjects are joined by ‘as well as’, ‘with’, ‘together with’,
‘accompanied by’, the verb agrees with the subject mentioned first.
The President of India as well as his secretaries is invited to the function.
Her friends along with Sheela are arriving by the first flight.
9. In sports, while referring to the players, the name of the country is

followed by plural verb.

England have won the world cup.
10. When the percentage or a part of something is mentioned with plural
meaning, the verb used is plural.
30% of the Indian women are literate.
11. “Majority” can be singular or plural.
• If it is followed by a plural noun, plural verb is used.
Majority of the pens were blue.
• If it stands alone, singular verb is used.
The majority believes in easy work.
Exercise 3: Correct the mistakes in the following sentences
1. More must be done to solve that problems of development
2. Many culture from around the world are found in the city.
3. The city have disadvantages such as a high rate of crime.
4. There are bad pollution due to traffic congestion.
5. Neither John nor Wendy want to go dancing
Answers
Exercise 1: Identify the type of sentence
1. Imperative 4. Exclamatory
2. Assertive 5. Assertive
3. Interrogative
Exercise 2: Complete the following with appropriate predicate
1. were kept as centre piece in the bouquet.
2. proved to be the best what he could get for his agency.
3. is one of the excellent journalists in the industry today.
4. is delivered as a complimentary copy.
5. are creative in our own fields.
Exercise 3:
1. those problems 2. cultures 3. has 4. is 5. wants
Unit 7 Organisational Documents
Structure:
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Memo
Language of a Memo
Components of a Memo
Format of a Memo
7.3 Circulars and Notices
7.4 Summary
7.6 Answers
7.1 Introduction
In the earlier units, we have learnt the importance of communication in an
organisation. Besides the informal communication that regularly takes place
in an organisation, the formal communication needs attention. It is this formal
communication, in the medium of documents like memo, circular, notice and
report that plays a crucial role in the effective communication in an
organisation, which aids the smooth functioning of the organisation. In this
unit, we would learn to write the organisational documents.
Objectives:
• write memos with proper language, component and format.
• Describe and draft appropriate circulars and notices.
7.2 MEMO
The term ‘memo’ comes from the Latin word ‘memorandum,’ which means “a
thing which must be remembered.” The plural form is memoranda. The
document that you use to communicate within the organization is called as
memorandum. It has to stay within the organization. So, it is also called ‘inter
office memorandum.’ When you need to convey information and decisions or
to make short requests with the members of your department, upper
management, employees at another branch in another city, etc., the best way
to do is to write a memo. The exception to this is if you are preparing a
document for a reader several levels above you or for a formal situation. One
colleague can write a memo to another; except for memos which concern
disciplinary action. Only officers authorized to issue them can issue memos
concerning disciplinary action.

7.2.1 Language of a Memo

Before you learn the format of the memo, it is very important that you learn the
correct language that you should use in a memo to achieve its purpose.
1. Concise: A memo is always short. It is apt for a memo to be of two pages;
after which a memo starts to turn into a report. Keep the paragraphs short;
limit each paragraph to five lines or less. Put each reason in a separate
paragraph rather than bunching them up in a forbidding 20-line block of
type. Equally important, memos are written to get someone to do or
understand something--be it to spend money, meet a deadline,
constructively criticize, or say yes or no.
2. Personal: Use words like I, you, and we. It's a lot more human to say, "I
would like you to do this." Use active voice (not passive) to get the action
done.
3. Simple language: Let your language be clear and easy to understand. You
should not make emotional statements in a memo. Plain and direct
statements of facts are made to achieve all that is required. Avoid scholarly
words and technical jargon if you can convey the message in simple
English. An example of unnecessary complication of the communication
is, using language like: "R & D wants your input because temporal
considerations are of primary importance;" when you really want to say,
"Our research people need your answer today."
4. Avoid confusing words: While writing a memo, try to use the right words at
the right place. When you have to use simple root words, don’t complicate
them by using fancy suffixes like ‘tion’, ‘ance’, ‘ent’, ‘ment’, ‘ize’, and ‘ility.’
Look at the following sentence to understand how you normally complicate
the message by tacking unnecessary endings.
• E.g.: “The continuation of our issuance of increments is dependent
upon the prioritization by employees of institutional objectives.”
Translated to simple and direct language it reads, “If you want to get
increments, meet institutional goals.”
5. Don't be trite: Try to avoid statements that are out of date and do not mean
anything in the present context. One commonplace expression that you
can avoid is “Please don’t hesitate to call.” Normally this phrase gets no
results and turns people off. A more sincere ending could be, "If you need
help, I'm available. Give me a call."
6. Don't give too many ‘whys’. Though it is important to explain why you want

