f1 Cambridge Geo Notes

FORM 1 GEOGRAPHY NOTES
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WEATHER
• Weather is the daily condition of the atmosphere at a given place or at a given time.
• Atmosphere is the air around us.
• Climate is the condition of the atmosphere over a long period.
WEATHER STATION
• It is a place where weather elements are measured and recorded.
• diagram of a weather station .
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SITING A WEATHER STATION
1. It should be away from hard or tarmac surfaces because they allow the rain water to
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splash from the ground into the rain gauge. The tarmac surfaces also absorb heat and
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re-radiate it thereby distorting temperature recordings.
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2. It should be located away from trees and buildings because they block the wind,
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intercept rainwater and provide shade to thermometers resulting to false recordings.

3. It should be sited on levelled/ flat ground so that the instruments will not tilt and give
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false recordings.
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N.B. - The grass at a weather station should be kept low since it might block the free flow of
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wind.
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- The weather station should be fenced, gated and locked to avoid theft and vandalism.
STEVENSON SCREEN
• A Stevenson screen is a white wooden box found at a weather station where weather
instruments are kept.
• For the diagram of a Stevenson screen refer to Complete Geography for Cambridge
GCSE by D Kelly and M. Fretwell page 177.
• In the Stevenson screen the following instruments are kept:
a) Hygrometer
b) Barometer
c) Six’s thermometer
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A STEVENSON SCREEN
• A Stevenson screen is painted white to reflect sun’s rays.

• It is 1.21 metres above the ground to prevent recording of ground temperature.
• The Stevenson screen has louvred sides to allow free air circulation.
• It has double roof to protect thermometers from direct heat from the sun.
• It is made of wood to avoid conduction of heat into it since wood is a poor conductor
of heat.
• Its door faces south in the southern hemisphere to avoid direct sunlight.
SITING OF A STEVENSON SCREEN
1. It should be away from hard or tarmac surfaces because they absorb heat and re-
radiate it thereby distorting temperature recordings.
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2. It should be located away from trees and buildings because they block the wind,
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intercept rainwater and provide shade to thermometers resulting to false recordings.
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3. It should be sited on levelled/ flat ground so that the instruments will not tilt and give
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false recordings.
WEATHER ELEMENTS
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• These are aspects of the atmosphere which are measurable e.g. rainfall, temperature,
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humidity.
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WEATHER ELEMENTS INSTRUMENT UNITS ISOLINES

Temperature Six’s thermometer Degrees Celsius (0C) Isotherms
Rainfall Rain gauge Millimetres (mm) Isohyets
Humidity Hygrometer Percentage (%) Isohume
Sunshine Sunshine recorder Hours and minutes Isohels
Atmospheric pressure Barometer Millibars (mb) Isobars
Wind direction Wind vane Cardinal points Isogon
Wind speed Cup anemometer Kilometres per hour Isotach
(Km/hr)
Cloud cover Eye observation Oktas / Eights Isonephs
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TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is measured using a Six’s thermometer which is a combination of the
minimum thermometer and the maximum thermometer.
THE SIX’S THERMOMETER

• diagram of a Six’s thermometer
• Two liquids are used in the Six’s thermometer:
a) Alcohol is used because it has low freezing point.
b) Mercury is used because it has high boiling point.
HOW A SIX’S THERMOMETER WORKS
• When temperature rises, the alcohol in the minimum thermometer expands and the
alcohol in the maximum thermometer evaporates into the vacuum bulb.
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• The expanding alcohol in the minimum thermometer pushes the mercury up the
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maximum thermometer. T
• The mercury pushes the metal index to the maximum temperature reached that day.
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• When temperature drops, the alcohol in the minimum thermometer contracts and
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the alcohol that had evaporated into the vacuum bulb turns back to liquid.
• The contracting alcohol allows the mercury to move up the minimum tube.
• The mercury pushes the metal index up the minimum tube to the minimum
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temperature of the day.

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The readings are taken from the base of the metal index.
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To reset the thermometers, a magnet is used to pull down the metal indexes.
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TEMPERATURE CALCULATIONS
1. DAILY TEMPERATURE RANGE /DIURNAL TEMPERATURE RANGE.

• Range means difference.
• It is calculated as follows: maximum temperature of the day minus minimum
temperature of the day.
2. MEAN DAILY TEMPERATURE
• Mean means average.
• It is calculated as follows: maximum temperature plus minimum temperature of the
day divided by two.
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3. MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE

• Adding together the mean daily temperatures for the month and divide by the
number of days in the month.
• Draw Table 1 and 2. They show the temperature figures for January.
Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Temp 23 21 19 22 24 23 26 29 23 28 31 27 29 32 30
oC
Table 1
Day 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Temp 23 21 19 22 24 23 26 29 23 28 31 27 29 32 22 26
oC
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Table 2
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• Use Tables 1 and 2 to calculate mean monthly temperature for January.
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4. MONTHLY TEMPERATURE RANGE

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• Subtract the lowest temperature of the month from the highest temperature of the
month.
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• Use Tables 1 and 2 to calculate monthly temperature range for January.

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5. MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE

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• Add all the mean monthly temperatures for the year and divide by 12.
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• Draw Table 3 below in your notebooks. It shows the temperature figures for
Bulawayo. Use table 3 to calculate mean annual temperature.
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Temp 21 21 20,5 19,5 17 14 14 16,5 18,5 22,8 22 22,6
oC
Table 3
6. ANNUAL TEMPERATURE RANGE

• Subtract the lowest mean monthly temperature from the highest mean monthly
temperature.
• Use table 3 to calculate annual temperature range.
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RAINFALL
• Rainfall is measured in millimetres using rain gauge.
DIAGRAM OF A RAIN GAUGE
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HOW A RAINGAUGE MEASURES RAINFALL
• The funnel directs the water into the glass bottle or collecting jar.
• After the rain, the collected water is poured into the measuring cylinder.
• The measuring cylinder is placed on a flat surface.
• The readings are taken in millimetres at eye level with the meniscus of the water in
the measuring cylinder.
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SITING REQUIREMENTS OF A RAIN GAUGE
• A number of factors are considered in siting a rain gauge to ensure accurate rainfall
recordings.
SITE AND SETTING REQUIREMENT EXPLANATION

It should be away from trees and buildings To avoid interception of water.
It should be partly buried into the ground For stability.
It should not be on tarmac surface To avoid water droplets from splashing
back into the rain gauge.
The gauge should stand vertically upright To ensure that all the rainfall will be
collected.
The rim is 30cm above the ground To avoid water splashes from the ground
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and for runoff not to get into the rain
Tgauge.
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HUMIDITY
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• Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

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• It is measured using a hygrometer which is a combination of a wet bulb

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thermometer and dry bulb thermometer.

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• These two thermometers use mercury.

• The wet bulb thermometer has a muslin connected to a jar of water by a wick which
keeps it moist.
DIAGRAM OF A HYGROMETER
• Draw the diagram of a hygrometer.
HOW A HYGROMETER WORKS
• When the air is not saturated, evaporation takes place from the water in the jar
through the muslin and the wick.
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• The evaporating water cools the bulb of the wet bulb thermometer through the
muslin.
• The cooling effect causes a sharp drop in the level of the mercury in the wet bulb
thermometer.
• The dry bulb thermometer gives the air temperature.
• The difference between the wet bulb and dry bulb thermometer readings gives the
wet bulb depression.
• The wet bulb depression and the dry bulb thermometer reading are used on the
hygrometrical table/ relative humidity conversion table to get relative humidity.
MEANINGS OF THE WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETER READINGS
• Large difference means humidity is low in the atmosphere.
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• Small difference means humidity is low.
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• No difference means the air is saturated (100% humid/ full of water vapour)
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FINDING OUT RELATIVE HUMIDITY
• Relative humidity is the percentage of the actual weight/ mass of water vapour held
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in the given mass of air and the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can
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hold at that temperature.

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• To find out relative humidity, follow these steps:

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1. Find out the wet and dry bulb temperature readings in degrees celcius.
2. Calculate the wet bulb depression by subtracting the wet bulb reading from
the dry bulb temperature reading.
3. Use the wet bulb depression and the dry bulb thermometer reading on the
hygrometrical table and find out where they intersect on the table, that’s the
relative humidity as a percentage.
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Pressure is the weight of air exerted on the earth’s surface.

• Atmospheric pressure is measured in millibars using a mercury barometer.
HOW A MERCURY BAROMETER MEASURES ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• If the atmospheric pressure increases, it exerts weight on the mercury in the jar
forcing it to rise up the glass tube.
• If the atmospheric pressure decreases the level of mercury in the glass tube will fall.
• Therefore, the height of the mercury in the glass tube is the measure of the existing
atmospheric pressure.
• A rise in the height of mercury in the glass tube to 760mm is equivalent to 1013
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millibars.
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Given that the mercury in the glass tube has risen to 700 mm, calculate the
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atmospheric pressure.
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• Atmospheric pressure is also measured using an aneroid barometer. Describe how

an aneroid barometer measures atmospheric pressure. (Refer to Complete
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Geography for Cambridge IGCSE by David Kelly and Muriel Fretwell page 173).
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DIAGRAM OF A MERCURY BAROMETER

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• Diagram below shows a mercury barometer. Draw and label it in your note books.
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WIND SPEED
• Wind speed is measured in kilometres per hour or knots using a cup anemometer.
DIAGRAM OF A CUP ANEMOMETER
• Research for a diagram of cup anemometer. Draw and label it in your note books.
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HOW A CUP ANEMOMETER MEASURES WIND SPEED
• When wind blows, the cups trap the air.

