GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Benefits: improvement of quality and crop
yield.
3RD QUARTER EXAMINATION
REVIEWER
Genetic Engineering
o Artificial manipulation, modification,
and recombination of DNA or other
nucleic acid molecules.
Genetic Engineering Techniques:
 Selective breeding
o is a process in which humans breed
specific parents to create offspring
with desirable characteristics.
 Hybridization
o refers to the process of producing
offspring by mating two parents
from different varieties or species.
 Inbreeding
o Breeding organisms that are
genetically similar to maintain
desired traits.
 Cloning
o Used to make exact gene copies of
living things.
 Gene splicing
o a process using recombinant DNA
technology to join, by attachment or
insertion, a DNA segment from one
source to a DNA segment from
another source.
 GEL electrophoresis
o Gel electrophoresis is a method for
separation and analysis of
biomacromolecules and their
fragments, based on their size and
charge.
GMO (Genetically Modified Organisms
A.k.a. Transgenic)
o organisms with an altered genetic
material.
DNA recombination
 describes the combination of two DNA
strands that are constructed artificially.
Genetic scientists can do this to create
unique DNA strands for different
purposes, using several types of
techniques.
Processes used in recombinant DNA
technology.
 Transformation using a vector
involves introducing foreign DNA into
a host cell using a carrier DNA
molecule called a vector. Restriction
endonuclease enzymes are used to cut
DNA at specific sequences, creating
"sticky ends" that can be joined to
foreign DNA using DNA ligase.
 Vector less gene transfer refers to
methods of introducing foreign DNA
into cells without using a vector.
Different techniques for achieving
vector less gene transfer:
o Electroporation
 uses electric pulses to create
temporary pores in cell
membranes, allowing DNA to
enter.
o Protoplast fusion
 involves fusing cells with their
cell walls removed.
o Microinjection
 involves directly injecting
DNA into cells.
o Gene Gun
 - uses high-pressure to shoot DNA-
coated particles into cells.
 Transduction is a process where
foreign DNA is introduced into a cell
by a virus or viral vector. It involves
the transfer of genetic material from
one cell to another through viral
infection.
EVOLUTION
eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
Precambrian Era
- Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic:
Formation of the Earth, origin of life, and
development of simple organisms.
Paleozoic Era
- Cambrian Period: Rapid diversification
of marine life (Cambrian explosion).
- Ordovician Period: Colonization of
land by plants and evolution of early fish.
- Silurian Period: Appearance of the first
vascular plants and terrestrial arthropods.
- Devonian Period: Diversification of
fish, known as the "Age of Fishes."
- Carboniferous Period: Rise of
amphibians and formation of extensive
coal swamps.
- Permian Period: Diversification of
reptiles and spread of conifer forests.
Mesozoic Era:
- Triassic Period: Diversification of
reptiles and the first appearance of
dinosaurs.
- Jurassic Period: Dominance of
dinosaurs and the appearance of birds.
- Cretaceous Period: Peak of dinosaur
diversity and the emergence of flowering
plants.
Cenozoic Era:
- Paleogene Period: Diversification of
mammals and the spread of grasslands.
- Neogene Period: Evolution of early
hominids.
- Quaternary Period: Appearance and
spread of modern humans.
Theories on the origin of life
1. Spontaneous (A.k.a. Abiogenesis)
 states that life arose from
nonliving matter.
 Theorized by Aristotle.
2. Biogenesis
 the development of life from
pre-existing life.
 Francesco Redi proved that non-
living organisms.
3. Cosmo Genesis
 involves the origin and
evolution of the universe.
4. Special creation
 says that all living organisms
were created by God.
Evolution
o The way living things change over
time.
o It is a continuing process for as long
as organisms are born, dying, and
competing for what they need to
survive and reproduce.
Reproductive isolating mechanism
 Refers to the inability of related
species to breed due to some
factors.
 Divided into two categories:
pre-zygotic isolation
mechanism, and post-zygotic
isolation mechanism.
Prezygotic isolation mechanisms
 Prevents fertilization and zygote
formation.
o Geographic/Ecological or habitat
isolation
 Occurs when two different
species live in different habitats
and will not encounter one
another.
o Temporal or seasonal isolation
 Temporal isolation prevents
species from interbreeding due
to differences in the timing of
mating or fertility, such as
having different mating seasons.
o Behavioral Isolation
 when species are reproductively
isolated from others due to
differences in behavior.
o Mechanical Isolation
 when physical differences
between two animals prevent
mating.
o Gametic Isolation
 Incompatibilities between eggs
and sperm prevent fertilization.
Post-zygotic Isolation mechanisms
- Allows fertilization but weak and non-
sterile hybrids are formed.
 Hybrid inviability
- This occurs when the offspring of two
different species are unable to survive or
reproduce. The genetic incompatibility
between the two species leads to
developmental abnormalities or other
factors that prevent the hybrid offspring
from reaching maturity or reproducing
successfully.
 Hybrid breakdown:
- This occurs when first-generation
hybrids are viable and fertile, but when
they mate with each other or with either
parent species, the subsequent
generations of hybrids experience
reduced viability or fertility. This
phenomenon is often observed in plants
and some animal species.
 Hybrid sterility:
- This occurs when the hybrid offspring of
two different species are sterile,
meaning they are unable to produce
viable gametes (sperm or eggs). As a
result, they are unable to produce
offspring of their own. A classic
example of this is the mule, which is the
sterile offspring of a male donkey and a
female horse.
Speciation is the process by which new
species evolve from existing ones through
the accumulation of genetic differences
that result in reproductive isolation.
 Allopatric speciation: where some
members of a population become
geographically separated from the
other members there by preventing
gene flow.
 Sympatric speciation: Occurs when a
new species evolves within the same
geographic area.
 Parapatric speciation: Neighboring
populations become distinct species
while maintaining contact along
common boarder (their breeding
zone/meeting place)
SCIENTISTS CONTRIBUTIONS THAT understanding of the diversity and
CONTRIBUTED TO THE THEORY OF interconnectedness of life on Earth.
EVOLUTIONS
 Carolus Linnaeus: Developed the
binomial nomenclature system for
naming and classifying organisms,
laying the foundation for modern
taxonomy.
 Thomas Malthus: Proposed the
theory of population growth and its
implications for resources,
influencing Charles Darwin's
concept of natural selection.
 Georges Cuvier: Considered the
founder of paleontology and
comparative anatomy, demonstrating
the concept of extinction and
proposing the theory of
catastrophism.
 James Hutton: Known as the father
of modern geology, he proposed the
theory of uniformitarianism, which
suggests that geological processes
occurring today have also shaped the
Earth's history.
 Charles Lyell: Expanded on
Hutton's ideas and popularized the
concept of uniformitarianism,
providing evidence for gradual
geological changes over long
periods, supporting the idea of an
ancient Earth.
 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: Proposed
an early theory of evolution known
as Lamarckism, suggesting that
organisms can change during their
lifetime in response to their
environment and pass on acquired
traits to their offspring.
 Charles Darwin: Renowned for his
theory of evolution by natural
selection, presenting evidence for the
gradual change of species over time
through the process of natural
selection, revolutionizing our