Chemistry The Central Science Expanded Edition 15Th Global Edition in Si Units Theodore L Brown Full Chapter PDF Scribd

Chemistry: The Central Science,
Expanded Edition, 15th Global Edition

in SI Units Theodore L. Brown
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Chemistry
The Central Science

Chemistry: The Central Science provides a solid, foundational introduction to the field. This Fifteenth
Global Edition, in SI units, reinforces the authors’ consistent emphasis on students consolidating
Chemistry
their conceptual understanding instead of simply plugging values into formulas. Innovations such as
introducing thermochemistry earlier than in the traditional order (balancing the macroscopic and the
The Central Science

submicroscopic) deliver a more rounded understanding of the subject. Moreover, modular chapter
content allows instructors to choose the chapter order that best suits their approach.
For the first time, the Global Edition is also available in this expanded format, featuring advanced
coverage of organic chemistry and spectroscopy through nine additional, detailed chapters. The
discussion on organic chemistry takes the student through specific classes of functional groups, Expanded Edition
starting at a fundamental level, then delving into the details of the mechanisms involved in the
chemistry of those functional groups, and illustrating the role of organic compounds in industrial Fifteenth Global Edition in SI Units
reactions and essential life processes. The chapter on spectroscopy uses an approach to solving
molecular structure that bolsters students’ knowledge of the basic principles of organic chemistry.
Brown • LeMay • Bursten
Key Features Murphy • Woodward • Stoltzfus
Langford • George
• NEW! Section-opening text and images enhance students’ understanding of the concepts
Fifteenth Global Edition

introduced in that section as well as explicate the historical contexts around key inventions and
discoveries in chemistry.
Expanded Edition
• Sample Exercises in every chapter follow a three-step Analyze–Plan–Solve method that
in SI Units
shows students how to approach problems based on the concepts taught.
• Design an Experiment puts the student in a scientist’s shoes by having them think through
a given situation, develop a hypothesis, design an experiment based on it, and assess the
accuracy of their assumptions.
• Chemistry and Life shows how chemistry impacts modern life, including how it relates to health
and life processes.
Available separately for purchase is Mastering Chemistry for Chemistry: The Central Science, the
Langford • George
Woodward • Stoltzfus
Bursten • Murphy
Brown • LeMay
teaching and learning platform that empowers instructors to personalize learning for every
student. When combined with Pearson’s trusted educational content, this optional suite helps
deliver the desired learning outcomes. This edition of Mastering comes with expanded, chapter-
wise Dynamic Study Modules, new Interactive Sample Exercises that feature videos taking the
student through the corresponding sample exercise, and Ready-to-Go Modules that provide
readymade content on difficult topics to help the instructor introduce a concept to their students,
including brand-new modules on organic-chemistry content.
CVR_BROW8767_15_GE_CVR_Lego.indd 1 14/07/21 9:31 PM

Periodic
PeriodicTable
Table of the Elements
of the Elements
Main Group Main Group
Representative Elements Representative Elements
1Aa 8A
1 18
1 2
CVR_BROW8767_15_GE_CVR_Lego_IFC_IBC.indd 1
1 H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
1.00794 2 13 14 15 16 17 4.002602
3 4 Metals Metalloids Nonmetals 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012182 Transition metals 10.811 12.0107 14.0067 15.9994 18.998403 20.1797
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.989770 24.3050 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 26.981538 28.0855 30.973761 32.065 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.0983 40.078 44.955910 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938049 55.845 58.933200 58.6934 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.64 74.92160 78.96 79.904 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 [98] 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.293
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.90545 137.327 174.967 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.96655 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98038 [208.98] [209.99] [222.02]
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Fl Lv **
[223.02] [226.03] [262.11] [261.11] [262.11] [266.12] [264.12] [269.13] [268.14] [281.15] [272.15] [285] [284] [289.2] [288] [293] [294] [294]
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Lanthanide series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
138.9055 140.116 140.90765 144.24 [145] 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.259 168.93421 173.04
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
Actinide series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
[227.03] 232.0381 231.03588 238.02891 [237.05] [244.06] [243.06] [247.07] [247.07] [251.08] [252.08] [257.10] [258.10] [259.10]
a Thelabels on top (1A, 2A, etc.) are common American usage. The labels below these (1, 2, etc.) are those recommended
by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
Except for elements 114 and 116, the names and symbols for elements above 113 have not yet been decided.
Atomic weights in brackets are the names of the longest-lived or most important isotope of radioactive elements.
Further information is available at http://www.webelements.com
** Discovered in 2010, element 117 is currently under review by IUPAC.
Mass
Length
Temperature
SI unit: meter (m)
SI unit: Kelvin (K)

SI unit: kilogram (kg)
1u =
=
1 lb =
1 kg =
1Å =
1 cm =
1 in. =
1m =
=
1 mi =
1 km =
16 oz
5280 ft
10-10 m
453.59 g
2.2046 lb
1.0936 yd
°F = -59 °C + 32°
N
Cu
Ag
1.6093 km
= -459.67 °F
0.39370 in.
0.62137 mi
°C = -95 (°F - 32°)

0 K = -273.15 °C
Silver
Copper
K = °C + 273.15
Nitrogen
2.54 cm (exactly)
1.660538921 * 10-27 kg
Na
Au
Gold
Sodium
Fluorine
O
H
Br
Oxygen
Bromine
Hydrogen
I
P
C
Iodine
Carbon
Phosphorus
S
K
Ca
Sulfur
Calcium
Potassium
SI unit: Joule (J)
SI unit: Pascal (Pa)

Energy (derived)
Volume (derived)
1 torr =
1 bar =
=
=
1 atm =
=
1 Pa =
l eV =
1 cal =
=
=
1J =
Pressure (derived)
SI unit: cubic meter (m3)
1 gal = 4 qt
1 cm3 = 1 mL
1C-V
= 1 dm3
Si
Cl
105 Pa
Mg
4.184 J
1 N/m2
Silicon
= 103 cm3
1 L = 10-3 m3
760 torr
Chlorine
= 3.7854 L
1 in3 = 16.4 cm3