something done, don't overdo it. One expert cautions that a reader can
probably only absorb no more than six or seven reasons at once. If you
must cite more whys, put them on a separate sheet of paper, and staple
the sheets together. This way, the basic memo message doesn't get lost
in a sea of details.
7. Check before you send the memo. It is a human tendency to commit
mistakes especially in names, dates, or numbers. But such mistakes may
cost you dearly. You should remember that memo establishes
accountability. It is a record of facts and decisions, which can be referred
in future if there is a need to find out who went wrong and at what stage.
8. Close with a call to action. Many memos don't close with anything, leaving
the reader hanging. If you want a response by Friday at 3 p.m., say so.
7.2.2 Components of a Memo
The following are the components that make up a memo.
1. Header: This should appear at the top of a memo. This compact block of
information contains
a) Date - Remember to write the date in words (12th December 2006)
b) Name of the receiver(s) - In general, the title such as Professor or Mr.
is omitted. However, it is left to your discretion to follow the style that
your organization prefers. Do not use a salutation (Dear ...) or a closing
(Sincerely...)
c) Name of the sender(s) - Write your initials after your name on the
"From" line.
d) Subject of the memo - Be specific when you write the subject. You
should not be too vague (e.g. Purchase). This example is unclear
because it could be a purchase of anything. Take another example,
‘Purchase of hose pipes for the month of March 2007’. This is
acceptable because it is more informative and focused. (the particular
relationship of this memo to the general topic.)
e) c.c. It is the abbreviation for Carbon Copy. Though it is an obsolete
term, it is still used to mean that the copy of the memo will go to the
person mentioned.
f) bcc - It means Blind Carbon Copy. This copy goes to a person, who
may not be directly involved. (may be an office assistant or a
secretary), but who should know what is going on. The people
mentioned in the cc list will not see the names mentioned in the bcc

list.
2. Purpose: This states the reason for writing the memo. If you answer the
questions who, what, when, where, and why, then your purpose is fulfilled.
E.g.: The purpose of this memo is to request the purchase of hose pipes
for our plant at Durgapur for the month of March 2007.
3. Summary: This is the miniature version of a memo. The summary should
not be limited to the contents of the memo alone, all important information
have to be mentioned here.
4. Action: Unless the purpose of the memo is simply to inform, you should
finish with a clear call for action. Who should do what, and how long do
they have to do it? Include alternatives, in the event that your readers
disagree with you. Be polite when you ask others to do work for you,
especially when they are not under your supervision. You may wish to
mention the actions that ‘you’ plan to take next, and what your own
deadlines are, so your reader can gauge how important the project is to
you.
7.2.3 Format of the memo
Whenever you type the memo or write one, see that the space in between two
lines is single (single spaced). In between two paragraphs, you have to give
two spaces. In other words, you will have to give a double space to separate
paragraphs. Use of charts, graphs and pictures to explain the content of a
memo is permitted. Usually the right side margin of text in a memo is not
justified (all lines need not be equal in length.)
When a paragraph begins in an essay or reports it is accepted practice to start
the first line after some space. Usually 5 Character spaces are given. This is
called Tab 'setting' or 'indenting'.
However, in a memo, the paragraphs are not indented. The example given
below will be able to help you to write a memo.
Steel India Limited, Durgapur