• This makes the shaft rotate.
• The wind speed is automatically recorded on the speedometer in kilometres per
hour.
THE BEAUFORT SCALE OF WIND FORCE
• Wind speed is described using the Beaufort scale of wind force.

• Draw the Beaufort scale of wind force.
WIND DIRECTION
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• Wind direction is measured using a wind vane.
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DIAGRAM OF A WIND VANE
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HOW A WIND VANE MEASURES WIND DIRECTION
• When wind blows, the shaft with the fixed arrow rotates.
• The arrow points the direction the wind is coming from.
• The wind direction is determined by the cardinal points/ compass points.
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THE WIND ROSE
• A wind rose is not an instrument but it is a chart which shows the number of days
wind blew in a certain direction.
• Each day the wind blew in a certain direction is recorded by adding a bar along the
arm drawn along that direction.
• The number written on the centre shows the number of calm days.
• Prevailing winds are the winds that blow for many days from one direction. These
are shown by the arm with the highest number of marks.
• Draw a wind rose to show the following:
a) 4 southerly winds
b) 2 northerly winds
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c) 1 westerly wind
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d) 6 calm days T
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SUNSHINE
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• Sunshine is measured in hours and minutes using a sunshine recorder.

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DIAGRAM OF A SUNSHINE RECORDER

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• Draw and label a sunshine recorder in your note books.

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HOW A SUNSHINE RECORDER MEASURES SUNSHINE
• Insert/ replace the recording card.

• Check after 24 hours or set period of time.
• The rays of the sun heat the sun dial and the time when the rays are focused on it is
recorded by burning of the recording card which has markings in hours and minutes.
• Measure the length of burnt line on the recording card. This shows the hours and
minutes of the sunshine.
CLOUD COVER
• Clouds are tiny droplets of water suspended or hanging in the air.
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• Generally, clouds form when air cools and water vapour condenses.
• Clouds occur at different heights and have different shapes and characteristics.
• Clouds are not measured by an instrument but the cloud cover and type is
estimated by eye observation.
• The cloud cover/ cloud amount is measured in oktas or eights.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUD TYPES ACCORDING TO HEIGHT, THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS AND THE SYMBOLS USED FOR CLOUD TYPES
• Refer to the handout for the classification of cloud types according to height, their
characteristics and the symbols used. Stick the handout in your notebooks.
MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD COVER
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• cloud cover in oktas and the symbols used to represent the amount on weather
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maps. Copy them in your notebooks.
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• This shows how cloud amount is shown on the daily weather maps using oktas
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(fractions of eight).
• On the map, places with the same cloudiness are represented by lines called
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isonephs.
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WEATHER SYMBOLS
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• These are used on weather maps to represent weather conditions.

• Diagram below shows weather symbols. Copy them in your notebooks.
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• Wind speed
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10 knots =
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20 nots =
NB For each additional half-feather add 5 knots.
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
• Synoptic charts are used to represent weather data by way of symbols.

• Diagram below is an example of a synoptic chart/ weather map. Draw and describe
the weather conditions.
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Temperature Wind direction
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Wind speed
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Cloud cover
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Activity: Describe the weather conditions at station X shown above.

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• There is low cloud cover of 2 oktas/ it’s partly cloudy.

• There is south easterly wind direction.
• The wind speed is high with 30 knots.
• The temperature is low at 15oC.
• There is drizzle.
DIGITAL WEATHER INSTRUMENTS
• Weather instruments are now being recorded using digital using digital weather
instruments, some of which are being connected to a computer whilst some are
hand held.
• Examples of digital weather instruments include:
a) Digital barometer
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b) Digital thermometer
c) Digital cup anemometer
d) Digital rain gauge
e) Digital hygrometer
ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL WEATHER INSTRUMENTS
• They allow precision/ accuracy in recording.

• They are easy to use.
• The results are quickly obtained.
• They can automatically plot results.
• There are less chances of human error.
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WEATHER FORECASTING
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Weather forecasting is predicting weather conditions.
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Importance of weather forecasting

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• Informs farmers when to grow crops.

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• To prepare people of pending disaster.

• For people to decide on what transport to use.
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• This also helps people to decide on the clothes to wear.

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Methods of weather forecasting
• Use of satellite technology.

• Use of previous records to establish trends and patterns.
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PRECIPITATION
• This is the release of moisture by the atmosphere.
Forms of precipitation
Write few notes on the forms of precipitation:
• Hail
• Rain
• Snow
• Drizzle
• Fog
• Mist
• Sleet
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Dew
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• The differences in the forms of precipitation is based on the diameter of the drops.
• Precipitation occurs when warm, moist air has been cooled to dew point
temperature.
• Dew point temperature is the critical temperature at which air is cooled and marks
the onset of condensation.
• The condensation level is the stage in the atmosphere at which water vapour
changes into liquid.
RAINFALL
Conditions necessary for rainfall formation
• Presence of warm, moist air.
• Uplift of warm moist air.
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• Cooling of warm moist air.
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• Condensation takes place in the presence of condensation nuclei.
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Clouds are formed.
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TYPES OF RAINFALL
• There are 3 types of rainfall:
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a) Convectional rainfall
b) Relief rainfall/ orographic rainfall
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c) Frontal rainfall/ cyclonic rainfall

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• The type of rainfall is determined by the mode of uplift. This is the means by which
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warm moist air is lifted/ made to rise.

• E.g. if the warm moist air is made to rise due to a relief feature like a mountain
barrier, the type of rainfall is relief rainfall.
• If the warm moist air is made to rise due to a front, the resultant type of rainfall is
frontal rainfall.
• If the warm moist air is made to rise due to convection currents, the resultant type
of rainfall is convectional rainfall.
1. RELIEF/ OROGRAPHIC RAIFALL

• DRAW DIAGRAM OF RELIEF RAINFALL
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• Warm moist air from the sea is made to rise due to a relief feature such a mountain
barrier.
• As the air rises, it expands.
• It expands due to reduced pressure.
• Expansion causes cooling of air because the air uses its energy in expansion.
• The cooling of air to dew point temperature results to condensation and cloud
formation causing rain to fall.
• Most of the rain is received on the windward slope.
• Dry air descends on the leeward slope (rain shadow area) where it causes little or no
rainfall.
2. CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL
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• DRAW DIAGRAM OF CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL
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• Convectional rainfall is as a result of the intense heating of the ground surface by the
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sun.
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The ground surface heats the air next to it by conduction.

• Warm moist air becomes lighter and is made to rise due to convection currents.
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As the air rises, it expands.

• Expansion causes cooling of air because the air uses its energy in expansion.
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• The cooling of air to dew point temperature results to condensation and cloud
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formation causing rain to fall.

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• Convectional rainfall is associated with clouds of great vertical extent e.g.

cumulonimbus and cumulus.
• The rainfall received is usually intense.
• It is associated with thunder and lightning.
3. FRONTAL/ CYCLONIC RAINFALL

• DRAW DIAGRAM OF CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL
• It is formed as a result of the convergence of winds.
• When the cold and warm air masses meet, the warm air mass which is less dense is
forced to rise.
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• As the warm air rises, it expands.

• After expansion, it cools and vapour condenses resulting to cloud formation and
subsequently rainfall.
WEATHER HAZARDS
• The term weather hazard refers to an abnormal or extreme weather condition that
poses a threat to life and result in discomfort and even loss of life.
TYPES OF WEATHER HAZARDS
1. FLOODS
• The term flood refers to water that flows over the banks of the river when the
carrying capacity has been exceeded.
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Causes of floods
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Floods are caused by heavy rainfall of about 250mm in 12 hours.
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• Melting of ice may also cause floods.
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• Floods may also be caused by cyclones and hurricanes.

• Dam failure due to earthquakes may also cause floods.
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Human activities may also contribute to flooding through the following ways
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Creation of concrete surfaces especially in urban areas which result in reduced

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infiltration and increased surface runoff.

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• Deforestation which leaves the land bare, increasing surface runoff.

• Poor farming methods such as monoculture and stream bank cultivation which
promote soil erosion, lead to siltation of rivers thus reducing the depth of the river.
• Poorly constructed dam walls which often burst and cause flooding downstream.
• Overgrazing which causes soil compaction resulting in increased surface runoff.
Effects of floods.
Negative effects
• Floods may result in drowning of people and loss of people’s lives.
• Floods results in destruction of homes and loss of property.
• It may result in washing away of crops or waterlogging, thus causing food shortages.
• Floods cause soil erosion and result in land degradation.
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• Floods may result in the death of livestock as well as wild animals.

• Floods are associated with the outbreak of waterborne diseases such as malaria.
• Floods may destroy infrastructure such as transport network systems, power lines
and bridges.
• Floods may result in water pollution, thus causing water shortages.
Positive effects
• Floods help to recharge ground water.
• Floods enrich the soils due to increased nutrients.
• Floods results in diverse ecosystems due to availability of water and enrichment of
the soil.
• Floods result in increased fish therefore promoting fishing activities.
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Measures to reduce the effects of floods
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• People should build homes on highlands, far from floodplains.
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• Building of canals or artificial channels to divert water away from settlements.
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• Building artificial levees or embankments on river banks to increase the carrying

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capacity of the channel.

