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Experiment 1 1
Experiment 1 1
STATEMENT
To perform tension test on!
• Hot rolled deformed steel bars (ASTM A615:2019)
• Hot rolled deformed steel bars (ASTM A706:2016)
• Hot rolled deformed steel bars (BS 4449:2005)
• Cast iron specimen
1.1 PURPOSE
• To study the stress strain behavior of different reinforcing bars
• To check the adequacy of rebars according to the standards
1.2 APPARATUS
• 200 ton Shimadzu UTM
• Betty’s Extensometer; L.C=0.001mm
• Spring Divider
• Vernier Calipers; L.C=0.05mm
• Weighing balance
• Steel Tape
2. Iron Ores:
• Magnetite (Fe3O4) (70% to 75% iron)
• Hematite (Fe2O3) (70% iron)
• Iron pyrites (FeS2) (45% iron) [not preferred due to sulpher content which
make it brittle, also uneconomical]
• Siderite FeCO3 (40% iron)
3. Steel:
For a material to be classified as steel there should not have any free graphite
in its composition.
Steel is a metal alloy that is mainly composed of iron and carbon
4. Classification of Steel:
a. Low carbon Steel: Carbon content = 0.05 - 0.25%
b. Medium carbon steel: Carbon content = 0.3 - 0.59%
c. High Carbon Steel: Carbon content = 0.6 - 0.99%
d. Ultra High Carbon Steel: Carbon content = 1.0 – 2.0%
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(It is used for tool making)
e. Mild Steel: Carbon content = 0.16 - 0.29%
5. Chemical Composition of Mild Steel:
Element Maximum % age
Carbon 0.25%
Sulpher 0.06%
Phosphorus 0.06%
1. It is seen that ultimate strength and hardness value increase together with
increase in carbon content.
2. The elastic limit (yield point) is increasing at a reduced rate.
Ultimate Stress
900 300
Brinell Hardness
Elastic Limit
600 200
Stress
(MPa) Brinell
% age Elongation Number
300 100
% age Reduction
In Area
0
0.5
0.1 1.0
Carbon Content (%)
7. Ductility:
It is indicated by reduction in area and percentage elongation.
2
εl = 0.75%
εl < 2% C=0.75%
εl = 2% C=0.45%
C=0.18%
Stress
(MPa)
Strain (%)
8. Reduction/Extraction Process:
Coke
Oxide of iron + Flux Pig iron + water
2300oC
This molten steel is molded into different sizes known as Billet (Ingot)
75mm 100mm
75mm
100mm
Grade 60 80
σumin Psi(MPa) 80,000(550) 100,000(690)
σymin Psi(MPa) 60,000(420) 80,000(520)
σymax Psi(MPa) 78,000(420) 98,000(520)
% Elongation in 8" 12
#3 bar 14 12
#4 & #5 bars 14 12
#6 bar 14 12
#7 & #8 bars 12 12
#9,#10  bars 12 12
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b. The Relationship between Yield Strength and Ultimate Strength:
σyt=(0.55---0.65) σut
T.R.S
σu
U.Y.P
Stress L.Y.P
(MPa) R.S
σy
E.L Necking
Zone
P.L
E
Yielding
Zone Strain Hardening Zone
εy εu εf
Strain (%)
c. Stress ~Strain Diagram:
i.Proportional Limit:
Maximum stresses that may be developed during a simple tension test such
that the stress is linear function of strain. (No proportional limit for brittle materials).
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If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond the yield point
without failure, the material is said to be “strain hardened”. It is a zone after yielding
when the particles of materials rearrange themselves and start taking load again, so
stress starts increasing. This is true for many structural metals.
v. Ultimate Strength:
Maximum or highest stress on the stress strain diagram is called as the tensile
or ultimate strength of the sample. It is commonly considered as the maximum
strength of the material.
vi. Necking:
“Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after the ultimate
strength is called Necking.”
Necking continues up to rupture/failure. Due to necking (Cup & Cone
formation), the cross sectional area is reduced.
x. Resilience:
The ability of material to absorb energy in the elastic range (i.e. without
permanent deformation) is called as resilience.
xii. Toughness:
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The ability of material to absorb energy in plastic range(i.e. permanent
deformation) is called as toughness.
i.
Halting of Machine or Drop of Beam Methods:
The yield point during a simple tension test can be observed by Halting of
machine or Drop of beam.
This method is suitable only for grade 40 steel.
If we apply it to grade 60 the Y.P may not occur.
σy σy
Stress Stress
(MPa)
(MPa)
a. Terminology:-
i. Nominal diameter:
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It is that diameter which gives us the effective diameter. It depends upon the
properties of materials (weight, length, shape).
ρ=
M
ρ=
M
A=
M π d2 M
=
V ( A × L) ( ρ × L) 4 ( ρ × L)
Thus diameter of the bar can be calculated.
σy
Stress
(MPa)
Tolerence in M = ±4.5%
L
If the difference is towards the negative side and more than 4.5% then steel is less
than the required and fault in the design.
Remedy:-
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1. Replace the steel.
2. Revise the design.
3. Adjust the steel according to design.
a. Physical Properties:
1. Its structure is Coarse crystalline and fibrous.
2. It is brittle.
3. It cannot be welded.
4. It does not rust.
5. S.G of cast iron is 7.2 to 7.5
b. Uses:
1. It is used for rain water pipes.
2. It is used for gratings.
3. It is used for man whole covers.
4. It is used in manufacturing of mild steel.
1.4 PROCEDURE:
B. Cast Iron:-
Same as above the two with the difference only!
(d + d 2 + d 3 ) (π d 2 )
d= 1 , A=
3 4
Mass = M = 724gm
Length = L = 756mm
M 0.724 A = 122 mm 2
A= A=
0.00785 × L 0.00785 × 0.756
π × d2 3.1415 × d 2
A= 122 = d = 12.46mm 2
4 4
M
Dia according to specipication − dia calculated fromρ =
Tolerence in size = A×L
Dia according to specification
12.46 − 12
Tolerence in size = × 100
12
M 0.724 M
= = 0.958kg / m
L 0.756 L
M according to specipication − M calculated
Tolerence in M L = L L
M according to specification
L
0.958 − 0.88
Tolerence in M L = × 100
0.958
G.L = 50 mm
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Cast Iron Specimen
(Brittle Failure)
1.7 Comments:
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