= 1.0567 qt
Magnesium
1 mm Hg
1 kg/m-s2
0.2390 cal
1 kg-m2/s2
14.70 lb/in2
1.602 * 10-19 J
1.01325 * 105 Pa
Color Chart for Common Elements
Generic metal
Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships
14/07/21 9:33 PM
List of Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Weights
Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight
Actinium Ac 89 227.03a Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.90766
Aluminum Al 13 26.981538 Hassium Hs 108 269.1a Promethium Pm 61 145a
A01_BROW8767_15_SE_FM.indd 1
Americium Am 95 243.06a Helium He 2 4.002602a Protactinium Pa 91 231.03588
Antimony Sb 51 121.760 Holmium Ho 67 164.93033 Radium Ra 88 226.03a
Argon Ar 18 39.948 Hydrogen H 1 1.00794 Radon Rn 86 222.02a
Arsenic As 33 74.92160 Indium In 49 114.818 Rhenium Re 75 186.207a
Astatine At 85 209.99a Iodine I 53 126.90447 Rhodium Rh 45 102.90550
Barium Ba 56 137.327 Iridium Ir 77 192.217 Roentgenium Rg 111 282.2a
Berkelium Bk 97 247.07a Iron Fe 26 55.845 Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678
Beryllium Be 4 9.012183 Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98038 Lanthanum La 57 138.9055 Rutherfordium Rf 104 267.1a
Bohrium Bh 107 270.1a Lawrencium Lr 103 262.11a Samarium Sm 62 150.36
Boron B 5 10.81 Lead Pb 82 207.2 Scandium Sc 21 44.955908
Bromine Br 35 79.904 Lithium Li 3 6.941 Seaborgium Sg 106 269.1a
Cadmium Cd 48 112.414 Livermorium Lv 116 293a Selenium Se 34 78.97
Calcium Ca 20 40.078 Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 Silicon Si 14 28.0855
Californium Cf 98 251.08a Magnesium Mg 12 24.3050 Silver Ag 47 107.8682
Carbon C 6 12.0107 Manganese Mn 25 54.938044 Sodium Na 11 22.989770
Cerium Ce 58 140.116 Meitnerium Mt 109 278.2a Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Cesium Cs 55 132.905452 Mendelevium Md 101 258.10a Sulfur S 16 32.065
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 Mercury Hg 80 200.59 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9479
Chromium Cr 24 51.9961 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.95 Technetium Tc 43 98a
Cobalt Co 27 58.933194 Moscovium Mc 115 289.2a Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Copernicium Cn 112 285.2a Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 Tennessine Ts 117 293.2a
Copper Cu 29 63.546 Neon Ne 10 20.1797 Terbium Tb 65 158.92534
Curium Cm 96 247.07a Neptunium Np 93 237.05a Thallium Tl 81 204.3833
Darmstadtium Ds 110 281.2a Nickel Ni 28 58.6934 Thorium Th 90 232.0377
Dubnium Db 105 268.1a Nihonium Nh 113 286.2a Thulium Tm 69 168.93422
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 Niobium Nb 41 92.90637 Tin Sn 50 118.710
Einsteinium Es 99 252.08a Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 Titanium Ti 22 47.867
Erbium Er 68 167.259 Nobelium No 102 259.10a Tungsten W 74 183.84
Europium Eu 63 151.964 Oganesson Og 118 294.2a Uranium U 92 238.02891
Fermium Fm 100 257.10a Osmium Os 76 190.23 Vanadium V 23 50.9415
Flerovium Fl 114 289.2a Oxygen O 8 15.9994 Xenon Xe 54 131.293
Fluorine F 9 18.9984016 Palladium Pd 46 106.42 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Francium Fr 87 223.02a Phosphorus P 15 30.973762 Yttrium Y 39 88.90584
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 Platinum Pt 78 195.078 Zinc Zn 30 65.39
Gallium Ga 31 69.723 Plutonium Pu 94 244.06a Zirconium Zr 40 91.224
Germanium Ge 32 72.64 Polonium Po 84 208.98a
Gold Au 79 196.966569 Potassium K 19 39.0983
a
Mass of longest-lived or most important isotope.
7/30/21 2:35 PM
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A01_BROW8767_15_SE_FM.indd 2 7/30/21 2:35 PM

chemistry
THE CENTRAL SCIENCE
EXPANDED EDITION
1 5 TH G L O B A L E D I T I O N I N S I U N I T S

chemistry
T H E C EN TR AL SCIEN CE
EXPANDED EDITION
1 5 TH G L O B A L E D I T I O N I N S I U N I T S
Theodore L. Brown
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.

University of Nevada, Reno
Bruce E. Bursten
Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Catherine J. Murphy
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Patrick M. Woodward
The Ohio State University
Matthew W. Stoltzfus
The Ohio State University
Adrian V. George
University of Sydney
Steven J. Langford
Swinburne University of Technology
With contributions by
Michael W. Lufaso
University of North Florida

Pearson Education Limited
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accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition entitled Chemistry: The Central Science, 14th Edition, ISBN
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ISBN 10: 1-292-40876-6

ISBN 13: 978-1-292-40876-7
eBook ISBN 13: 978-1-292-40877-4
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To our students,
whose enthusiasm and curiosity
have often inspired us,
and whose questions and suggestions
have sometimes taught us.

This page is intentionally left blank

BRIEF CONTENTS
PREFACE 25
1 Introduction: Matter, Energy, and Measurement 46
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 89
3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry 134
4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 175
5 Thermochemistry 219
6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 274
7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 323
8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 369
9 Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories 412
10 Gases 472
11 Liquids and Intermolecular Forces 517
12 Solids and Modern Materials 560
13 Properties of Solutions 613
14 Chemical Kinetics 658
15 Chemical Equilibrium 715
16 Acid–Base Equilibria 757
17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 813
18 Chemistry of the Environment 864
19 Chemical Thermodynamics 904
20 Electrochemistry 950
21 Nuclear Chemistry 1007
22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals 1052
23 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry 1102
24 The Chemistry of Organic Compounds 1149
25 Stereochemistry of Organic Compounds 1185
26 Chemistry of Alkenes and Alkynes 1210
27 Alcohols, Haloalkanes, and Ethers 1253
28 Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carbohydrates 1292
29 Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives 1332
30 Benzene and its Derivatives 1371
31 Nitrogen-Containing Organic Compounds 1402
32 Solving Molecular Structure 1452
APPENDICES
A Mathematical Operations 1504
B Properties of Water 1510
C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances
at 298.15 K (25 °C) 1511
D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants 1515
E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C 1517

10 BRIEF CONTENTS
ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1518 GLOSSARY 1589
ANSWERS TO GO FIGURE 1573 PHOTO AND ART CREDITS 1613
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PRACTICE EXERCISES 1579 INDEX 1615

CONTENTS
PREFACE 25 2.3 he Modern View of Atomic
T
Structure 97
Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes 98
1 Introduction: 2.4 Atomic Weights 101

The Atomic Mass Scale 102 Atomic Weight 102
Matter, Energy, 2.5 The Periodic Table 104

2.6 Molecules and Molecular
and Measurement 46 Compounds 108
1.1 The Study of Chemistry 46 Molecules and Chemical Formulas 108 Molecular and
Empirical Formulas 109 Picturing Molecules 109
The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry 47
Why Study Chemistry? 48 2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds 111
1.2 Classifications of Matter 50 Predicting Ionic Charges 112 Ionic Compounds 113
States of Matter 50 Pure Substances 51 2.8 Naming Inorganic Compounds 116
Elements 52 Compounds 52 Mixtures 54 Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds 117
1.3 Properties of Matter 56 Names and Formulas of Acids 121 Names and
Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds 122
Physical and Chemical Changes 56 Separation of
Mixtures 56 2.9 ome Simple Organic
S
1.4 The Nature of Energy 60 Compounds 124
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 60 Alkanes 124 Some Derivatives of Alkanes 125
1.5 Units of Measurement 62 Chapter Summary and Key Terms 127

Learning Outcomes 128 Key Equations 128
SI Units 63 Length and Mass 65
Exercises 128 Additional Exercises 131
Temperature 65 Derived SI Units 65 Volume 66
Density 67 Units of Energy 67
A Closer Look Basic Forces 99
1.6 Uncertainty in Measurement 71 A Closer Look The Mass Spectrometer 103
Precision and Accuracy 71 Significant Figures 72
Chemistry and Life Elements Required by Living
Significant Figures in Calculations 73
Organisms 115
1.7 Dimensional Analysis 76 Strategies for Success How to Take a Test 126
Conversion Factors 77 Using Two or More Conversion
Factors 78 Conversions Involving Volume 79
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 81
3 Chemical Reactions and