Inter office Memorandum
To: Store Manager Reference: SIL/P24

From : Purchase Officer Date: 12 Feb 2009

Subject: Purchase of Hose Pipes

As desired, the order for the supply of 5 hose pipes for the month of March
2009 has been placed with Patel Fire & Safety Equipment, Ahmedabad.
The order will be supplied by 25th February 2007.
c.c. Finance Officer

Safety Officer Veda Dhurania

1 Only officers authorized to issue them can issue memos concerning
disciplinary action. (True/False)
2 The miniature version of the memo is called as action. (True/False)
3 Use simple language without cliches while writing a memo. (True/False)
4 A memo begins with salutation and ends with conclusion like ‘yours truly.’
(True/False)
5 You can use tables and charts in a memo. (True/False)
7.3 Circulars and Notices

A circular is also a document that is circulated within an organization. It is
usually an announcement sheet that is sent to specific groups of people. For
instance, if a manager wants to call a meeting of heads of department, he will
send a circular to only heads of department requesting them to attend that
meeting.
On the other hand a notice, depending on the information that is to be
conveyed, could be for employees alone or for the general public. A notice is
a legal document, which has to be put up on an official notice board. However,
some types of notices are addressed to individual employees also.
Let us look at some examples of circulars and then at some notices.
If you are the President of the science club in your college, and want to conduct
a meeting to plan for Science Project competition, you will have to send some
information to those whom you want to involve in organizing the programs. If
it is just a meeting to decide on how to conduct the competition, you will
probably call your Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer and a few senior
members of the club to attend this meeting. You may not want all the members

to attend because it will take a lot of time and there may be too many
suggestions. You may not be able to take any firm decisions.
Therefore, to invite only a few people you will send them a circular, but you
will not put up a notice. At this meeting if all of you agree on the rules of the
competition, date, venue and so on, you may decide to raise funds through
donations etc. You will not be able to raise enough funds without the support
of all the club members. So you will put up a notice announcing the decisions
taken at your meeting and requesting all the members to help with fund raising.
A notice and circular both have similar functions but are used differently
depending on the nature of announcement or information that needs to be
passed on. A circular is meant for distribution to a small group, while a notice
is meant for a large group of people.
A circular may also be sent when an immediate feedback is expected. You
want to donate money for flood affected areas. What will you do? You may
think of requesting your classmates to make a contribution. Keeping in mind,
the economic capacity of the students, you may want to request only a
voluntary contribution. In other words, you may allow each student to
contribute only what they can afford. You may not suggest the sum. You may
then send out a circular along with a feedback sheet on which students will
have to write their names, the sum they wish to contribute and put their
signature. This document will help you estimate the total collection and also
help collect from those who have signed up.
Let us look at an example of a circular:
To: Management Authorities of Science Laboratories

CIRCULAR
Aspects of Safety in Science Laboratories
The purpose of this circular letter is to indicate the importance of safety in science
labs. The lab in-charges have a duty of care to pupils in their charge. Fulfilment of this
duty includes drawing their pupils’ attention to any hazard that pertains to a particular
activity. In this context, the lab in-charges should be familiar with relevant guidelines
on laboratory safety and they should be careful at all times to observe standard safety
procedures when conducting practical activities in the laboratory.
Please bring this circular to the notice of the individuals concerned and to the notice
of parent and teacher representatives as appropriate, for transmission to individual
parents and teachers.

Ravi Kashyap,
Secretary General
March 2007
Let us look at a notice now:
Safety Constructions, December 5, 1999

Tiger Circle, Manipal Ref: ADM/ N/44-99
NOTICE
Sub: Temporary suspension of operations
We regret to inform you that due to unexpected problems with some of our
equipment, we are unable to carry out routine operations till December 7. However
the office will function during the weekend. We are making special arrangements to
meet your emergency needs. You may contact the undersigned for help. Kindly
excuse the inconvenience caused due to this unforeseen emergency.
Manager
Manipal Branch
Copy to:
Head Office, Bombay
All Branches in Karnataka
It is evident from the above example that it is a notice from an organization

