[Moin’s Lines]

"Ladies and gentlemen,

I am Khan Mohammad Moin Abdul Moiz."

[Umair’s Lines]
"I'm Faquih Umair Mohammad Azhad."

[Irfan’s Lines]
"I'm Khan Mohd Irfan Sirajuddin."

[Jishan’s Lines]
"I am Kazi Jishan Nasir."

[Sami’s Lines]
"And I'm Khalife Abdul Sami Sajid."

[Sami’s Lines]
“Together, we are here to explore the world of intermolecular forces, a fundamental concept
that significantly influences the field of engineering chemistry. Our mission is to provide you
with insights into the fascinating world of these forces, how they shape material properties,
and their vital role in the world of engineering.”

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Slide-1
[Sami’s Lines]

In the world of engineering, a fundamental concept that plays a pivotal role is the
understanding of intermolecular forces. These forces can be thought of as invisible bonds
that exist between molecules, shaping their behaviour and properties.

Much like the way magnets attract or repel each other, intermolecular forces determine how
molecules interact with one another. There are several types of intermolecular forces,
including London Dispersion Forces, which are like shy magnets that occasionally come
together, especially in larger molecules, and Dipole-Dipole Interactions, where certain
molecules act like magnets with a permanent positive and negative side, leading to stronger
attractions with opposite charges. A particularly important type of intermolecular force is
Hydrogen Bonding, which occurs when hydrogen atoms are attracted to highly
electronegative atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. Hydrogen bonding is a strong force
that plays a crucial role in various chemical and biological processes.

Gaining knowledge about these forces is akin to possessing a secret tool in an engineer's
toolbox, enabling better material selection and the optimization of engineering processes for
improved outcomes. Our journey into the significance of intermolecular forces in
engineering chemistry has just begun.

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Slide-2
[Moin’s Lines]

Today, we're delving into the fascinating world of intermolecular forces, focusing on the
three primary types. These forces are the main actors on the molecular stage, shaping the
behaviour of matter.

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The first force in our lineup is Dispersion Forces, which we can liken to "gentle giants."
They may not be the strongest, but they're incredibly common. We'll explore how these
forces function and where you encounter them in various materials.

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Next up, we have Dipole-Dipole Forces. Think of these forces as magnets with moderate
strength, attracting molecules to each other. They're not as potent as the magnets on your
refrigerator, but they play a significant role in the world of chemistry.

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Lastly, we come to Hydrogen Bonding, which is like an exclusive, secret handshake among
certain molecules. It's unique and much stronger than the other forces we've discussed. We'll
unravel why this type of bonding is of great importance in understanding material behaviour.

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By the end of this section, you'll have a solid grasp of these three fundamental forces, which
serve as the building blocks for comprehending how materials behave. So, let's start our
journey by getting to know these key players in the world of intermolecular forces.

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Slide-3
[Moin’s Lines]

Let's take a closer look at Dispersion Forces, also known as London dispersion forces. These
forces, though they may not sound powerful, are remarkably influential and widespread.

These forces can be likened to the "gentle giants" of the intermolecular world. They are
relatively weak, yet they are ubiquitous in all substances. Think of them as those tiny,
temporary attractions that occur between molecules.

To better understand dispersion forces, imagine yourself at a crowded party. In the midst of
the commotion, people naturally bump into each other, briefly sticking together before
moving apart. This is quite similar to how dispersion forces work. Even though they
individually might seem weak, they add up, especially in larger molecules.
Materials such as noble gases, non-polar molecules, and many organic compounds rely
heavily on dispersion forces. These forces play a significant role in determining essential
properties, including melting and boiling points, and even impact the behaviour of gases.
Understanding dispersion forces is fundamental for engineering and chemistry, as they
underlie the behaviour of various substances.

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Slide-4
[Umair’s Lines]

Think of dipole-dipole forces as a kind of attraction between molecules. Imagine that some
molecules act like tiny magnets. These "molecular magnets" have a positive and a negative
end, just like when you put together the north and south poles of a regular magnet.

For instance, water is made up of molecules that behave like these tiny magnets. The positive
end of one water molecule is attracted to the negative end of another water molecule because
of this "magnetism."

These forces are pretty weak compared to the magnets you stick on your fridge, but they
have a big impact in the world of tiny particles (molecules).

These attractions are important in chemistry, especially when you mix substances in liquids.
When you mix things that have these "molecular magnets" (polar molecules), it affects how
well they blend together. For example, this is why water has some unique properties like a
high surface tension, which helps bugs float on its surface.

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Slide-5,
[Umair’s Lines]
Imagine hydrogen bonding as a special kind of connection between certain molecules. It's
different from the other forces we talked about, and it's much stronger.

Hydrogen bonding happens when hydrogen atoms get together with specific, very
electronegative atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. It's like they have a secret language
that only some molecules understand.

Water is a fantastic example of hydrogen bonding in action. In water, the hydrogen atoms in
one water molecule make strong connections with the oxygen atoms in nearby water
molecules. This special bond gives water its unique properties, such as needing high
temperatures to boil or freeze and having a strong surface tension, which is why you can see
insects floating on water.