Chemistry Put to Work Chemistry and the

Chemical Industry 49
Stoichiometry 134
A Closer Look The Scientific Method 63 3.1 he Conservation of Mass,
T
Chemistry Put to Work Chemistry in the News 69 Chemical Equations, and
Strategies for Success Estimating Answers 78 Stoichiometry 134
Strategies for Success The Importance of Practice 80 How to Balance Chemical Equations 135 A Step-by-
Strategies for Success The Features of This Book 80 Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation 136
3.2 imple Patterns of Chemical
S
Reactivity: Combination,
2 Atoms, Molecules, Decomposition, and Combustion 139

Combination and Decomposition Reactions 140
and Ions 89
3.3
Combustion Reactions 141
ormula Weights and Elemental
F
2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter 89 Compositions of Substances 143
2.2 The Discovery of Atomic Structure 92 Formula and Molecular Weights 144 Elemental
Compositions of Substances 144
Cathode Rays and Electrons 92 Radioactivity 94
The Nuclear Model of the Atom 95
11

12 CONTENTS
3.4 vogadro’s Number and the Mole;

A Exercises 213 Additional Exercises 216
Molar Mass 146 Integrative Exercises 218 Design an
Experiment 218
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number 147 Molar
Mass 147 Converting Between Masses, Moles, and
Chemistry Put to Work Antacids 191
Atoms/Molecules/Ions 148
Strategies for Success Analyzing Chemical
3.5 ormula Weights and Elemental
F Reactions 200
Compositions of Substances 152
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas 154
5 Thermochemistry
Combustion Analysis 155
3.6 eaction Stoichiometry 158
R
3.7 Limiting Reactants 162
219
Theoretical and Percent Yields 165 5.1 The Nature of Chemical Energy 219
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 168 5.2 The First Law of
Thermodynamics 223
Integrative Exercises 173 Design an System and Surroundings 223 Internal Energy 224
Experiment 174 Relating ∆E to Heat and Work 225 Endothermic and
Exothermic Processes 227 State Functions 228
Strategies for Success Problem Solving 145 5.3 Enthalpy 230
Chemistry and Life Glucose Monitoring 149 Pressure–Volume Work 231 Enthalpy Change 232
Strategies for Success Design an Experiment 166 5.4 Enthalpies of Reaction 234
5.5 Calorimetry 238
4 Reactions in Aqueous
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 239
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry 240
Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry) 242
Solution 175 5.6 Hess’s Law 244

5.7 Enthalpies of Formation 248
4.1 eneral Properties of Aqueous
G Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies
Solutions 175 of Reaction 250
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 176 5.8 Bond Enthalpies 254
How Compounds Dissolve in Water 177 Strong and Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions 255
Weak Electrolytes 178
5.9 Foods and Fuels 258
4.2 Precipitation Reactions 180 Foods 259 Fuels 261 Other Energy Sources 261
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds 180
Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions 182 Ionic
Equations and Spectator Ions 183
4.3 cids, Bases, and Neutralization
A Integrative Exercises 272 Design an
Reactions 185 Experiment 273
Acids 186 Bases 186 Strong and Weak Acids
and Bases 187 Identifying Strong and Weak A Closer Look Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work 233
Electrolytes 187 Neutralization Reactions and A Closer Look Using Enthalpy as a Guide 236
Salts 189 Neutralization Reactions with Gas Chemistry and Life The Regulation of Body
Formation 191 Temperature 243
4.4 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 193 Chemistry Put to Work The Scientific and Political
Oxidation and Reduction 193 Oxidation Challenges of Biofuels 262
Numbers 194 Oxidation of Metals by Acids and
Salts 196 The Activity Series 197
6 Electronic Structure
4.5 Concentrations of Solutions 201
Molarity 201 Expressing the Concentration of an
Electrolyte 201 Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and
Volume 203 Dilution 204 of Atoms 274
4.6 olution Stoichiometry and
S
Chemical Analysis 207 6.1 The Wave Nature of Light 274
Titrations 208 6.2 Quantized Energy and Photons 278
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 212 Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy 278
Learning Outcomes 213 Key Equations 213 The Photoelectric Effect and Photons 279

CONTENTS 13
6.3 Line Spectra and the Bohr Model 281 7.7 rends for Group 1 and Group 2
T
Line Spectra 281 Bohr’s Model 283 The Energy Metals 349
States of the Hydrogen Atom 283 Limitations of the Group 1: The Alkali Metals 349 Group 2: The
Bohr Model 286 Alkaline Earth Metals 353
6.4 The Wave Behavior of Matter 287 7.8 Trends for Selected Nonmetals 354
The Uncertainty Principle 289 Hydrogen 354 Group 16: The Oxygen Group 355
6.5 uantum Mechanics and Atomic
Q Group 17: The Halogens 356 Group 18: The Noble
Gases 358
Orbitals 291
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 292
6.6 Representations of Orbitals 296 Exercises 361 Additional Exercises 365
The s Orbitals 296 The p Orbitals 298 The d and f Integrative Exercises 367 Design an
Orbitals 299 Experiment 368
6.7 Many-Electron Atoms 300
A Closer Look Effective Nuclear Charge 329
Orbitals and Their Energies 301 Electron Spin and
Chemistry Put to Work Ionic Size and Lithium-Ion
the Pauli Exclusion Principle 301
Batteries 335
6.8 Electron Configurations 303 Chemistry and Life The Improbable Development of
Hund’s Rule 305 Condensed Electron Lithium Drugs 352
Configurations 306 Transition Metals 307
The Lanthanides and Actinides 308
8 Basic Concepts of
6.9 lectron Configurations and the
E
Periodic Table 309
Anomalous Electron Configurations 312
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 314 Chemical Bonding 369
Exercises 316 Additional Exercises 319 8.1 Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule 369
Integrative Exercises 321 Design an Lewis Symbols 370 The Octet Rule 370
Experiment 322 8.2 Ionic Bonding 371
Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation 373 Electron
A Closer Look Measurement and the Uncertainty Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block
Principle 290 Elements 375 Transition Metal Ions 376
A Closer Look Thought Experiments and 8.3 Covalent Bonding 378
Schrödinger’s Cat 293 Lewis Structures 379 Multiple Bonds 380
A Closer Look Probability Density and Radial 8.4 ond Polarity and
B
Probability Functions 298
Electronegativity 381
Chemistry and Life Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Electronegativity 382 Electronegativity and Bond
Resonance Imaging 304 Polarity 382 Dipole Moments 384 Comparing
Ionic and Covalent Bonding 387
7 Periodic Properties
8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures 388
Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures 390
8.6 Resonance Structures 393
of the Elements 323 Resonance in Benzene 395
8.7 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 397
7.1 evelopment of the Periodic Table 323
D Odd Number of Electrons 397 Less Than an Octet
7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge 326 of Valence Electrons 397 More Than an Octet of
7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions 330 Valence Electrons 398
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii 332 Periodic Trends 8.8 trengths and Lengths of Covalent
S
in Ionic Radii 332 Bonds 400
7.4 Ionization Energy 336 Chapter Summary and Key Terms 404
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies 337 Learning Outcomes 405 Key Equations 405
Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies 338 Exercises 406 Additional Exercises 408
Electron Configurations of Ions 339 Integrative Exercises 409 Design an
Experiment 411
7.5 Electron Affinity 341
Periodic Trends in Electron Affinity 342 A Closer Look Calculation of Lattice Energies: The
7.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 343 Born–Haber Cycle 376
Metals 344 Nonmetals 346 Metalloids 347 A Closer Look Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges,
and Actual Partial Charges 392

