REPRODUCTION AT THE

ORGANISM LEVEL
PROKARYOTES
PROKARYOTES
• single-celled organisms
• lack membrane-bound nuclei and
organelles
• include members of the domains archaea
and bacteria
• archaea and bacteria are minute
organisms, enclosed by cell walls and
plasma membranes and exhibiting a
circular DNA
• have plasmids
• moves either through gliding or forward
propulsion
THE STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL
PROKARYOTE
• Prokaryotes
reproduce
through binary
fission resulting to
multiple new
generations in a
short span of time.
Binary Fission
Advantage: simple process + short generation time + rapid
division = rapid reproduction, population with large number
of individuals

Disadvantage? Prone to errors (mutations)

However…
this leads to genetic diversity
Genetic diversity would mean?
• Better adaptability to the new environment paved
the way for rapid evolution
• PROKARYOTES are highly evolved organisms
making them successfully thrive in many different
environmental changes.
OTHER SOURCES OF VARIATION FOR
PROKARYOTES
GENETIC RECOMBINATION
1. Transformation
2. Transduction
3. Conjugation
TRANSFORMATION
• Uptake of
foreign DNA
from its
surroundings
TRANSDUCTION
• Virus/ phage
inject prokaryotic
DNA acquired
from the first cell
then incorporate it
into the recipient’s
cell chromosome
CONJUGATION (mentioned in the LG)
• Transfer of
DNA
between 2
cells that
are
temporarily
joined
PROTISTS AND FUNGI

Which is which?
 CELLULARITY

• Protists – mostly uni

• Fungi – mostly multi
 CELL WALL

• Some protists contain a cell

wall while some don’t
• Cell wall composition varies
within species
CELL WALL

• Fungi contains
a cell wall
made up of
chitin
ENERGY SOURCE
• Protists can be autotrophs
or heterotrophs
• Fungi are heterotrophs
(saprobes or parasitic)
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTISTS
1. Animal-like
2. Plant-like
3. Fungus-like
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
1. Zygomycota (Zygote)
2. Basidiomycota (Club)
3. Ascomycota (Sac)
4. Deuteromycota (Imperfect)
5. Lichens
REPRODUCTION OF PROTISTS AND FUNGI

• Both have members that can reproduce sexually

or asexually
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PROTISTS
1. Binary Fission (e.g. Amoeba)

2. Multiple Fission (Plasmodium)

 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PROTISTS
3. Spore formation (e.g. Slime molds)
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PROTISTS
4. Budding like the yeast fungus
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PROTISTS
1. Syngamy - complete fusion of two gametes to produce
diploid zygotes
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PROTISTS
2. Conjugation - temporary union of two individuals to
exchange their haploid pronuclear to from a zygote
nucleus
REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI
• Perfect fungi both exhibit sexual and asexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction can be through:
1. Budding
2. Spore formation
3. Fragmentation
1. Budding

2. Spore Formation
3. Fragmentation
Sexual Reproduction in Fungi
• 3 stages: plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis
REPRODUCTION IN FUNGI