• Planting vegetation on catchment areas to reduce surface runoff.
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• People may be encouraged to sack sand bags around the houses to prevent water
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from flooding into them.

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• Introduction of early warning systems which help people to be prepared for floods.
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• Widening and dredging river channels so that they hold more water.
• Relocating people to higher grounds.
• Straightening river channels to increase its speed and reduce water overflowing from
meanders and marshy areas.
• Educating people about the causes and ways of reducing impacts of floods.
• Resettling people to areas that are less prone to flooding.
2. DROUGHT
• Drought refers to a situation where there is low rainfall than expected in a given area
at a given time.
Causes of drought
• Droughts are caused by natural variations in rainfall patterns of the world.
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• It is caused by the El Nino effect which results cycles of drought.

• It is also caused by the rain shadow effect where there is low rainfall on the leeward
sides of mountains.
• Continentality- whereby areas far away from the oceans in the interior of the
continents experience droughts.
• Global warming may also result in drought.
• Severe deforestation which leads to reduced evapotranspiration may also cause
drought.
Effects of drought
• Droughts may result in the death of people indirectly over a long period of time.
• Droughts result in lower crop yields thus increasing food shortages and famine.
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Food shortages will consequently lead to
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• Drying up of wells and rivers. T
• Food shortage may lead to outbreak of diseases.
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• It may result in the death of livestock and wild animals.

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• Spread of diseases since some diseases since some diseases thrive in dry, hot
conditions.
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Measures to reduce the effects of droughts

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• Construction of dams for irrigation water storage during periods of drought.

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• Growing of drought tolerant or resistant crop varieties.

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• Keeping drought tolerant animals.

• Use of agro-forestry which combines growing of trees along with crops.
• Building good storage facilities to store surplus production to use during the period
of drought.
• Creating a drought levy in the national budget for use during periods of drought.
• Creating food for work programs so as to help people affected by floods.
• Drilling of boreholes and sinking of well to help in providing water for people.
• Importing food grains from other countries.
• Use of Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) such as drying of food.
• Use of moisture conserving techniques such as mulching, zero or conservation and
planting holes.
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• Relocate animals to areas with good grazing during the periods of droughts.
• Offer drought relief supplies to people during periods of droughts.
• Practising cloud seeding.
3. LIGHTNING
• The term lightning refers to an electrostatic discharge that occurs typically during a
thunderstorm.
• The discharge occurs between electrically charged regions of a cloud called intra
cloud lightning, between two clouds or a cloud and the ground.
• Thunder usually occurs after lightning since light travels faster than lightning.
Effects of lightning
• It may lead to the death of people.
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• People may be injured after being struck by a lightning.
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• Animals may be struck and killed by lightning. T
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Destruction of property.
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Damage or destruction of telecommunication and electricity lines.

• Electrocution as well as trauma and shock.
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It may result in forest fires.

• Positively, lightning may lead to soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.
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Measures to avoid being struck by lightning

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• Making use of lightning conductors at homes.

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• People should stay indoors during a thunderstorm.

• Do not use a corded telephone while there is a storm.
• Stay away from electrical appliances and plumbing during a storm.
• People be aware of the weather forecast and know local weather patterns.
• Wearing of rubber shoes during thunderstorms.
• Ensure a property against lightning.
• Do not stand under a tree or on high mountains during a thunderstorm.
• Do not bath or wash during a thunderstorm.
• Strom abortion.
• Avoid open areas which makes you the tallest object.
• Do not swim or go into a boat during a thunderstorm.
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• Avoid open vehicles such as tractors and golf carts.

• Avoid metal objects.
4. TROPICAL CYCLONES
• A tropical cyclone is a cell/region of intense low pressure which is associated with
high rainfall and strong winds.
• Cyclones originate over the oceans where temperatures are above 270C.
• They are carried by tropical easterly winds and travel from east to west affecting the
coastal areas.
The effects of tropical cyclones
• Strong winds and heavy rainfall cause severe damage to buildings.
• Torrential rain may result in flooding which may damage roads, bridges and
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communication lines.
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• People may lose their lives or be injured by floods and strong winds.
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In mountainous areas they may cause landslides and bury settlements.
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Strong winds and flooding may lead to washing away of crops, thus reducing
harvests.
• Animals may be injured or killed during by cyclones.
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• Strong winds accompanied by heavy rainfall may uproot trees leading to destruction
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of vegetation.
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• There could be outbreak of waterborne dieses such as typhoid and cholera.

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• Cyclones negatively affect economic due to high costs of reconstruction.

Measures to reduce the effects of tropical cyclones
• Predicting the path of the cyclone and give early warning to the people.
• Resettling people from coastal areas to higher grounds to minimize damage.
• Storm abortion.
• Reinforcement of buildings.
• Tying all loose furniture and objects to prevent these from braking windows during
storms.
• Keeping first aid kits and emergency supplies of food and clean water.
• Stack sandbags around the house to reduce the effects of flooding.
• People should stay indoors until the storm completely passes.
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• Introduction of afforestation and reforestation programs so as to reduce the rate of

runoff.
5. FROST
• This is when temperature falls below freezing point and ice crystals are deposited.
Causes
• Very low ground temperature at night.
• Surface cooling through loss of radiation.
Effects
• Destruction of crops.
• Causes diseases.
• Stunted/slow growth of crops.
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• Causes death of some animals.
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Measures T
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Grow crops in the greenhouse.
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Irrigate crops in the morning to disperse frost from crops.

• Putting ashes in the fields to reduce effects of frost on the crops.
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Artificial heating to disperse frost.

• Keep animals in warmer places.
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• Practice mulching to prevent loss of water.

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• Growing frost resistant rocks.

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6. HAIL
• They are spherical ice pellets caused by thunderstorms.
Effects
• They may kill humans and animals.
• They cause soil erosion.
• They tear crops and other vegetation.
• Destruction of infrastructure.
Measures
• Provide shelter for the animals.
• Grow crops in greenhouses.
• Advise people to stay indoors.
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• Warning people for them to be prepared.

• Abort the storm at its early stage of development.
7. HEATWAVES
• This is a period of extremely high temperatures.
• This is a result of high pressure systems and many other causes of global warming.
Effects of heatwaves
• They cause death of people due to dehydration.
• Plants die due to moisture stress.
• Outbreak of diseases such as skin rash, stomach and headaches.
• Change in animal behavior.
• Extinction of some animal and plant species.
S
Measures
E
• Take a lot of fluids. T
•
O
Sit in a shade.
•
1N
Put on light clothes.

• Have early warning systems.
•
M
Frequently water plants and animals.

• Use of air conditioning systems.
R
O
F
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INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

From the evidence of earth quake waves the Austrian Geologist Suess has divided the earth
into Crust, Mantle and Core. To know the plate tectonic movement, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and some landforms such as Fold Mountain, rift valley, ridge etc, it is important to
know the interior structure and its characteristics.
S
E
T
O
1N
M
1. Crust (Lithosphere, 8-33km) – the topmost layer of the earth is the crust. Types of
R
crust: The continental and oceanic crust. Temperature: 1200 degrees celsius.
O
2. Mantle (Asthenosphere 2900km) – The temperature here is 3000 degrees celsius.

F
Composition: consists of lower mantle is solid rock and the upper mantle of molten
rock called magma.
3. Core (Barysphere 6400 km) – the core is very dense and there is convectional
current. The temperature here is 5000 degrees celsius. The layers are composed
mostly of Iron and nickel.
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Plate tectonics
• It is the movement of tectonic plates along their boundaries.

• The earth’s crust is not just a rigid block of solid rock. It is made up of subdivisions or
parts, each of these rigid parts which make up the crust is called a plate.
• Tectonic plate: a rigid solid rock slab or crustal block that make up part of the earth’s
crust that take part in plate tectonics.
• The plates just like the crust are can be classifies into the continental plates and the
oceanic plates
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
Major plates and how they move.
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SUMMARY OF PLATE MARGINS AND FEATURES FORMED

Type of plate margin Examples Types of stress Features
Destructive (oceanic vs Andes Compression Earthquakes, fold

continental) mountains, volcanoes,
ocean trenches
Destructive (oceanic vs oceanic) Japan, Philippines, Compression Earthquakes, island arcs

West volcanoes, ocean
trenches
Destructive (two continental) Himalayas Compression Earthquakes,nhjfold

mountains
Constructive Mid-atlantic Ridge, Tension Earthquakes, Ocean

East pacific rise, ridges, volcanoes
Carlsberg ridge
S
Conservative San Andreas Fault. Shearing earthquakes
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
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Volcanoes
• A Volcano is a conical or dome-shaped landform formed from the accumulation of

lava that has been emitted onto earth’s surface.
• It is a hole or crack in the ground through which gases, lava (liquid) and pyroclastic
(solid) are erupted.
• These materials include lava and pyroclastic materials, which consists of ash, dust,
gas and rock fragments.
• All fragments thrown into the air by a volcanic eruption are called pyroclastic
material. Volcanoes that consist predominantly of pyroclastic materials are called
cinder cones. Lava layer
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
The main features of a volcano