namely ‘Safety Constructions,’ to its clients. A notice has reference numbers,
date and subject. If it is in response to a previous letter or other document, that
document or letter will also be mentioned in a separate reference under the
subject.
Please note that copies of notices may be sent to other offices, which may be
affected by the content of the notice or simply for giving information.
Circulars and notices generally cover one subject. But a single notice may
cover several different issues related to one subject. For example, Staff may
be informed that a particular holiday is declared. Then the same notice may
mention a compensatory day off for those who work on the holiday or it could
also mention a different working day to compensate for that holiday. A notice
or circular can be issued only by officers designated for the purpose.
There are notices, which are sent to individuals under special circumstances.
If a staff in an organization is suspected of major misconduct the organization

may issue a Show Cause Notice. This notice will mention the allegations
against the staff concerned and ask for a written explanation within a specified
time. It will also clearly state what action would be taken if there were no reply
to the show cause notice.
Depending on the type of notice, the duration of display of a notice is specified
under various legal provisions. A notice is a document that can be used as
evidence in court cases. Therefore, words have to be chosen carefully before
writing a notice. Secondly, you must be very specific, clear and precise in
writing a notice. The temptation to be elaborate and verbose (use too many
words) should be avoided. The tone of the notice should be firm but not
offensive or arrogant.
Indenting of paragraph may be allowed in notices and circulars. One should
not be in too much of a hurry to put up notices. They are impersonal
communication. But then, they are read by a large number of people.
Therefore, care must be taken while writing notices.
6. ___ is sent to specific group of people whereas _____ may be meant
for general public.
7. When you want an immediate feedback, you normally send ___
8. At the topmost line of the circular, one must write the ___.
9. A circular or notice may by issued by only ___
10. A ____ is a document that can be used as an evident in legal cases.
7.4 Summary
Effective communication is the base for any organization to be a success
story. This communication depends upon the persons involved and the type
of communication.
We have learnt in this unit that there are certain types of documents used in
organizations for communication. Some are written on a prescribed format for
example a memo, and some are not. A memo is for internal communication
between colleagues, superiors and subordinates and it is usually sent to a
person who is expected to take some responsive action. We then learnt about
circulars, which are also documents for internal communication. Circulars are
sent to groups of staff. We found out that some notices are meant for staff and

others are meant for clients and the general public. There are notices, which
are sent to individuals also. All these documents are written according to
certain conventions and rules.

1. What are the rules for writing memos?
2. Write a short note on show cause notice.
7.6 Answers
1. True 2) False 3) False 4) False 5) True 6) circular; notice 7) circular 8) date
9) officers designated for the purpose 10) notice
TQs
2. Concise ... personal ... simple language... avoid confusing words .... don’t
be trite .... Don't give too many ‘whys’ ....... check before you send the
memo ... close with a call for action.
3. Notice sent to individuals under special circumstances. Reason...staff
suspected of major misconduct. It mentions allegations against the staff
concerned, asks for a written explanation within a specified time. States
what action would be taken if there were no reply to the show cause notice.
REMEDIAL ENGLISH
Simple Sentences:
A simple sentence can be of one word or quite long. The most natural
sentence structure is the simple sentence. It remains by far the most common
sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work, simple
sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader’s attention, or for
summing up an argument. However, one has to be careful in using the simple
sentence. Too many simple sentences could project the written matter as
immature and childish.
A simple sentence is not dependent and can stand alone to give complete
meaning. We can also call a simple sentence a Main Clause.
Ecologists oppose the use of nuclear power.
The circumstances make the matter serious.
The island was filled with many trails winding through the thick underbrush,
a small lake, and dangerous wild pigs.
Complex Sentences:
When we are adding a clause in order to develop some aspect of what we are
saying, we use a subordinating conjunction. As you know, the part of a