14 CONTENTS
9 Molecular Geometry and 10.4 The Ideal Gas Equation 483

Relating the Ideal Gas Equation and the Gas Laws 486
Gas Densities and Molar Mass 487
Bonding Theories 412 Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 489
9.1 Molecular Shapes 412 10.5 as Mixtures and Partial

G
Pressures 491
9.2 The VSEPR Model 416
Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions 493
Applying the VSEPR Model to Determine Molecular
Shapes 417 Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and 10.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles 421 Molecules with of Gases 494
Expanded Valence Shells 421 Shapes of Larger Distributions of Molecular Speed 495 Application of
Molecules 424 Kinetic-Molecular Theory to the Gas Laws 496
9.3 olecular Shape and Molecular
M 10.7 Molecular Effusion and Diffusion 498
Polarity 426 Graham’s Law of Effusion 499 Diffusion and Mean
9.4 Covalent Bonding and Orbital Free Path 501
Overlap 429 10.8 eal Gases: Deviations from Ideal
R
9.5 Hybrid Orbitals 431 Behavior 503
The van der Waals Equation 506
sp Hybrid Orbitals 432 sp2 and sp3 Hybrid
Orbitals 433 Hypervalent Molecules 434 Chapter Summary and Key Terms 508
Hybrid Orbital Summary 436 Learning Outcomes 509 Key Equations 509
9.6 Multiple Bonds 438
Integrative Exercises 515 Design an
Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and p
Experiment 516
Bonding 442 General Conclusions about s and p
Bonding 444 Chemistry and Life Blood Pressure 478
9.7 Molecular Orbitals 445 Strategies for Success Calculations Involving Many
Molecular Orbitals of the Hydrogen Molecule 446 Variables 485
Bond Order 448 A Closer Look The Ideal Gas Equation 497
9.8 onding in Period 2 Diatomic
B Chemistry Put to Work Gas Separations 502
Molecules 450
11 Liquids and
Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2 451
Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals 452
Electron Configurations for B2 through Ne2 455
Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties 456
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 459 Intermolecular Forces 517
11.1 Molecular Comparison of Gases,
A
Exercises 463 Additional Exercises 467 Liquids, and Solids 517
Integrative Exercises 470 Design an 11.2 Intermolecular Forces 520
Experiment 471 Dispersion Forces 522 Dipole–Dipole
Interactions 523 Hydrogen Bonding 524
A Closer Look Phases in Atomic and Molecular Ion–Dipole Forces 527 Comparing Intermolecular
Orbitals 453 Forces 527
Chemistry Put to Work Orbitals and Energy 460 11.3 Select Properties of Liquids 529
Viscosity 530 Surface Tension 531 Capillary
10 Gases
Action 532
11.4 Phase Changes 533
472
Energy Changes Accompany Phase Changes 534
Heating Curves 535 Critical Temperature and
10.1 Characteristics of Gases 472
Pressure 536
10.2 Pressure 474
11.5 Vapor Pressure 539
Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer 475
Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature 540
10.3 The Gas Laws 479 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point 540
The Pressure–Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law 480 11.6 Phase Diagrams 542
The Temperature–Volume Relationship: Charles’s
The Phase Diagrams of H2O and CO2 544
Law 480 The Quantity–Volume Relationship:
Avogadro’s Law 481 11.7 Liquid Crystals 547
Types of Liquid Crystals 547

CONTENTS 15
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 552 Learning 13.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 621
Outcomes 552 Exercises 553 Additional Solute–Solvent Interactions 621 Pressure
Exercises 556 Integrative Exercises 558 Design Effects 623 Temperature Effects 626
an Experiment 559
13.4 Expressing Solution
Chemistry Put to Work Ionic Liquids 531 Concentration 628
A Closer Look The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 541 Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb 628 Mole Fraction,
Molarity, and Molality 629 Converting Concentration
Chemistry and Life Liquid Crystal Displays 549
Units 631
13.5 Colligative Properties 633
12 Solids and Modern

Vapor–Pressure Lowering 633 Boiling-Point
Elevation 636 Freezing-Point Depression 637
Osmosis 639 Determination of Molar Mass from
Materials 560 Colligative Properties 640
13.6 Colloids 644
12.1 Classification of Solids 560 Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids 645
Crystalline and Amorphous Solids 562 Colloidal Motion in Liquids 647
Unit Cells and Crystal Lattices 562 Chapter Summary and Key Terms 649
Filling the Unit Cell 564 Learning Outcomes 650 Key Equations 650
12.2 Metallic Solids 567 Exercises 651 Additional Exercises 655
The Structures of Metallic Solids 568 Close Integrative Exercises 656 Design an
Packing 568 Alloys 572 Metallic Bonding 574 Experiment 657
Electron-Sea Model 575 Molecular Orbital Model 575
Chemistry and Life Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble
12.3 Ionic Solids 579 Vitamins 623
Structures of Ionic Solids 580 Chemistry and Life Blood Gases and Deep-Sea
12.4 Covalent Solids 584 Diving 627
Molecular Solids 585 Covalent-Network A Closer Look Ideal Solutions with Two or More
Solids 586 Semiconductors 586 Semiconductor Volatile Components 635
Doping 589 A Closer Look The van’t Hoff Factor 642
12.5 Polymers 591 Chemistry and Life Sickle-Cell Anemia 647
Making Polymers 593 Structure and Physical
Properties of Polymers 596
12.6 Nanomaterials 598
Semiconductors on the Nanoscale 599 Metals on the
Nanoscale 599 Carbon on the Nanoscale 601
14 Chemical Kinetics 658
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 604 14.1 actors That Affect Reaction Rates 658
F
14.2 Reaction Rates 660
Change of Rate with Time 662 Instantaneous
Rate 663 Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry 664
Experiment 612
14.3 Concentration and Rate Laws 666
A Closer Look X-ray Diffraction 565 Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law 669
Chemistry Put to Work Alloys of Gold 574 Magnitudes and Units of Rate Constants 670
Chemistry Put to Work Solid-State Lighting 590 Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws 671
Chemistry Put to Work Modern Materials in the 14.4 he Change of Concentration with
T
Automobile 595 Time 673
Chemistry Put to Work Microporous and First-Order Reactions 674 Second-Order
Mesoporous Materials 600 Reactions 676 Zero-Order Reactions 677
Half-Life 678
Temperature and Rate 680
13 Properties of Solutions
14.5
The Collision Model 681 The Orientation Factor 681
613 Activation Energy 681 The Arrhenius Equation 684
Determining the Activation Energy 685
13.1 The Solution Process 613 14.6 Reaction Mechanisms 687
The Natural Tendency toward Mixing 614 The Effect Elementary Reactions 688 Multistep
of Intermolecular Forces on Solution Formation 615 Mechanisms 688 Rate Laws for Elementary
Energetics of Solution Formation 616 Solution Reactions 689 The Rate-Determining Step for a
Formation and Chemical Reactions 617 Multistep Mechanism 690 Mechanisms with a Slow
13.2 Saturated Solutions and Solubility 619 Initial Step 691 Mechanisms with a Fast Initial
Step 693