F
The formation of volcanoes
• The formation of volcanoes begins when the magma chamber below the earth’s
surface experiences pressure from movements at plate boundaries.
• The pressure may result from the collision of two plates at convergent plate
boundaries or the moving apart of two plates at divergent plate boundaries.
• The plates move initially because of convectional currents in the mantle which trigger
compressional or tensional forces driving plates.
• Such movements cause the magma to force its ways upwards through vents in the
earth’s crust.
• Eventually, the magma pours onto the earth’s surface as lava
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Types of volcanoes
The two main types of volcanoes are the composite/ strato volcano and the shield volcano
S
E
Characteristics of a composite/strato volcano T
•
O
A large cone-shaped with a steep slopes. The beautifully symmetrical cones of Fuji in
Japan and Mayon in the Philippines are the examples.
1N
• The Strato or composite volcanoes are the highest and steepest volcanoes in the
world.
• Have steep sides because of short, wide and very viscious lava flows which don’t
M
travel far.
•
R
Have narrow bases

• There are made up of alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material
O
• Made up of intermediate lava with low silica content and paler in colour.
F
• Erupts violently (more explosive eruptions) due to the high viscosity of magmas
• Long dormant periods
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Characteristics of shield volcano
• Formed in the oceans often at constructive plate margins. A cone-shaped with gentle
slopes and wide bases, because they release fluid lava slowly. These volcanoes can
create huge landforms.
• Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii are classic examples.
• Rise from the deep ocean floor
• Have gentle upper slopes(at an angle of about 5 degrees), and steeper lower
slopes(about 10 degrees)
• Roughly circular or oval shape in map view
• Covers a wide area
• Composed of long thin lava flows built up over a central vent
• Have very little pyroclastic material
• Formed by runny lava that flows easily
• Formed by basic lava with low silica content which is dark in colour
• The low viscosity of the magma allows the lava to flow quickly down a gentle slope
S
but as it cools it becomes less runny-its thickness builds up on the lower slopes
E
which explains the steeper lower profiles.
T
Acid Lava Dome Volcano: Dome-shaped with steep convex slopes. The lava flows from a
O
central vent, cool and solidifies quickly.

1N
Fissure eruption
• Under certain circumstances, instead of issuing from a central vent, lava pours out
M
along cracks, or fissures, that may extend for several kilometres across the land
surface.
R
• Flows of this sort have created thick sheets of basalt covering thousands of square
O
kilometres.
F
• The Deccan Plateau in India and the Columbia Plateau in the northwest United States
are the example
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DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
S
E
CIRCUM PACIFIC BELT
T
O
• The majority of the world’s active volcanoes occur along the plate boundaries. The
1N
most important belt of volcanoes is the so called the Ring of Fire. This belt is more or
less surrounds the Pacific Ocean.Nearly 66% of the active volcanoes lie in this belt. It
is co-incidental with the belt of earthquakes.
M
• It runs through the young fold mountains of the Rockies, and the Andes in North and
R
South Americas and along the eastern coastal areas and islands of East Asia. Mayon,
Fuji are some examples.
O
• The Ring of Fire extends through the Andes of South America, Central America,
F
Mexico, the Cascade Mountain of Western USA. Volcano like Cotopaxi, Katmai,
Fujiyama etc are located in this belt.
Atlantic Belt:
• Another belt runs north-south through the Atlantic and accordingly is known as
Atlantic belt.
• It extends from Jan Mayen Island in the north to the Cape Verde Island in the south.
Volcano like Mt. Pelee, St. Helena, Mt. Hekla etc are located.
Mediterranean Himalayan belt:
• Another volcanic belt is the Mediterranean Himalayan belt extending east-west from
the Alps via the Apennines to the Caucasus and the mountain of Asia minor.
• Volcanoes like Vesuvius, Etna, Mount Ararat are located in this belt
• Hot spots volcanoes
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EFFECTS/DANGERS OF VOLCANOES
LAVA: Lava is magma that reaches the surface. This liquefied rock is many times hotter than
boiling water and glows bright yellow, orange, and red. Some lava cools quickly, on or near
the volcano, but more fluid lava may travel for kilometres before slowly harden into rock.
PYROCLASTIC MATERIAL: All fragments thrown into the air by a volcanic eruption are called
pyroclastic material. During a violent eruption, the force of the blast sends super hot gas
and millions of pieces of lava into the air. It travels at a speed of 500km/hr
GASES: The gaseous substances are mainly composed of steam, hydrochloric acid,
ammonium chloride, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Ash clouds (tephra) – the weight of the falling ash can collapse building and destroy crops.
It reduces sunlight by blocking out the sun and even causes problems for air travel
Tsunami and acid rain – tsunami also occur when there is volcanic eruption in the ocean
and acid rain due to large amount of elements emission in the air
S
Mudflows(lahars)-these form when ash mixes with water and travels down river valleys.
E
Because mud is more denser than water, mudflows are very destructive washing away
T
buildings, roads, people, bridges
O
Post eruption famine and disease-the destruction of homes, infrastructure ,roads and
1N
services.
Lateral blasts-sometimes a volcano can explode sideways which can be dangerous for ares
M
within 40 km of the volcano.

R
O
F
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Dangers and nature of volcanic eruptions
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
Why volcanoes erupt on destructive plate boundaries.

F
• plates move together/towards each other/converges;

• subduction occurs;
• friction/ heat builds up;
• destruction/melting of crust/magma is created;
• pressure build up/magma builds up/high pressure;
Explain how a volcanic eruption can damage the economy of a country.
• disruption of flights
• so people are stranded
• airlines lose money
• ash covers crops;
• reducing yields
• closure/damage to workplaces (or examples);
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VOLCANO CASE STUDY (MT MERAPI)

Location
Mount Merapi is located in South East Asia in the country of Indonesia. It is North of
Yogyakarta and West of Solo on the island of Java. It is 1,700m high and has been erupting
regularly since the 1500s.
Causes
The volcano and its eruptions were caused by the Indo-Australian Plate being subducted
beneath the Eurasian Plate. The volcano is located on a destructive plate margin at a
subduction zone and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Effects
Primary (caused directly by the volcano) Secondary (result from primary effects)
Volcanic bombs and hot gases of up to Vegetable prices increased because of the
800°C spread over 11km away damage to crops
S
Pyroclastic flows spread 3km down the Emergency shelters had to be moved over
E
mountain 15km away
Ash fell up to 30km away and 5km into the
T
Danger area extended to 20km from the
O
sky. 15km away, villages were under 30cm mountain and 278,000 people living in this
of ash area had to flee their homes
1N
Sulphur Dioxide was blown across Planes were grounded in Western Australia
Indonesia and as far South as Australia because of the risk of damage to aircraft
from the ash cloud
M
Ash, rock and lava deposited on the sides of

the volcano is still being washed down into
R
towns by rainfall creating lahar (a mudflow

O
that often flows along river valleys)

F
Impacts
Positive Negative
Ash from the volcano will eventually lead to 273 people were killed and 577 people
more fertile soils in the area were injured
A conservation area has been set up around The evacuation centres were overcrowded
the volcano where it is unsafe to live leading to poor sanitation, no privacy and
serious disease risk
People, particularly farmers,
Lost their homes and livelihoods 360,000

people were displaced from their homes
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Responses
Short Term Long Term

210 evacuation centres were set up either Formal evacuation centres were eventually
as tents, in schools, churches, stadiums or set up because buildings, such as schools
government offices and government offices, were needed for
their official uses
1,600 people, either volunteers or military, 2,682 people have had to be moved to
were part of the national aid response new, safer houses permanently
International aid was offered from The government is making money available
organisations such as the Red Cross to farmers to help replace their livestock
The government has set up a special task
force to support people that have been
affected by the volcano either by family
issues, or because they have lost their jobs
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
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EARTHQUAKE
• An earthquake is
a sudden shaking or vibration in the Earth’s crust.
• The vibrations in the form of seismic waves occur when tectonic energy that has
built up over time by plate movement is released rapidly.
• The crust is divided into sections, called plates, which continually move in relation to
each other and are bordered by faults.
• When plates suddenly move past each other, the built-up strain is released along the
fault, and the rock fractures.
S
• An earthquake also can be triggered by molten rock moving up into the chamber of a
E
volcano before eruption.
T
Cause of Earthquake
O
• The tectonic variety is by far the most devastating. According to the theory of plate
1N
tectonics, tectonic quakes occur at the boundaries of the plates, where one plate
slides past or beneath another. Tectonic earthquakes occur in a variety of geological
settings.
M
• Majority of the earth quakes occur along the fracture line, where slipping and
R
settling down of rock masses takes place.

• When rocks can bear no more stress, breaking with sudden displacement of the
O
rocks on two sides of the fault takes place. It produces a blow to the upper rocks on
F
one side of the fault-plane and to the lower rocks on the other side.
• Humans activities may contribute to the cause of earthquakes through a variety of
activities such as filling new reservoirs, detonating underground atomic explosives,
or pumping fluids deep into the ground through wells. For example, in 1962 Denver,
Colorado, in the United States began to experience earthquakes.
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The nature of earthquake
• An epicentre is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the underground
source, or focus, of an earthquake.
• The impact of the earthquake is usually strongest near the epicentre
S
E
T
O
1N
Effects of earthquakes
M
• Apart from the immediate destruction of life and property, EQ bring about several
R
changes in the earth’s crust.