sentence that begins with a subordinating conjunction is a subordinate clause.
(See unit 6 for Phrases and Clauses)
Sentences containing a main clause, and one or more subordinate clauses
are often called complex sentences.
There are three main kinds of subordinate clause.
i) Noun Clauses
ii) Adjective Clauses
iii) Adverbial Clauses
When the telegram came, everyone was excited.
• When the telegram came - adverbial clause, beginning with the
subordinating conjunction ‘when’ ------ Subordinate clause
everyone was excited - main clause.
So, the sentence above has a subordinate clause and a main clause. So
the sentence is a Complex sentence. More examples of complex
sentence:
Compound Sentences:
When we are simply linking clauses, we use co-ordinating conjunction. The
sentence then becomes compound sentence.
The doctor diagnosed accurately and the patient improved.
Here both are main clauses - ‘The doctor diagnosed accurately’. ‘The Patient
improved’ are joined by the co-ordinating conjunction ‘and.’
Simple sentences that are related may be joined with a comma and a
coordinating conjunction. A coordinating conjunction shows the relationship
between the two original simple sentences, which when joined are more
accurately described as two ‘independent clauses.’ The main coordinating
conjunctions and their meanings are given in the following table:
Coordinating Conjunctions Meanings

for because, the reason
and addition
nor not this either
but difference, contrast

or an alternative
yet something unexpected
so conclusion or result
Exercise 1: Identify whether the following sentences are simple,

compound or complex
1. The boy climbed up to the top of the tower.
2. Gulliver came upon a country where there were only dwarfs.
3. Alan goes to the library and studies every day.
4. The teacher returned the book after correcting the errors.
5. The students are revising because they have an exam tomorrow.
Active and Passive voice
A large number of actions involve two people or things - one that performs the
action, and one that is affected by the action. These actions are typically
referred to using transitive verbs.
The tiger is chasing the deer.
In the above sentence, the tiger is subject and it is the performer. The deer is
the object, and it is affected by the action - ‘is chasing’ is the transitive verb.
When the subject of the sentence is doing something (here ‘is chasing’) or
active, we take the verb is active too. So we say is chasing is the active verb
and the sentence is in the active voice.
However, sometimes we may want to focus on the person or thing affected by
an action (object) of an active form of the verb. In that case, we make the
affected person or thing subject and make the verb passive.
My grandfather built this house. (active voice) This house was
built by my grandfather. (passive voice)
In the passive form, this house is inactive, it only suffers the action. So the
verb is said to be in the passive voice. (passive means not active)
Exercise 2: Say whether the sentences below are in the passive or active
form of the verb:
1. Somebody must finish the work.
2. Money was hidden under the tree by the miser.
3. The patient will be taken to the hospital tomorrow.

4. They took photographs by the seashore.

5. Your remark irritated me.
Direct and Indirect Speech
In our daily communication, we come across various types of conversations.
Of these, there are two ways of what one person has related to the other. They
are-
1. Direct Speech: This refers to the relating of the spoken words of one
person to the other, verbatim. We can recognize a direct speech with the
help of the punctuations. It is written within the inverted commas. A coma
or colon is placed immediately before the spoken words.
2. Indirect Speech: This is also called as ‘Reported Speech’ because it
refers to the meaning of the word spoken by one person though the exact
spoken words are not used.
The teacher said that I was improving.
He thought she was greatly worried
Like this, you usually use a report structure when you say what someone
thinks. A report structure consists of two parts. The first is the reporting part,
and the second, reported part.
Mother told her daughter that all pupils were intelligent.
Mother told her - reporting part
that all pupils at her schools were intelligent - reported part.
You usually put the reporting part first. This is to make it clear that you are
reporting rather than you are speaking directly yourself. In a reported
statement, you begin your reported clause with the conjunction that.
We shall learn how to report a) statements b) questions c) commands and
exclamations.
a) Reporting statements:
There are certain rules that you should follow while converting the direct
speech into indirect speech. It should be noted that if the reporting verb is in
the present tense, then there is no change in the tense in the speech.
However, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense in the speech
changes, but the meaning should remain the same.
- In the reporting verb,
- ‘said’ is used when there is no object.

- ‘told’ is used if there is an object.
Many other verbs can be used to make the sentence more interesting and
informative. They can be used suitably in relation to the tone of the spoken
words. Given below is the list of such verbs.
Accused, admitted, advised, alleged, agreed, apologized, begged,
boasted, complained, denied, explained, implied, invited, offered,
ordered, promised, replied, suggested and thought.
Instead of ‘said to’, you can say told but not told to.
My friend said to me, “you can ask me if you want help.’
My friend told me that I could ask him if I wanted help.