16 CONTENTS
14.7 Catalysis 695

Homogeneous Catalysis 696 Heterogeneous
Catalysis 697 Enzymes 699
16 Acid–Base Equilibria 757
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 703 16.1 Acid–Base Equilibria 757
Learning Outcomes 704 Key Equations 704 Arrhenius Acids and Bases 758 Brønsted–
Exercises 705 Additional Exercises 710 Lowry Acids and Bases 758 The H +
Integrative Exercises 713 Design an Ion in Water 758 Proton-Transfer
Experiment 714 Reactions 759 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 760
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 761
A Closer Look Using Spectroscopic Methods to 16.2 The Autoionization of Water 764
Measure Reaction Rates: Beer’s Law 667 The Ion Product of Water 765
Chemistry Put to Work Bromomethane in the 16.3 The pH Scale 767
Atmosphere 679 pOH and Other “p” Scales 769 Measuring pH 769
Chemistry Put to Work Catalytic Converters 699 16.4 Strong Acids and Bases 772
Chemistry and Life Nitrogen Fixation and Strong Acids 773 Strong Bases 773
Nitrogenase 701 16.5 Weak Acids 775
Calculating Ka from pH 776 Percent Ionization 777
Using Ka to Calculate pH 778 Polyprotic Acids 782
15 Chemical Equilibrium 715

16.6 Weak Bases 786
Types of Weak Bases 788 Relationship Between
Ka and Kb 789
15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium 715 16.7 cid–Base Properties of Salt
A
15.2 The Equilibrium Constant 718
Solutions 792
An Anion’s Ability to React with Water 793
Evaluating Kc 721 Equilibrium Constants in Terms
A Cation’s Ability to React with Water 793
of Pressure, Kp 722 Equilibrium Constants and
Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution 795
Units 723
16.8 cid–Base Behavior and Chemical
A
15.3 Understanding and Working with Structure 797
Equilibrium Constants 724 Factors That Affect Acid Strength 797 Binary
The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants 725 Acids 798 Oxyacids 798 Carboxylic
The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K 726 Acids 801 Lewis Acids and Bases 802
Relating Chemical Equation Stoichiometry and Chapter Summary and Key Terms 805
Equilibrium Constants 726 Learning Outcomes 806 Key Equations 806
Heterogeneous Equilibria 728 Exercises 807 Additional Exercises 810
15.4 Calculating Equilibrium Integrative Exercises 812 Design an
Constants 731 Experiment 812
Applications of Equilibrium Constants 734 A Closer Look Polyprotic Acids 784
Predicting the Direction of Reaction 734 Chemistry Put to Work Amines and Amine
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 735 Hydrochlorides 791
15.5 Le Châtelier’s Principle 738 Chemistry and Life The Amphiprotic Behavior of
Change in Reactant or Product Concentration 740 Amino Acids 801
Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes 742
Effect of Temperature Changes 743 The Effect of
Catalysts 745
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 749 17 Additional Aspects of
Exercises 750 Additional Exercises 754 Aqueous Equilibria 813
Experiment 756 17.1 The Common-Ion Effect 813
17.2 Buffers 817
Chemistry Put to Work The Haber Process 720 Composition and Action of Buffers 818 Calculating
A Closer Look Temperature Changes and the pH of a Buffer 819 Buffer Capacity and pH
Le Châtelier’s Principle 745 Range 823 Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to
Chemistry Put to Work Controlling Nitric Oxide Buffers 823
Emissions 748 17.3 Acid–Base Titrations 826
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations 827 Weak Acid–
Strong Base Titrations 829 Titrating with an Acid–
Base Indicator 833 Titrations of Polyprotic Acids 835

CONTENTS 17
17.4 Solubility Equilibria 837

The Solubility-Product Constant, Ksp 838 Solubility
and Ksp 839
19 Chemical
17.5 Factors That Affect Solubility 841 Thermodynamics 904
The Common-Ion Effect 842 Solubility and pH 843
Formation of Complex Ions 845 Amphoterism 848 19.1 Spontaneous Processes 904
Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity 907 Reversible
17.6 recipitation and Separation
P
and Irreversible Processes 907
of Ions 850
Selective Precipitation of Ions 852 Qualitative
19.2 ntropy and the Second Law of
E
Analysis for Metallic Elements 852 Thermodynamics 910
The Relationship between Entropy and Heat 910
∆S for Phase Changes 911 The Second Law of
Thermodynamics 912
Integrative Exercises 862 Design an 19.3 he Molecular Interpretation of
T
Experiment 863 Entropy and the Third Law of
Thermodynamics 914
Chemistry and Life Blood as a Buffered Solution 825 Expansion of a Gas at the Molecular Level 914
A Closer Look Limitations of Solubility Products 841 Boltzmann’s Equation and Microstates 916
Chemistry and Life Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 845 Molecular Motions and Energy 917
A Closer Look Lead Contamination in Drinking Making Qualitative Predictions about ∆S 918
Water 849 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 920
19.4 ntropy Changes in Chemical
E
Reactions 922
18 Chemistry of the Temperature Variation of Entropy 923 Standard

Molar Entropies 923 Calculating the Standard
Environment 864
Entropy Change for a Reaction 924 Entropy Changes
in the Surroundings 924
19.5 Gibbs Free Energy 926
18.1 Earth’s Atmosphere 864
Standard Free Energy of Formation 929
Composition of the Atmosphere 865
Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere 868 19.6 Free Energy and Temperature 932
Ozone in the Stratosphere 870 19.7 Free Energy and the Equilibrium
18.2 uman Activities and Earth’s
H Constant 935
Atmosphere 872 Free Energy under Nonstandard Conditions 935
The Ozone Layer and Its Depletion 873 Sulfur Relationship between ∆G ° and K 938
Compounds and Acid Rain 874 Nitrogen Oxides and Chapter Summary and Key Terms 941
Photochemical Smog 875 Greenhouse Gases: Water Learning Outcomes 942 Key Equations 942
Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate 877 Exercises 943 Additional Exercises 946
18.3 Earth’s Water 881 Integrative Exercises 948 Design an
The Global Water Cycle 882 Salt Water: Experiment 949
Earth’s Oceans and Seas 882 Freshwater and
Groundwater 884 A Closer Look The Entropy Change When a Gas
Expands Isothermally 912
18.4 Human Activities and Water
Chemistry and Life Entropy and Human Society 921
Quality 885
Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality 885 Water A Closer Look What’s “Free” About Free Energy? 931
Purification: Desalination 886 Water Purification: Chemistry and Life Driving Nonspontaneous
Municipal Treatment 887 Reactions: Coupling Reactions 939
18.5 Green Chemistry 891
Supercritical Solvents 893 Greener Reagents and
Processes 893
Learning Outcomes 897 Exercises 897
20 Electrochemistry 950
Additional Exercises 901 Integrative 20.1 xidation States and Oxidation–
O
Exercises 902 Design an Experiment 903
Reduction Reactions 950
A Closer Look Other Greenhouse Gases 880 20.2 Balancing Redox Equations 953
A Closer Look Fracking and Water Quality 888 Half-Reactions 954 Balancing Equations by the
Chemistry and Life Ocean Acidification 890 Method of Half-Reactions 954 Balancing Equations
for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution 957