O
• Cracks and fissures develop in the surface of the rock strata due to which new
springs may appear on the surface or old may disappear.
F
• If these cracks develop in hilly areas they result in landslides. 3

• The rivers may change their courses, if fissures develop in their beds.
• When an EQ affects the ocean floor, great sea waves which are known as
TSUNAMIES spread outwards
• Contraction of the rock strata takes place.
• It may form depressions forming lakes.
• Due to uplift and subsidence some wells may become dry while others get more
water
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DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
No place on the earth’s surface is totally free from earthquakes. But the earthquakes occur
more frequently in certain areas. These areas are the weak and unstable parts of the crust.
The Circum Pacific belt: This belt encircles the pacific Ocean and follows the western coast
of North and South America, the Aleutian islands and Islands of the eastern coast of Asia like
Japan and Philippines. Nearly 68% of the earth quakes of the world originate in this belt.
Mid World Mountain belt: This belt is associated with the young fold mountain ranges of
the Alps, The Himalayas and their continuation in the south-east Asian islands. Nearly 21%
of the earthquakes of the world originate in this belt.
Mid-ocean ridges are the sites of numerous such events of moderate intensity: Tectonic
earthquakes also occur in a zone stretching from the Mediterranean and Caspian seas to the
Himalayas, and ending in the Bay of Bengal.
Fold-Mountains distribution: Generally, Fold Mountains are found near destructive plate
S
boundaries on coastlines and they are a liner formation. When two plates collide, the
compressional force put the rock layers pressure. Eventually, they bend and fold. They are
E
T
created by the uplift and folding of tectonic plates as they move towards each and collide.
Eg: the Himalayas and the Alps. Eg: Himalaya. ‘Young fold mountains’ and the ‘old fold
O
mountains’ over 200 million years old. The Ural Mountains are over 250 million years old
1N
Explain why people live in areas where earthquakes occur.
• they can’t afford to move;

M
• they have lived there all their lives/sentimental attachment;

• lack of space elsewhere/they have nowhere else to go;
R
• there is work/ education/ source of income available;

O
• relatives/friends in area; confidence in precaution/buildings;

F
• they are unaware of the risk/people don’t think it will happen;

• willing to take the risk/benefits outweigh the risk (or example);
• they do not happen very often
Why earthquakes of the same magnitude (strength) are likely to cause more deaths and
injuries in an LEDC than an MEDC.
• poor quality or weak buildings; buildings easily collapsed; building regulations are
not enforced;
• poor medical services; people cannot be properly treated for their injuries;
• less disaster planning/emergency procedures rescue equipment/disaster relief;
• poor education re: earthquake precautions;
• less investment in emergency services;
• LEDCs have to wait longer for rescue teams or relief/poor transport infrastructure;
• buildings/structures are not earthquake proof, etc
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Measuring of earthquakes
Two ways of assessing the effects of an earthquake are, the mercalli scale and the richter
scale. The Richter scale of magnitude measures the total amount of energy released by an
earthquake.an increase of 1 means that energy released increases by about 30 times.
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
The amount of damage that an earthquake cause can be affected by

O
• The amount of energy released as measured by the Richter scale

F
• The depth of the focus beneath the surface (shallower earthquakes have a greater
effect)
• The density of the population in the area of the earthquake epicentre
• Whether or not the buildings have been built to withstand earthquakes
• How solid the bedrock is; weak sands and clays can turn to liquids (liquefaction)
causing buildings to collapse.
• State of preparedness of communities as most frequent eruptions are better
prepared than rare events
• Economic development of an area which affect the quality and quantity of
emergency services, building designs
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Predicting and planning for earthquakes
• Scientists can use sensitive instruments to measure increases in earth movements and a
build-up of pressure.
• They can also map the epicentres and frequency of previous earthquakes to see if there is
either a repeat location or a time-interval pattern.
• Even so, such methods can predict neither the precise timing nor the exact location
of the earthquake.
• A less scientific method, but successfully used in China, has been the observation of
unusual animal behaviour shortly before a major earth movement e.g. mice have fled
houses, dogs have howled, fish have jumped out of water and the giant panda has
moaned.
Some measures to reduce impacts of earthquakes
• Buildings can be constructed to withstand earthquakes.

• They are built with steel (which can sway during earth movement)
•
S
fire-resistant materials - never with bricks or reinforced concrete blocks.
•
E
Foundations are sunk deep into bedrock and are separated from the
superstructure by shock-absorbers. T
•
O
Open spaces should be provided for people to assemble,
1N
Other measures
• roads made sufficiently wide to allow rapid access by emergency services.

• The emergency services themselves need to be trained and well-equipped,
M
• local residents need to be made aware as to how they should respond both during and
after the event.
R
• Early warning systems are given to people after predictions

O
• Evacuation of people, animals and some properties from areas at risks saves some from
F
destruction.
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RIVERS
• It is a stream of water that flows along a channel from the highlands to the lowlands
is known as river.
• The great majority of rivers eventually discharge into either the sea or a lake,
• Some rivers disappear due to water loss through seepage into the ground and
evaporation into the air.
• The development of a river valley is the combined effect of river erosion,
transportation and deposition.
The world water
S
E
T
O
1N
The hydrological cycle-the continuous recycling of water between atmosphere and land
M
surface.
R
O
F
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Evaporation - water is stored in the seas as a liquid. High temperature and warm winds
change the liquid water into gas (water vapour) which rises into the atmosphere.
Evapotranspiration - vegetation not only intercepts rainfall but also take it up through roots
from the soil. This water is eventually returned to the atmosphere by transpiration from
leaves. Surface water is also evaporated from leaves.
Condensation – as water vapour is blown towards mountain by the prevailing wind it is forced
to rise, cools and condensed back into water droplets. These form clouds and relief
(orographic) rainfall or snow.
Interceptions – this is the rain water that is caught and held temporarily by vegetation
structure (leaves, twigs and truck) before reaching the ground
Some rainfall is intercepted by plants and trees before reaching the ground. Some falls on the
land and infiltrates the ground or flows on the surface as small fast- flowing streams.
S
Overland flow – the flowing of water on the land surface downslope either as concentrated
E
runoff in channels or un-concentrated sheet flow. Upland streams flow downhill and join at
T
confluences to form slower – moving wider, deeper rivers which eventually discharge the
O
water into lakes or the sea
1N
Condensation- the cooling down of water vapour into water droplets to form clouds.
Condensation forms minute water droplets called cloud(a mass very small water droplets
suspended in the atmosphere, which are too light to fall ).
M
Precipitation- all form of water released from clouds/atmosphere such as rain, snow, hail
R
Underground water movements

O
F
Surface runoff- the flow of water across the surface of the land. It involves water flows
downhill/slope.
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Infiltration- the soaring down of water into the soil. The sinking of water into the soil through
pore spaces.
Percolation- the further downward movement of water through compact rocks into the
ground water storage.
Ground water flow- the movement of water through the rocks and soil.
Through flow- the flow of water towards sea or lake through the soil.
Water table- the level of saturated ground/ground water in the soil.
Importance of rivers
• River is an important an important agents that shape the landscapes of the earth, river
also have a great impact on human activities.
• Rivers are important transportation routes that facilitate trade and communication.
• River is also linking the regions with indigenous population, enabling cultural
exchanges of social and historical significance.
S
• Some rivers also function as important political boundaries between boundaries. For
E
example, the Danube forms most of the borders of Bulgaria and Romania.
T
• Rivers are important source of fresh water. In countries such as China, India and
O
Indonesia, many rural areas have no access to treated and safe drinking water and
1N
depend on water from rivers and wells.

• Rivers are important for irrigation and industrial purposes.
M
The drainage basin

It is an area drained by a river and its tributaries.
R
O
F
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River processes
The Upper Course - Erosion
River erosion is the gradual removal of rock material from the river banks and bed. There are
four types of erosion within the river.
1. Hydraulic action refers to the force of the water flow against the banks and bed. Sometimes
the bank becomes over saturated and just slumps into the river. Water can compress air inside
cracks and the pressure generated can cause the banks to crumble and collapse.
z2. Abrasion refers to the way in which the suspended load, transported by the flow collides
with the bed and bank. This is sometimes anecdotally referred to as the 'sandpaper effect'.
3. Solution is the chemical reaction between carbon acid in the water and mineral elements
in the rock. The water dissolves soluble rock materials and carry then away in solution
downstream.
4. Attrition is unique because it directly relates to erosion of bed load rather than the bed
S
and bank. Attrition takes place through small collisions between bed load materials. The load
E
becomes smaller, smoother and rounded downstream as a result of attrition. Abrasion,
T
hydraulic action and solution all erode the bed and banks of the river, hence deepening and
O
widening the river.
1N
Transportation
When a river erodes the eroded material becomes the river’s load and the river will then
M
transport this load through its course until it deposits the load. There are a few different ways
that a river will transport load depending on how much energy the river has and how big the
R
load is.
O
1. The largest of particles such as boulders are transported by traction. These particles are
F
rolled along the bed of the river, eroding the bed and the particles in the process, because
the river doesn’t have enough energy to move these large particles in any other way.
2. Slightly smaller particles, such as pebbles and gravel, are transported by saltation. This is
where the load bounces along the bed of the river because the river has enough energy to lift
the particles off the bed but the particles are too heavy to travel by suspension.
3. Fine particles like clay and silt are transported in suspension, they are suspended in the
water. Most of a river’s load is transported by suspension.
4. Solution is a special method of transportation. This is where particles are dissolved into
the water so only rocks that are soluble, such as limestone or chalk, can be transported in
solution.
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S
Velocity: The speed of river water flow. It is the amount of water passing through a given
E
point along a river in metres per second.
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
The river main features
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• Distributaries- the streams which distribute water from the main channel
• Delta- the triangular shaped deposition at the mouth of a river.
• Estuary- the partially submerged delta at the mouth.
Identify the following features of the Amazon river shown
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
The features of a river long profile.