• While reporting the direct speech into indirect, some of the words
are transformed as follows:
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
this that
these those
now then
here there
today that day
tomorrow the next day / the day after
yesterday the previous day / the day before
last night the night before / the previous night
ago before
must had to
Apart from word - changes, tense changes also take place as follows:
Direct Speech Indirect speech
Simple Present Simple Past
Rachel said, “ I sing songs.” Rachel said that she sang songs.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Rachel said, “I am singing songs.” Rachel said that she was singing
songs.
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Rachel said, “I have sung songs.”
Rachel said that she had sung songs.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

Rachel said, “I have been singing Rachel said that she had been singing
songs.” songs.”
Simple Past
Past Perfect
Rachel said, “I sang songs.”
Rachel said that she had sung songs.

Past continuous Past Perfect Continuous Rachel

Rachel said, “I was singing songs.” said that she had been singing
songs.
Future Tense Conditional
Rachel said, “I shall sing songs.” Rachel said that she would sing
songs.
b) Reporting Interrogative Sentences

The changes that are required while converting an interrogative sentence
from direct to indirect speech are:
• The introductory verb is changed into ‘asked’, ‘inquired’, ‘demanded’.
• The word ‘that’ will not appear in the indirect speech.
• The question mark is dropped in the indirect speech, a period / full stop
takes its place.
Here, we are using two types of questions:
1. Yes/No questions - Questions beginning with auxiliaries (am, is, are
etc.)
2. Wh - questions - Questions beginning with who, what, when, why etc.
Questions are always asked. So in the reported form asked is used, or more
or less its different shades - enquired, wanted to know etc.
With Yes/No questions:
A said to B, “Do you like sweets?” (Direct)
A asked B if he liked sweets. (reported)
A said to B, “Have you met the new doctor?”
A asked B if he had met the new doctor.
With wh - questions
These types of questions require an explanation as answer. Such types of
questions will retain the ‘wh’ words in the indirect speech. The verb follows the
subject.
A said to B, “where are you going?” (wh+verb+subject)
A asked B where he was going.(wh+subject+verb)
Note the reported form begins straight with a question word.
A said to B, “What colour is your new shirt?”
A asked B what colour his new shirt was.

c) Reporting Commands and Requests :

The changes that are required while converting an imperative sentence
(commands / requests) from direct to indirect speech are-
■ The introductory verb ‘said’ is replaced by verbs such as ‘asked’,
‘commanded’, ‘ordered’, ‘requested’, ‘implored’, ‘advised’, ‘warned’.
■ The verb in the sentence of Direct speech should be converted to
infinitive beginning with ‘to...’ in the indirect speech. Use not to if it is a
negative command or request.
■ When a proposal or suggestion is made beginning with the word ‘let’, the
introductory verb should be ‘proposed’ or ‘suggested’. The auxiliary
‘should’ is used along with the verb in the sentence instead of infinitive.
Neil told Nell, “Let’s sleep late and enjoy the party.”
Neil suggested to Nell that they should sleep late and enjoy the party.
Exercise - 3
Rebecca is in front of the class holding a presentation on London. As Rebecca
is rather shy, she speaks with a very low voice. Your classmate Neil does not
understand her, so you have to repeat every sentence to him.
Complete the sentences in reported speech (no change of tense
required). Note the change of pronouns and verbs.
■ Rebecca (R): I want to tell you something about my holiday in London.
■ Neil: What does she say?
■ You: She says that ---------------------------------- .

■ R: I went to London in July.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
■ R: My parents went with me.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
■ R: We spent three days in London.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
■ R: London is a multicultural place.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
■ R: I saw people of all colours.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .

■ R: My parents and I visited the Tower.