In the world of chemistry and engineering, hydrogen bonding is a big deal. It's responsible
for many unusual properties in materials and even plays a significant role in biological
processes.

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Slide-6,
[Jishan’s Lines]

Ideal gases are characterized by particles with no volume and no interactions, assuming no
attractive or repulsive forces between them. The kinetic theory of gases, underlying this
model, posits constant random motion and perfectly elastic collisions. On the other hand,
real gases demonstrate molecular interactions, with increasing pressure or decreasing
temperature impacting volume and introducing intermolecular forces like van der Waals
forces. At close distances, attractive forces can cause deviations from ideal behavior, creating
distinctions between real and ideal gases.

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The ideal gas law (PV = nRT) assumes gas molecules have negligible volume, treating them
as point masses. In reality, real gases have finite molecular volumes, especially noticeable at
high pressures or low temperatures. Corrections like the Van der Waals equation address this,
enhancing prediction accuracy.

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The ideal gas law is most precise in high-temperature, low-pressure conditions, where gas
particles have high kinetic energy and occupy a relatively small volume. Real gases show
deviations from ideal behavior in extreme conditions, like high pressures (compression of
molecules) and low temperatures (increased intermolecular forces), leading to variations
from the ideal gas law.

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Slide-7,
[Jishan’s Lines]

The ideal gas law is a reliable tool for understanding gases, but under certain conditions, real
gases deviate from its simplicity. Especially at high pressures and low temperatures, real
gases exhibit complexities that challenge the ideal model. Exploring the Equation of State for
Real Gases helps us uncover corrections for a more accurate representation of their behavior.

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Real gases differ from ideal gases due to factors like molecular size and intermolecular
forces, affecting their effective volume. To address this, scientists introduced the volume
correction factor, exemplified by the Van der Waals equation, which considers both
molecular size and attractive forces for a more accurate representation of real gas behavior.

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At high pressures, deviations from ideal gas predictions occur due to molecular interactions,
including the excluded volume effect. Scientists developed equations, such as the Redlich-
Kwong equation, to address these deviations by considering both attractive forces and
excluded volume effects, refining our understanding of real gas behavior.

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Now, it's time to bring it all together—the main equation of state for real gases.
The ideal gas law lays the foundation for our understanding, but to truly capture the nuances
of real gas behavior, we need an equation that considers both volume and pressure
corrections. Enter the Generalized Van der Waals Equation.
This equation incorporates factors like molecular size (represented by b) and attractive forces
(represented by a), offering a more complete picture of real gas behavior. Here's a glimpse of
the equation:

𝑛2
(𝑃 + 𝑎 ( 2)) (𝑣 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑣
In this equation, a and b are constants specific to the gas, n is the number of moles, V is the
volume, P is the pressure, R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature.

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Slide-8,
[Irfan’s Lines]

Embarking on the fascinating journey of gas liquefaction, we navigate through the intricate
interplay of pressure, temperature, and molecular behavior. This transformative process,
underpinned by principles elucidated by pioneers like Thomas Andrews, unravels the elegant
dance between kinetic energy, intermolecular forces, and the critical temperatures that
govern the transition from gas to liquid.

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1. Pressure and Kinetic Energy:-

Lowering pressure precipitates a rapid decline in the kinetic energy of gas molecules. This
reduction in kinetic energy correlates with a noticeable deceleration in the velocity of the
molecules.

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2. Intermolecular Forces and Transformation:-

As molecular velocity diminishes, intermolecular forces, previously overshadowed, come
into play. This newfound influence facilitates the conversion of the gaseous substance into a
liquid state, marking a crucial stage in the liquefaction process.

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3. Pressure-Driven Liquefaction:-
Gas can undergo liquefaction through the application of increased pressure. The act of
compression brings gas molecules into closer proximity, inducing a transformative shift from
a gaseous to a liquid state.

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4. Critical Temperature Concept:-
Thomas Andrews, in his seminal 1869 investigation, delineated the pressure-temperature
conditions for the liquefaction of common gases. Central to his findings was the concept of
critical temperature—the temperature at which a gas can no longer be liquefied. This critical
temperature varies for each gas, imposing a fundamental constraint on the liquefaction
process.

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Slide-9,
[Irfan’s Lines]

Today, we explore an intriguing realm where the boundaries between liquid and gas blend in
a captivating dance known as the critical point. At this pivotal moment, the densities of a
substance in its liquid and gaseous states converge, creating a unique equilibrium
challenging our understanding of matter. Beyond that, we delve into the terminology shift –
gases below critical temperatures are vapors, and above, we encounter supercritical fluids,
defying norms by dissolving substances with exceptional prowess.

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The critical temperature (Tc). In straightforward terms, Tc is the highest temperature at

which a gas undergoes liquefaction for the first time.

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The critical pressure (Pc). Simply put, Pc is the minimum pressure needed to turn a gas into a
liquid at its critical temperature.

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The critical volume (Vc). In simple terms, Vc is the volume that one mole of a gas occupies
at its critical pressure and temperature. It's a concise measure encapsulating a gas's behavior
under critical conditions

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Thank You for listening.