18 CONTENTS
20.3 Voltaic Cells 959 21.6 adiation in the Environment

R
20.4 Cell Potentials under Standard and Living Systems 1041
Conditions 963 Radiation Doses 1042
Standard Reduction Potentials 965 Strengths of Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1045
Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 968 Learning Outcomes 1046 Key Equations 1047
20.5 Free Energy and Redox Reactions 972
Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant 974
Experiment 1051
20.6 ell Potentials under Nonstandard
C
Conditions 977 Chemistry and Life Medical Applications
The Nernst Equation 977 Concentration Cells 980 of Radiotracers 1028
A Closer Look The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 1035
20.7 Batteries and Fuel Cells 984
A Closer Look Nuclear Synthesis of the
Lead–Acid Battery 985 Alkaline Battery 985
Elements 1039
Nickel–Cadmium and Nickel–Metal Hydride
Chemistry and Life Radiation Therapy 1044
Batteries 985 Lithium-Ion Batteries 986 Hydrogen
Fuel Cells 986
20.8 Corrosion 990
Corrosion of Iron (Rusting) 991 Preventing
Corrosion of Iron 992
22 Chemistry of the
20.9 Electrolysis 993 Nonmetals 1052
Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis 995
22.1 eriodic Trends and Chemical
P
Reactions 1052
Chemical Reactions 1055
Integrative Exercises 1005 Design an 22.2 Hydrogen 1056
Experiment 1006 Isotopes of Hydrogen 1057 Properties
of Hydrogen 1057 Production of
A Closer Look Electrical Work 976 Hydrogen 1058 Uses of Hydrogen 1059 Binary
Chemistry and Life Heartbeats and Hydrogen Compounds 1059
Electrocardiography 981 22.3 Group 18: The Noble Gases 1061
Chemistry Put to Work Batteries for Hybrid and Noble Gas Compounds 1062
Electric Vehicles 987 22.4 Group 17: The Halogens 1064
Chemistry Put to Work Electrometallurgy of Properties and Production of the Halogens 1064
Aluminum 996 Uses of the Halogens 1066 The Hydrogen
Halides 1066 Interhalogen Compounds 1066
Oxyacids and Oxyanions 1066
21 Nuclear Chemistry 1007

22.5 Oxygen 1068
Properties of Oxygen 1068 Production of
Oxygen 1069 Uses of Oxygen 1069
Ozone 1069 Oxides 1069 Peroxides and
21.1 adioactivity and Nuclear
R
Superoxides 1070
Equations 1007
Nuclear Equations 1009 Types of Radioactive
22.6 he Other Group 16 Elements: S, Se,
T
Decay 1009 Te, and Po 1072
Occurrence and Production of S, Se, and Te 1073
21.2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability 1012 Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio 1013 Radioactive Decay
Tellurium 1073 Sulfides 1074 Oxides, Oxyacids,
Chains 1014 Further Observations 1015 Nuclear
and Oxyanions of Sulfur 1074
Transmutations 1016 Accelerating Charged
Particles 1017 Reactions Involving 22.7 Nitrogen 1076
Neutrons 1018 Transuranium Elements 1018 Properties of Nitrogen 1077 Production and
Uses of Nitrogen 1077 Hydrogen Compounds of
21.3 Rates of Radioactive Decay 1020 Nitrogen 1078 Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen 1078
Radiometric Dating 1021 Calculations Based on
Half-Life 1023
22.8 he Other Group 15 Elements: P, As,
T
21.4 Detection of Radioactivity 1026 Sb, and Bi 1081
Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of
Radiotracers 1027
Phosphorus 1082 Phosphorus Halides 1082
21.5 nergy Changes in Nuclear
E Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus 1083
Reactions 1029 22.9 Carbon 1085
Nuclear Binding Energies 1031 Nuclear Power: Elemental Forms of Carbon 1086 Oxides of
Fission 1033 Nuclear Reactors 1036 Nuclear Carbon 1086 Carbonic Acid and Carbonates 1088
Waste 1037 Nuclear Power: Fusion 1038 Carbides 1088

CONTENTS 19
22.10 The Other Group 14 Elements:

Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb 1089
General Characteristics of the Group 14 Elements 1090
24 The Chemistry of Organic
Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon 1090 Compounds 1149
Silicates 1091 Glass 1092 Silicones 1092
22.11 Boron 1093 24.1 eneral Characteristics of
G
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1096 Learning Organic Molecules 1149
Outcomes 1097 Exercises 1097 Additional The Structure of Organic Molecules 1150
Exercises 1100 Integrative Exercises 1100 Design The Stabilities of Organic Molecules 1150
an Experiment 1101 24.2 An Introduction to Hydrocarbons 1151
Alkanes 1153 Applications and Physical Properties
A Closer Look The Hydrogen Economy 1058
of Alkanes 1154 Homologous Series 1154
Chemistry and Life Nitroglycerin, Nitric Oxide, and
Heart Disease 1080 24.3 Structures of Alkanes 1155
Chemistry and Life Arsenic in Drinking Water 1084 Alkane Shape and Conformations 1158
Constitutional/Structural Isomers 1159
Chemistry Put to Work Carbon Fibers and
Composites 1087 24.4 lkane Nomenclature 1162
A
24.5 Cycloalkanes 1165
24.6 Organic Functional Groups 1169
23 Transition Metals 24.7 Reactions of Alkanes 1172

Combustion 1173 Classification of C and H 1174
and Coordination Free-Radical Reactions and Electron Movement 1175

Chemistry 1102 Key Skills 1179 Key Equations 1179
23.1 The Transition Metals 1102 Integrative Exercises 1183 Design an
Physical Properties 1104 Electron Configurations Experiment 1184
and Oxidation States 1105 Magnetism 1106
Chemistry and Life Petroleum Products 1156
23.2 Transition-Metal Complexes 1108 Chemistry and Life Structure–Activity
The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner’s Relationships 1171
Theory 1109 The Metal–Ligand Bond 1111 A Closer Look Reactivity by Carbon Classification 1176
Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries 1112
25 Stereochemistry of
23.3 ommon Ligands in Coordination
C
Chemistry 1114
Metals and Chelates in Living Systems 1116
23.4 omenclature and Isomerism in
N Organic Compounds 1185
Coordination Chemistry 1121
Isomerism 1123 Constitutional Isomerism 1124 25.1 tereochemistry in Organic
S
Stereoisomerism 1124 Chemistry 1185
23.5 olor and Magnetism in
C 25.2 Cis–Trans Isomerism
Coordination Chemistry 1128 in Cycloalkanes 1188
Color 1128 Magnetism of Coordination 25.3 Chirality in Organic Compounds 1190
Compounds 1129
25.4 Measuring Optical Activity 1194
23.6 Crystal-Field Theory 1131
Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes 1134 25.5 Absolute Stereochemistry 1197
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 1136 Using Priority Rules to Find a Stereocenter’s Absolute
Configuration 1197
Learning Outcomes 1141 Exercises 1142 25.6 Molecules with More than
Additional Exercises 1145 Integrative One Stereocenter 1201
Exercises 1147 Design an Experiment 1148 Resolution: Separating Enantiomers 1202
A Closer Look Entropy and the Chelate Effect 1118 Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1205
Key Skills 1206 Key Equations 1206
Chemistry and Life The Battle for Iron in Living
Systems 1119
A Closer Look Charge-Transfer Color 1138 Experiment 1209
Chemistry and Life Chiral Drugs 1199

20 CONTENTS
26 Chemistry of Alkenes and 27.6 aloalkanes to Alkenes:

H
β-Elimination 1276
Alkynes 1210
27.7 Substitution versus Elimination 1280
E1 and SN1 Reactions 1281
26.1 The Structure of Unsaturated Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1286
Hydrocarbons 1210 Exercises 1287 Additional Exercises 1290
The π-bond 1211 Bonding in Alkenes 1212
Bonding in Alkynes 1214
26.2 Isomerism and Nomenclature 1217 Experiment 1291
Isomerism in Alkenes—The E, Z System 1219 Chemistry and Life Vitamin D 1256