F
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E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
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S
E
T
O
1N
M
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F
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Waterfall
S
Plunge pools: A large depression at the foot of a waterfall.
E
• Due to the force of the water a deep plunge pool forms at the base of the waterfall.
T
• Turbulent flow with eddy currents and splashback undercut the cap of resistant rock
O
headwardly, until the undercut is significant enough for the rock above to collapse
1N
under its own weight.

• This leaves angular resistant bedload in the plunge pool, which will combine with
hydraulic action to further deepen and undercut through the process of abrasion.
M
Knickpoint
R
• A knickpoint is a term in geomorphology to describe a location in a river or channel

O
where there is a sharp change in channel slope, such as a waterfall or lake, resulting
F
from differential rates of erosion above and below the knickpoint.

Pot holes
• These features develop in the areas of the beds of the rivers with a number of joints
and cracks.
• The larger fragments carried by the river erode joints more easily and rapidly forming
small depressions.
• The rock fragments get caught in it and with the swift flow of river a grinding circular
action is set up due to which the floor becomes deeper and wider while the neck
remains smaller Ex. River Mutha
Rapids
• Sections of swift current formed as a result of the river cutting down rapidly in a
localized section of the river.
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• The main characteristics of rapids are distinctly steeper gradients marked by steps in
the channel and high turbulence, which is the result of large bedload in the channel
or steps.
• It is common that rapids form over different bands of geology that vary in resistance
or where the river is transporting large more resistant bedload.
• The velocity of the river is noticeably faster at rapids but not efficient in its flow. Due
to the roughness of the channel, flow is turbulent and known as white water.
• This white water is thrown up and characterized by eddy currents.
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
V-shaped valleys
• V’ shaped valley: These valleys come into existence in the upper course of the river
due to its downward cutting. The river valley becomes deep.
• Along with the river, different agents of weathering also play an important role in its
formation.
• Due to these agents the sides of valleys are weathered and the resultant rock
materials are carried to the river, with the action of gravity.
• Thus these river valleys are wide at the top while their floors remain narrow. Eg.
Western Ghats (India).
Gorge:
• A gorge is a narrow valley with steep sides.

• Usually smaller than a canyon, it commonly forms when a river cuts downwards into
its channel more quickly than it erodes the valley walls.
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Canyon:
S
• A canyon is a deep narrow valley with steep sides, usually wider and longer than a
E
gorge. T
• Canyons usually form in arid mountainous regions and are the result of erosion caused
O
by rivers and heavy rains
1N
Features in the middle course of a river

M
R
O
F
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Meanders , Again
• Meanders are loop-like bends in a river.

• The water flows round the meander in a spiral manner. This causes erosion to take
place on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank.
• Gradually, a steep river cliff is formed on the outer bank, making it concave in shape.
• On the inner bank, deposition of alluvial materials produces a gentle slip-off slope and
the bank takes on a convex shape.
Oxbow Lake
• An oxbow lake is a crescent -shaped lake formed on a river when a meander has been
cut through and abandoned.
• When a river meanders in very big loops, the outer bank is so rapidly eroded that the
river cuts through the narrow neck of the meander.
• The river then flows straight through the channel. When deposition seals off the cut-
off from the river channel, an oxbow lake is formed.
S
• It may silt up and eventually dry up
E
Floodplains and Levees T
O
• A floodplain is a low-lying plain on both sides of a river that has repeatedly overflowed
its banks and flooded the surrounding areas.
1N
• When the floods subside, alluvium is deposited on the floodplain.

• The larger materials, being heavier, are deposited at the river banks while the finer
M
materials are carried and deposited further away from the river. The larger materials
at the river banks build up into embankment called levees.
R
Shape of a river
O
F
28
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S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
29
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Alluvial fan:
• Where a river is heavily loaded with sediment from a steep upper course on the
mountains, abundant of sediments are deposited, which blocks and diverts the
channel to form an alluvial fan.
• The Kosi River in India has one of the largest alluvial fans in the world, which is situated
where the river leaves the Himalaya to enter the wide floodplain of the Ganges.
Delta:
• A delta is a triangular or fan-shaped deposit of sediment that forms at a river’s mouth

where that river flows into an ocean, lake, or slower river.
• As a river enters another body of water, its current slows and the sediment carried by
the current is deposited.
• If ocean currents are strong enough, the sediment may be swept away, preventing a
large delta from forming.
• The triangular shape and the great width at the base are due to blocking of the river
S
mouth by silt, with resulting continual formation of distributaries at angles to the
E
original course.
•
T
Deltas are usually characterized by highly fertile soil. The combined delta of the
O
Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in India, and the deltas of the Nile in Egypt and the
Mississippi in the United States are the world's largest.
1N
• Their shape is influenced by the amount and type of sediment being transported by
the river, the velocity, discharge and capacity of the river and the strength of marine
tides and waves.
M
Arcuate deltas like that found on the Nile are the most common type of delta. They are
R
characterised by a gently curving shoreline, smoothed by longshore currents. They have a

O
distinct pattern of branching distributaries and tend to be dominated by courser material.

F
Bird-foot deltas have long finger-like projections that reach out to the sea, like the Mississippi
River's delta. These deltas might have broad, shallow shelves. The bird-foot delta is named
for its long thin shape, much like a bird's toe.
Estuary An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers
or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a
transition zone between river environments and maritime environments and are subject to
both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverine
influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of both sea water and fresh
water provide high levels of nutrients in both the water column and sediment, making
estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world
30
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A number of depositional features appear in the lower course of a river
S
E
T
O
1N
Drainage patterns
M
R
O
F
31
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• The Speed of Flowing Water The velocity of a river is the speed at which water flows
along it.
• The velocity will change along the course of any river, and is determined by factors
such as the gradient ( how steeply the river is losing height), the volume of water, the
shape of the river channel and the amount of friction created by the bed, rocks and
plants. Gradient of river - the steeper the slope, the faster the flow.
• River Competence - Rivers and streams carry sediment that ranges in size from clay
(smallest) to boulders (biggest). The "competence" of a river or stream refers to the
largest particles that a river can transport.
• Hydrologists use the term channel efficiency to describe the river's ability to transport
bedload and discharge
• Wetted perimeter refers to the channel area in contact with the water, wetted length
of bed and bank. Larger wetted perimeter (banks and bed in contact with water), the
river has to overcome more friction and is slowed down. Smooth semi-circular
channels are the most efficient channels and are located more often further
downstream.
S
• Roughness in the channel, which describes the quantity of large and angular bedload
E
increases the wetted perimeter. Large bedload creates turbulent inefficient flow in
T
the channel. The channel in the upper course is more often shallow and punctuated
O
with large angular bedload. The rougher the channel, the slower is the flow, because
1N
the water has to overcome the friction of the river bed and banks. As a consequence
it has low channel efficiency and therefore the quantity of transported bedload is
lower.
M
• The quantity of bedload that a river able to transport is known as capacity. Capacity
of a river increases downstream.
R
O
F
32
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S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
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Floods: Flooding on the Rhine, Europe 1995

The Rhine is the longest river in Europe. It flows for 1320km. Not only is the river an important
physical feature, the drainage basin also contains 40 million people, and a large amount of
industry. As a result of its importance, the Rhine has been heavily protected and engineered,
but some of this work may have contributed to the floods of January 1995.
The causes of Rhine floods:
• Heavy rain – Switzerland had over three times its average rainfall in January
• Saturated soils – there was nowhere for the rain to soak away
• Mild temperature – this melted snow in the Alps.
• Much of the Rhine’s floodplain has been built upon – the impermeable surface
increases the amount of rain now reaching the river, and the speed with which it does
so.
• Intensive farming compacts the soil and increases overland runoff
• Vegetation clearance reduces interception
S
• Channel straightening speeds up the flow of water downstream
E
• Dykes create faster and deeper flows.
T
O
Effects of flood in Rhine, Europe

1N
• 27 people were killed

• Over 250,000 people were evacuated from their homes in the Netherlands
M
• Flood damage in Germany alone was valued at over 640 pound million.
R
Solutions to the flood problem