■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
■ R: One evening we went to see a musical.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
■ R: I love London.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
■ R: The people are so nice there.
■ You: She says that -------------------------------------------- .
Answers
Exercise 1: Identify whether the following sentences are simple,
compound or complex
1. Simple 2. Complex 3. Compound 4. Complex 5. Complex
Exercise 2: Say whether the sentences below are in the passive or
active form of the verb:
1. Active 2. Passive 3. Passive 4. Active 5. Active
Exercise 3:
A) R: I want to tell you something about my holiday in London.
You: She says that - she wants to tell you something about her holiday in
London -
R: I went to London in July.
You: She says that she went to London in July.
R: My parents went with me.
You: She says that her parents went with her.
R: We spent three days in London.
You: She says that they spent three days in London.
R: London is a multicultural place.
You: She says that London is a multicultural place.
R: I saw people of all colours.
You: She says that she saw people of all colours.
R: Me and my parents visited the Tower.
You: She says that she and her parents visited the Tower
R: One evening we went to see a musical.
You: She says that One evening they went to see a musical.
R: I love London.
You: She says that she loves London.

R: The people are so nice there.

You: She says that the people there are so nice.
Acknowledgements, References and Suggested Readings
1. Green, David. Contemporary English Grammar Structures and
Composition. Madras: Macmillan India Limited,1971-1991.
2. Introduction to Management. ICFAI Center for Management Research.
2003.
3. Kahn, John Ellison (Ed.). Reader’s Digest: How To Write and Speak
Better. London: The Reader’s Digest Asociation Limited (1991 rpt. 2002).
4. Sharma R.C and Mohan Krishna. Business Correspondence and Report
Writing: A Practical Approach to business and Technical
Communication. Tata McGrawHill: New Delhi. 3rd edition.
5. Sonnenberg Frank K., “Barriers to Communication, ” Journal of Business
Strategy, Vol. 11, Issue 4 (July/August 1990): p 56-59.
6. Tele-Port: Training for the IT enabled Services Industry - Reference
Manual. Manipal Education Consortium. Manipal.
7. Thomson, A.J, Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Delhi: Oxford
University Press. 4th Edition.
Exercises are taken from the following sources:

http://www.easytraining.com/contact.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal communication http://www.esl-lab.com
http://www.jobbankusa.com
http://www.nyu.edu/publicaffairs/newsreleases
http://wwwold.ccc.commnet.edu/writing/symbols.htm

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Fundamentals of Communication Skills Unit 2

Unit 1 Language and Communication

Manipal University Jaipur B1026 Page No.: 1

1.2.1 Definitions of communication

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tribal people to say their story.

area. Before receiving your consent, he thought of you as an employee who

1.3 Process of Communication

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communicate extremely confidential information, direct face-to-face or a

Fig. 1.1: Communication Process

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i) Transmitter ii) a) interpretation of the received message

1.4 Barriers to Effective Communication

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1.5 Types of Communication

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Fig. 1.2: Facial Expressions

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12. _______ is the study of touches as non verbal communication.

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movement all contribute to the communication going on in a certain situation.

1.7 Terminal Questions

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2. A noun that denotes a female is Feminine Gender.

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is an exception to the rule.

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where they are used as Common Noun. E.g.: advice-advice, courage-

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i, o, u) sound. E.g.: an apple, an umbrella.

3. A lioness and a tigress are chasing the stag.

Unit 2 Oral Communication

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Face to Face Communication

2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication

say yes or no. In oral communication there is a possibility of immediate

4. How is the geographical origin of the speaker understood in oral

2.3 One-to One Oral Communication

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Tourist: Is it far? Should I take a bus? Is it too far to

Tourist: Thanks a Thank you. Thank you very Thanks, very

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Use the map to ask for and give directions.

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You: _______ ! Go ________ Station Road, turn _____________ High

Change A’s questions into more polite forms.

1. A: How far is it to Delhi? B: -------------------------------

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to convey your meaning. So, you cannot rely on the extra-linguistic

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phone at the other end, you should follow these rules:

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Self Assessment Question

A: 777172 A: 396577 A:6438657 A: 605040

B: O K B: Right B: All right. B: Right

A: I’d be glad to! A: Yes of course! A: certainly!

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You: _ ! Go Station Road, turn _______ High