O
• Evacuation of people and livestock

F
• Sandbags placed across doors

• Removal of furniture upstairs
• Clearance of underground car parks and subways
• The development of an early warning system
• Dykes to increase the volume of water the river can hold – the Dutch flood
protection scheme has cost over 1billion pound to build 600km of dykes since 1995
• Relief channels and basins to divert some of the water during the peak of the flood,
but his requires co-operation between a number of countries in the upper course to
prevent flooding in the lower course of the river
• Artificial floodplains – called forelands in the Netherlands, located within the winter
dykes; these areas are allowed to flood and can be used for grazing and recreation.
• Limited residential and industrial development in floodplain areas.
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S
E
T
b) Altitude – temperature decreases with increasing altitude at the rate of 6.50 C per 1000
O
metres in the troposphere. This rate of decrease is known as the Normal Lapse of Rate. The
1N
earth surface has more dense air which absorbs more heat from the sun but the higher
altitude has thin air and unable to absorb heat effectively as the dense air. The higher altitude
heats up the air through the process of conduction.
M
c) Distance from the sea – the land heats up and cools down more quickly than the sea water.
R
This difference in the rate of heating and cooling of land and sea has an effect on the
O
temperature of coastal areas. During the summer, the land is heated up quickly and
experiences a higher temperature on the land. During the winter, the land cool down quickly
F
and experiences a lower temperature than the sea. However, the temperature in the coastal
areas almost remains constant due to effect of land and sea breeze.
d) Cloud cover – cloud cover affects the temperature of a place by influencing the amount of
solar radiation entering and leaving the atmosphere. During the day, when the cloud cover is
less or having a clear sky, the ground is heats up quickly and rises the temperature. During
the night, when the sky is clear, the heats from the ground allow to escape into the space
easily causing low temperature.
Relative Humidity is a proportion of water vapour present in the air, in relation to the
maximum amount the air can hold in at a particular temperature. It is measured in
percentage.
Condensation is a process in which cooled water vapor changes into water droplets. When
there is more water vapor in the air, more condensation occur.
Saturation occurs when the air is carrying the maximum amount of water vapor it can hold at
that temperature. It refers to all forms of water such as rain, frost, hail and snow that fall from
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the atmosphere onto the earth’s surface. Rain is usually express in mm or cm. Precipitation
in places with cold climates may be in the forms of snow, frost or hail and precipitation in
places with warm climates is usually in the form of rain.
Types of rainfall
i. Convectional Rain – it occurs when there is intense heating of the Earth’s surface, which
usually takes place in the morning and early afternoon and give rainfall in the late afternoon
around 3-4 pm.
ii. Relief Rain – It occurs mainly in places where moist air from the sea is forced to rise above
a highland such as a mountain range and condensation take place and give rainfall.
Air pressure, or atmospheric pressure, is the downward force exerted by the weight of air
per unit area on the Earth’s surface
Wind is the horizontal movement of air from a region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure. The wind that blows from the land to the sea is called as a land breeze. It occurs at
S
night. The wind that blows from the sea to land is called as a sea breeze. It occurs during the
day.
E
T
O
1N
M
Tropical Rainforest
R
Distribution (location):
O
• The tropical rainforest is located within the latitudes of 20 N and S of the Equator.
F
• These places include – Amazon Basin of South America, Congo Basin of Africa and
countries in Southeast Asia like Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Characteristics:
• The tropical rainforest is characterized by high mean annual temperatures; averaging

27 degrees Celsius. Annual temperatures range is 2 degrees Celsius.
• The relative humidity is high above 80% and convectional rainfall occurs frequently.
• The rainfall is between 1500 mm upto 3000 mm, and generally rainfall throughout the
year
Natural vegetation: the plants and trees that grow and develop themselves without human
help.
Ecosystem: a biological community where the plants, animals and humans interact with one
another and with their physical environment.
Biome: is a large geographical area where the vegetation and animal adapted to its distinctive
climatic and physical conditions.
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Divisions of natural vegetation:

The natural vegetation are divided into Forest, Grassland and Desert vegetation
Deforestation: is the clearance of forest by cutting or burning; it lead to barren land or soil
erosion.
Reforestation: planting of new plants and trees in those deforested land
Afforestation: is the planting of trees in areas which were previously bare or were used for
other land uses
Features/characteristics of tropical rainforest
- The tropical rainforests have broadleaved and evergreen.
- The trees are very tall, the stems are straight and smooth
- The forests are very dense having diverse species within an area
S
- In tropical rainforest, there is emergent which emerge above the rest
E
- The canopy shades the ground from incoming sunlight almost completely.
T
O
- There is sparse undergrowth in tropical rainforest
1N
- Lianas are long vines that twine around the tree trunks as support to reach upwards for
sunlight.
- Epiphytes with aerial roots to ensure rapid water intake when it rains.
M
- High temperature a high temperature enables continuous growing for plants and trees.
R
Diversity: relative diversity among the organisms present in different ecosystems. Around
O
400 species of trees are found in a hectare of land.

F
Climate:
• heavy rainfall about 2000 mm per year due to convectional activity and convergence
of air at the ITCZ
• high temperature between 25- 350 C due to overhead sun
• with high humidity to more soil moisture, dense vegetation and the high temperatures
for evapotranspiration
• double maxima of rainfall as the area experience the ITCZ twice a year
• cloud cover is high due to high humidity
• wind speeds are low as vegetation provides natural wind breaks
•
Climatic graphs for tropical rainforest climates
56
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S
E
T
O
1N
Structure or layer of the tropical rainforest:

1. Emergent layer – grow up to 40m height to get direct sunlight, tall trees with straight and
thick trunks. The tallest trees are found in this layer.
M
2. Canopy layer – the trees grow upto 25-35 m height. Trees grow so close together that their
R
crowns interlock like an umbrella. Common woody vines called lianas twine around the tree
trunks. Epiphytes – a parasite plants are commonly found.
O
F
3. Understorey layer : the shorter trees grow up to 6-10m height with discontinuous canopy,
the shade tolerant trees like palms and tree ferns are common. The leaves are much larger at
this layer compared to other layers.
4. Shrub layer – shrubs, ferns and young trees are adapted to less sun light, this include wild
ginger, pandan and tapioca.
5. Ground layer – moist and dark with little undergrowth, consisting of small fungi, mosses
and ferns.
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Vegetation characteristics of tropical rainforests showing the different layers
S
Adaptation of vegetation in the tropical rainforest climate
E
1. Leaves: the leaves are waxy and hairy with drip tips to remove the excess water easily.
T
Broad leaves absorb more sunlight
O
2. Fruits and flowers: the fruits and flowers are colourful with good fragrance to attracts
1N
insects, birds etc for pollination as the wind is still in the tropical forest and it cannot move
out from the forest for pollination through wind.
M
3. Bark and branches: the trees have thin and smooth barks because there is no need for
protection against cold and dry conditions. The trees are adapted to less sunlight by having
R
branches only on the top.

O
4. Roots: the roots are shallow as the nutrients are found on the topsoil, it has a buttress roots
F
and grow up to 5m high to support the tall trees from falling.

Importance of forest (uses of forests) or benefits of forests
Natural vegetation is one of the important aspects for animals and humans. Humans depend
on vegetation for food, fuel, shelter, medicine, clothing and many other essentials in life.
1. Green lung of the earth – carbon dioxide which is a major greenhouse gas is absorbed
during the photosynthesis and oxygen is released. Hence, forest acts as large natural air
purifier by absorbing carbon dioxide.
2. Habitats – forest is a natural home for the animals and for humans. Forests have long been
the source of food for human since their early days as hunters and gatherers.
3. Raw materials – both hard and softwood are found and used for different purposes.
Hardwood are use to make furniture, musical instrument, building ships etc. The softwoods
are used for housing, construction, flooring, paper etc. Medicinal and cosmetic products also
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found from the forest. In less developed countries, woods are used as fuel for keeping warm
and for cooking.
4. Recreational purpose – forest are popular for outdoor activities such as camping, fishing,
sight-seeing, hiking etc. Example: Jungleland in Bogor, Jakarta.
5. Water catchment area – it enables water to be collected and stored within a water
catchment and increseases the quantity and quality of water. Forests main the quantity of
water suppy by playing a significant role of water cycle. Forests can maintain the quality of
water as they support natural processes that filter water.
6. Preventing floods – forest are important for controlling floods in the lowlands. For example,
the leaves of trees in the forest intercept rainfall, slow down its speed and allow it to seep
into the soil. The mangrove forests also protect coastal areas from storms and strong waves.
7. Research and education – forests are also used for conducting scientific research. Scientists
study forest plants to develop new medicines and other varieties of wild crops. They also
study the interaction between the plants and animals with the environment.
S
E
T
A case study on deforestation in Amazon, Brazil or the cause of deforestation
O
Population increase – people clear and burn the rainforest to acquire land for building houses
1N
and for agriculture. The Government also cleared forests to develop transport and industrial
infrastructures.
i) Settlements – the Government has been trying to resettle the people from densely
M
populated cities and as part of resettlement effort, the government cleared part of the
R
Amazon rainforest.
O
ii) Rapid urbanization – forested land is cleared for the building of new housing estates, town
F
centres, hospitals, schools, transportation and other facilities.

Land transportation – the Transamazonian highway in Brazil cut across the Amazon rainforest
which runs 5100 km, and the railway which links the port of Sao Luis to Carajas in the interior
ultimately leads to the clearance of more natural vegetation
Flood and water quality - when the trees are cleared, surface runoff water increased when it
rains and caused flood in low-lying areas. The decomposition of organic debris the pH level
and increase the acidity of the water and change the living environment for aquatic life.
Air pollution – in 1997 the smoke of forest fires from Sumatra and Kalimantan affected
Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines and Indonesia. In the same year, Brazil was also affected by
forest fires. The smoke produced by the fires caused airport closures and affected the health
of the people.
Loss of biodiversity –Amazon rainforest contains the largest collection of plants and animals.
It is estimated that one hectare of forested land contains more than 2000 species of plants
and deforestation leads to extinction of flora and fauna.
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Impact on inhabitants of the forest – the deforestation disrupts the culture and traditional
way of the native people living in the forest. Many of them like the Kayapo (Brazil) can no
longer survive by living in the forest.
Towards sustainable management of the forest or solution to deforestation
Sustainable management ensures the use of the forest and its resources in a way and at a
rate that maintains its biodiversity. Some of the measures are highlighted below:
Selective logging: Instead of removing all the trees in area, selective cutting can be enforced.
This allows cutting of only selected trees that have met certain criteria, and only a certain
number of trees per hectare of forest.
Establishment of laws and policies – in order to further limit the number of trees being cut
down, the government withdrew financial support and tax incentive for the new cattle
ranchers. Enforcement agents are trained to patrol the forest and heavy fines are imposed on
illegal loggers.
Afforestation – afforestation is another solution to deforestation. Trees are grown and
S
nurtured on farmland. These trees eventually provide not only wood for charcoal, but also
E
shade and food for the farmers. T
O
Conservation – setting aside portions of the rainforest as conservation areas will ensure that
1N
many plants and animals will be left undisturbed and protected.

M
R
O
F
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Tropical Hot Desert

A desert is an area that receives less than 250mm precipitation in a year. Arid (dry) deserts
can be hot, for example the Sahara desert in Africa. They have very high day time
temperature, often over 50 degrees celsius, and low night time temperature below 200 C with
clear skies and sometime with ground frost.
Distribution: The deserts are found 00 to 230 latitudes north and south of the equator. The
major deserts are located on the Western coasts of the continents between 150 -300 north
and south latitudes. Important deserts: Sahara, Kalahari, Arabian, Iranian, Thar, California,
Mexican, Atacama, Peruvian, Great Australian etc.
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
Location of deserts
1. Sahara (North Africa): Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Eritrea, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger,
Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara)
2. Arabian Desert: Western Asia (Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates and Yemen)
3. Gobi Desert: East Asia (China and Mongolia)
4. Kalahari Desert: Southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa)
5. Great Victoria Desert: Australia
6. Syrian Desert: Western Asia (Iraq, Jordan and Syria)
7. Thar Desert: South Asia (India and Pakistan)
8. Atacama Desert: South America (Chile and Peru)
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Climate:
• High average temperature is 35 degrees celsius having high range of diurnal and
annual temperature around 30 degrees celsius, Reasons: clear and cloudless sky,
receiving maximum insolation, rapid evaporation
• Humidity: dry air absence of water bodies, dry soil and little vegetation
• Rainfall: low annual rainfall 250 mm, torrential rain with flash flood.
• Clear and cloudless skies
The climatic graph for a hot desert
S
E
T
O
1N
M
R
Reasons for formation of deserts in the tropical region:

O
i) Mostly rain bearing trade winds blow off-shore (land to sea)

F
ii) Located in sub-tropical high pressure belts, this is the least favourable for rainfall
iii) Presence of cold currents may decrease evaporation (Peruvian current)
iv) Lack of moisture in the North-East winds (wind from land area)
v) Located away from coast – interior or continental like Australian
vi) Located in the leeward side of the mountains (Thar, California)
vii) Vegetation: Xerophytic, low growing, small, round shaped or sharp to the sun
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S
E
T
O
Located in the leeward side of the mountains (Thar, California)

1N
M
R
O
F
Presence of cold currents may decrease evaporation causing deserts

Main features of hot desert vegetation / adaptation of hot desert vegetation
Leaves: Plants have small and narrow leaves to reduce loss of water through transpiration
and it can survive without the need for daily supplies.
Roots: Plants have long and deep roots so they can collect water from underground and
retain water in their bodies - Plants have roots that travel horizontally so they can avoid
intense daytime heat –
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Stems: Plants store water in thick or succulent stems to use in dry periods
Seeds: short sprouting seeds, have thick and tough skin to protect them while dormant
Flowers: have a bad smell to be protected from animals
Foliage (skin): waxy, leathery and hairy to reduce transpiration, Plants are low- growing
to avoid water loss by strong winds
Animals
• Some animals store food and water for days to prevent water loss by evaporation
• Animals are often small to reach underground water supplies
• Small animals can hide burrows or stones to reach the maximum area for water
and to find surface moisture
• Insects and reptiles have waterproof skins so they can hunt in cooler nights.
• Some rodents are nocturnal so there is less water loss from a small surface area
Main characteristics of hot desert
S
• Average temperature is around 350 C having high range of diurnal
E
• In tropical hot desert the day time temperature rises very high over 500 C.
T
• The night time temperature decreases to below 200 C
O
• The sky is clear and cloudless in the desert
• During the winter, sometime the grounds are found with frost
1N
• The annual rainfall in the desert is around 250 mm

• Generally torrential rain with flash flood occurred
A Case study: Desertification – Sahel region in Africa
M
Desertification is a process of expansion of desert through land degradation. The Sahel is a

R
narrow belt of land located at the Southern part of Sahara desert.

O
Causes of desertification
F
Unreliable rainfall – the amount of rainfall is less and is confined to only a few months. The
annual rainfall is less than 10 cm for the last 30 years
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Overgrazing – the basic economic activity of Sahel region is animal rearing like cattle, camel,
goat, sheep etc., which has been increased upto 40% after 1950. The overgrazing causes loss
of vegetation.
Population – the population growth of this region is very high (30%), which leads to over
cultivation and soil erosion.
Lengthy drought – the region has been experiencing several droughts since 1960 (Ethiopia
1983 and Sudan in 1991). In this area most of the people are at the neck of drought.
Climatic change – the global warming is considered as a main reason for desertification. •
Torrential rainfall – it causes gully erosion and the soil loses its vegetation and humus.
Suggestions / Solutions
• Planting trees and shrubs to create green belts,

• Planting shelter belt to reduce wind erosion,
• Construction of stone lines to capture the available moisture
• Research and development of international forums like Convention to Combat
S
desertification ( CCD)
E
T
O
1N
M
R
O
F
65

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FORM 1 GEOGRAPHY NOTES

• It is a place where weather elements are measured and recorded.

• diagram of a weather station .

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SITING A WEATHER STATION

intercept rainwater and provide shade to thermometers resulting to false recordings.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A STEVENSON SCREEN

• A Stevenson screen is painted white to reflect sun’s rays.

SITING OF A STEVENSON SCREEN

WEATHER ELEMENTS INSTRUMENT UNITS ISOLINES

THE SIX’S THERMOMETER

HOW A SIX’S THERMOMETER WORKS

temperature of the day.

1. DAILY TEMPERATURE RANGE /DIURNAL TEMPERATURE RANGE.

3. MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE

4. MONTHLY TEMPERATURE RANGE

• Use Tables 1 and 2 to calculate monthly temperature range for January.

5. MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE

6. ANNUAL TEMPERATURE RANGE

• Rainfall is measured in millimetres using rain gauge.

DIAGRAM OF A RAIN GAUGE

HOW A RAINGAUGE MEASURES RAINFALL

SITING REQUIREMENTS OF A RAIN GAUGE

SITE AND SETTING REQUIREMENT EXPLANATION

• Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

• It is measured using a hygrometer which is a combination of a wet bulb

thermometer and dry bulb thermometer.

• These two thermometers use mercury.

• Draw the diagram of a hygrometer.

HOW A HYGROMETER WORKS

MEANINGS OF THE WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETER READINGS

• Large difference means humidity is low in the atmosphere.

FINDING OUT RELATIVE HUMIDITY

hold at that temperature.

• To find out relative humidity, follow these steps:

• Pressure is the weight of air exerted on the earth’s surface.

HOW A MERCURY BAROMETER MEASURES ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

• Atmospheric pressure is also measured using an aneroid barometer. Describe how

DIAGRAM OF A MERCURY BAROMETER

DIAGRAM OF A CUP ANEMOMETER

HOW A CUP ANEMOMETER MEASURES WIND SPEED

• When wind blows, the cups trap the air.

THE BEAUFORT SCALE OF WIND FORCE

• Wind speed is described using the Beaufort scale of wind force.

HOW A WIND VANE MEASURES WIND DIRECTION

THE WIND ROSE

• Sunshine is measured in hours and minutes using a sunshine recorder.

DIAGRAM OF A SUNSHINE RECORDER

• Draw and label a sunshine recorder in your note books.

HOW A SUNSHINE RECORDER MEASURES SUNSHINE

• Insert/ replace the recording card.

• Clouds are tiny droplets of water suspended or hanging in the air.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUD TYPES ACCORDING TO HEIGHT, THEIR

MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD COVER

• These are used on weather maps to represent weather conditions.

NB For each additional half-feather add 5 knots.

• Synoptic charts are used to represent weather data by way of symbols.

Temperature Wind direction

Activity: Describe the weather conditions at station X shown above.

• There is low cloud cover of 2 oktas/ it’s partly cloudy.

DIGITAL WEATHER INSTRUMENTS

ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL WEATHER INSTRUMENTS

• They allow precision/ accuracy in recording.

Importance of weather forecasting

• Informs farmers when to grow crops.