Alkynes 1220 Chemistry and Life The Solubility Nexus 1258
26.3 rrow Notation and Resonance
A A Closer Look Crown Ethers 1267
A Closer Look Molecularity 1274
Structures: Electron Counting 1222
26.4 lectrophilic Addition Reactions 1226
E A Closer Look Nucleophile or Lewis Base? 1281
Chemistry and Life Polymerization versus
Addition Reactions Involving HX (X = Cl,
Macrocyclization 1285
Br, I) 1226 Addition Reactions Involving
H2O 1230 Halogenation: Addition of Br2 and
26.5
Cl2 1231 Halohydrin Formation 1232
lkanes from Alkenes: Catalytic
A
Hydrogenation 1237
28 Aldehydes, Ketones, and
26.6 ddition Polymerization 1240
A
Carbohydrates 1292
Making Polymers 1241 Structure and Physical 28.1 ldehydes, Ketones, and the
A
Properties of Addition Polymers 1243
Carbonyl Group 1292

28.2 Preparation of Aldehydes
Exercises 1249 Integrative Exercises 1251 and Ketones 1297
Design an Experiment 1252 Oxidation of 1° and 2° Alcohols 1298 Ozonolysis 1299
Chemistry and Life Terpenes and Isoprene 1216

28.3 Reactions of Aldehydes
and Ketones 1300
Chemistry and Life The Chemistry of Vision 1223
Addition of Carbon Nucleophiles—Grignard
A Closer Look Describing Charge 1224
Reactions 1301 Addition of Nitrogen and Oxygen
A Closer Look Stereochemistry in Halohydrin
Nucleophiles: Formation of Imines and Acetals 1304
Formation 1235
Reduction Reactions 1306 Cyanohydrins 1307
A Closer Look Hydrogenation 1238
Tautomerism in Aldehydes and Ketones 1309
Chemistry and Life Recycling Plastics 1244
Halogenation of Aldehydes and Ketones 1310
Chemistry and Life The Accidental Discovery of
Teflon® 1246 28.4 Carbohydrates 1313
Chemistry and Life Vulcanization 1246 Monosaccharides 1314 Cyclic versus Open-
Chain Structures 1317 Oligosaccharides and
Polysaccharides 1320
27 Alcohols, Haloalkanes, Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1327

Exercises 1328 Integrative Exercises 1331
and Ethers 1253 Design an Experiment 1331
27.1 lcohols: Structure, Properties, and

A Chemistry and Life Glucosamine 1318
Nomenclature 1253 Chemistry and Life Cyclodextrins 1321
Common Alcohols 1257 Naming Chemistry and Life Vitamin C 1324
Alcohols 1257 Classifying Alcohols 1261
29 Carboxylic Acids and

27.2 Haloalkanes 1262
27.3 Ethers: Structure, Properties,
and Nomenclature 1264
Naming Ethers 1266 Their Derivatives 1332
27.4 Reactions of Alcohols 1268
Alkoxides 1269 Basicity of 29.1 Carboxylic Acids 1332
Alcohols 1269 Alcohols to Structure, Properties, and Nomenclature 1333
Haloalkanes 1269 Dehydration of Alcohols 1270 Acidity 1335
27.5 ucleophilic Substitution Reactions
N 29.2 reparation of Carboxylic Acids 1338
P
of Haloalkanes 1272 29.3 Esters and Esterification 1342

CONTENTS 21
29.4 Fats, Oils, and Waxes 1347 31.4 Nucleic Acids and DNA 1438
Soaps and Detergents 1350 Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1446
29.5 cid Chlorides, Anhydrides, and
A Key Skills 1446 Key Equations 1446
Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution 1353 Exercises 1447 Integrative Exercises 1450
Design an Experiment 1451
Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution 1356
29.6 Condensation Polymerization 1359 Chemistry and Life Amines and Amine
Polymers for Medicine 1362 Hydrochlorides 1406
Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1365 A Closer Look Sickle-Cell Anemia 1420
Key Skills 1366 Key Equations 1366 Chemistry and Life B Group Vitamins 1436
Chemistry and Life Steroids 1354

32 Solving Molecular
Chemistry and Life Towards the Plastic Car 1361
Chemistry and Life Biodegradable Sutures 1363
Structure 1452
32.1 he Electromagnetic Spectrum 1452
T
30 Benzene and its 32.2
32.3
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy 1455
The Spring Model 1456 Measuring IR Spectra 1458
uclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
N
Derivatives 1371 Spectroscopy 1463
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Frequencies 1466
30.1 The Structure of Benzene 1371 The Chemical Shift 1467 Sample Preparation 1468
Bonding in Benzene 1372 Interpreting NMR Spectra 1469 Integration 1472
30.2 I somerism and Nomenclature Spin–Spin Coupling 1474 13C NMR Spectra 1476
in Aromatic Compounds 1375 32.4 Mass Spectrometry 1480
Phenols 1378 Electron Impact Ionization Mass Spectrometry 1481
Interpreting Mass Spectra 1483
30.3 Aromaticity 1380
32.5 ompound Identification Using
C
30.4 Acidity of Phenols 1382
Spectra 1487
30.5 lectrophilic Aromatic Substitution
E Deducing the Molecular Formula of an Organic
(EAS) Reactions 1386 Compound 1487 Chemical Wet Testing: Tests
Directing Groups and Substitution Effects 1389 for Functional Groups 1489 Using Analysis from
Instrumental Techniques 1490
Chemistry and Life The Discovery of Liquid
A Closer Look Using Spectroscopic Methods to
Crystals 1376
Measure Reaction Rates 1454
A Closer Look Organic Dyes 1388
APPENDICES
31 Nitrogen-Containing A Mathematical Operations 1503

B Properties of Water 1510
Organic Compounds 1402 C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected
Substances at 298.15 K (25 °C) 1511
31.1 Amines and the Amide Bond 1402 D Aqueous Equilibrium Constants 1515
Amines 1403 Reactivity of Amines 1408 E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 °C 1517
Synthesis of Amines 1410 Amides 1412 ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1518
31.2 Amino Acids 1416 ANSWERS TO GO FIGURE 1573
Acid–Base Properties 1419 Reactions Involving
Amino Acids 1424 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PRACTICE EXERCISES 1579
GLOSSARY 1589
31.3 Proteins, Peptides, and Enzymes 1426
Coding Peptides 1428 Protein PHOTO AND ART CREDITS 1613
Structure 1430 Enzymes 1432 Sequencing of INDEX 1615
Peptides and Proteins 1434

CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS
AND ESSAYS
A Closer Look
The Scientific Method 63 The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 541 The Dawning of the Nuclear Age 1035
Basic Forces 99 X-ray Diffraction 565 Nuclear Synthesis of the Elements 1039
The Mass Spectrometer 103 Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile The Hydrogen Economy 1058
Energy, Enthalpy, and P–V Work 233 Components 635 Entropy and the Chelate Effect 1118
Using Enthalpy as a Guide 236 The van’t Hoff Factor 642 Charge-Transfer Color 1138
Measurement and the Uncertainty Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reactivity by Carbon Classification 1176
Principle 290 Reaction Rates: Beer’s Law 667 Describing charge 1224
Thought Experiments and Schrödinger’s Temperature Changes and Le Châtelier’s Stereochemistry in Halohydrin
Cat 293 Principle 745 Formation 1235
Probability Density and Radial Probability Polyprotic Acids 784 Hydrogenation 1238
Functions 298 Limitations of Solubility Products 841 Crown Ethers 1267
Effective Nuclear Charge 329 Lead Contamination in Drinking Molecularity 1274
Calculation of Lattice Energies: Water 849 Nucleophile or Lewis Base? 1281
The Born–Haber Cycle 376 Other Greenhouse Gases 880 Organic Dyes 1388
Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Fracking and Water Quality 888 Sickle-Cell Anemia 1420
Actual Partial Charges 392 The Entropy Change When a Gas Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure
Phases in Atomic and Molecular Expands Isothermally 912 Reaction Rates 1454
Orbitals 453 What’s “Free” About Free Energy? 931
The Ideal Gas Equation 497 Electrical Work 976
Chemistry Put to Work

Chemistry and the Chemical Industry 49 Ionic Liquids 531 The Haber Process 720
Chemistry in the News 69 Alloys of Gold 574 Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions 748
Antacids 191 Solid-State Lighting 590 Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides 791
The Scientific and Political Challenges of Modern Materials in the Automobile 595 Batteries for Hybrid and Electric
Biofuels 262 Microporous and Mesoporous Vehicles 987
Ionic Size and Lithium-Ion Batteries 335 Materials 600 Electrometallurgy of Aluminum 996
Orbitals and Energy 460 Bromomethane in the Atmosphere 679 Carbon Fibers and Composites 1087
Gas Separations 502 Catalytic Converters 699
Chemistry and Life

Elements Required by Living Tooth Decay and Fluoridation 845 Recycling Plastics 1244
Organisms 115 Ocean Acidification 890 The Accidental Discovery of Teflon® 1246
Glucose Monitoring 149 Entropy and Human Society 921 Vulcanisation 1246
The Regulation of Body Temperature 243 Driving Nonspontaneous Vitamin D 1256
Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Reactions: Coupling Reactions 939 The Solubility Nexus 1258
Imaging 304 Heartbeats and Electrocardiography 981 Polymerization versus
The Improbable Development of Lithium Medical Applications of Macrocyclization 1285
Drugs 352 Radiotracers 1028 Glucosamine 1318
Blood Pressure 478 Radiation Therapy 1044 Cyclodextrins 1321
Liquid Crystal Displays 549 Nitroglycerin, Nitric Oxide, and Heart Vitamin C 1324
Fat-Soluble and Water-Soluble Disease 1080 Steroids 1354
Vitamins 623 Arsenic in Drinking Water 1084 Towards the Plastic Car 1361
Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving 627 The Battle for Iron in Living Systems 1119 Biodegradable Sutures 1363
Sickle-Cell Anemia 647 Petroleum Products 1156 The Discovery of Liquid Crystals 1376
Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase 701 Structure–Activity Relationships 1171 Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides 1406
The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Chiral Drugs 1199 B Group Vitamins 1436
Acids 801 Terpenes and Isoprene 1216
Blood as a Buffered Solution 825 The Chemistry of Vision 1223
Strategies for Success

Estimating Answers 78 How to Take a Test 126 Analyzing Chemical Reactions 200
The Importance of Practice 80 Problem Solving 145 Calculations Involving Many
The Features of This Book 80 Design an Experiment 166 Variables 485
22

INTERACTIVE MEDIA
Pearson Mastering Chemistry
Smart Figures
Figures 3.3 Methane reacts with oxygen in a Bunsen Figure 13.2 Intermolecular interactions involved in
and 3.4 burner and balanced chemical solutions
equation for the combustion of CH4 Figure 13.3 Dissolution of the ionic solid NaCl in water
Figure 3.5 Combustion of magnesium metal in air, a Figure 13.4 Enthalpy changes accompanying the
combination reaction solution process
Figure 4.3 A precipitation reaction Figure 14.16 Energy profile for conversion of methyl
Figure 4.12 Reaction of copper metal with silver ion isonitrile 1H3CNC2 to its isomer
Figures 5.2 Electrostatic potential energy and ionic acetonitrile 1H3CCN2
and 5.3 bonding Figure 15.1 Equilibrium between NO2 and N2O4
Figure 5.23 Enthalpy diagram for propane combustion Figure 15.8 Predicting the direction of a reaction
Figure 5.24 Using bond enthalpies to estimate ∆Hrxn by comparing Q and K at a given
Figure 6.24 General energy ordering of orbitals for a temperature
many-electron atom Box feature Le Châtelier’s principle (p. 739)
Figure 8.5 Periodic trends in lattice energy as a Figure 17.7 Titration of a strong acid with a strong base
function of cation or anion radius Figure 17.9 Titration of a weak acid with a strong base
Figure 9.12 Covalent bonds in H2, HCl, and Cl2 Figure 20.3 Spontaneous oxidation–reduction reaction
Figure 9.13 Formation of the H2 molecule as atomic involving zinc and copper
orbitals overlap Figure 20.5 A voltaic cell that uses a salt bridge to
Figure 9.14 Formation of sp hybrid orbitals complete the electrical circuit
Figure 9.16 Formation of sp2 hybrid orbitals Figure 25.12 (S)-Ibuprofen
Figure 9.17 Formation of sp3 hybrid orbitals Figure 27.17 Substituted alkenes in which R is a non-
Figure 9.22 Hybrid orbital bonding in ethene hydrogen atom, typically being
Figure 9.23 Formation of p bond in ethyne, C2H2 carbon.
Figure 10.13 Distribution of molecular speeds for Figure 31.6 Rationalizing the basicity of 4-nitroaniline.
nitrogen gas
Interactive Sample Exercises

Sample Exercise 1.1 Distinguishing among Elements, Sample Exercise 4.3 Predicting a Metathesis Reaction
Compounds, and Mixtures Sample Exercise 4.4 Writing a Net Ionic Equation
Sample Exercise 1.2 Using SI Prefixes Sample Exercise 4.13 Using Molarity to Calculate Grams of
Sample Exercise 1.6 Assigning Appropriate Significant Solute
Figures Sample Exercise 5.1 Relating Heat and Work to Changes of
Sample Exercise 1.8 Determining the Number of Significant Internal Energy
Figures in a Calculated Quantity Sample Exercise 5.4 Relating ∆ H to Quantities of Reactants
Sample Exercise 1.11 Converting Units Using Two or More and Products
Conversion Factors Sample Exercise 5.6 Measuring ∆ H Using a Coffee-Cup
Sample Exercise 2.1 Atomic Size Calorimeter
Sample Exercise 2.3 Writing Symbols for Atoms Sample Exercise 5.7 Measuring qrxn Using a Bomb
Sample Exercise 2.4 Calculating the Atomic Weight of an Calorimeter
Element from Isotopic Abundances Sample Exercise 5.8 Using Hess’s Law to Calculate ∆ H
Sample Exercise 2.5 Using the Periodic Table Sample Exercise 5.10 Equations Associated with Enthalples
Sample Exercise 2.9 Identifying Ionic and Molecular of Formation
Compounds Sample Exercise 6.6 Subshells of the Hydrogen Atom
Sample Exercise 3.2 Balancing Chemical Equations Sample Exercise 6.7 Orbital Diagrams and Electron
Sample Exercise 3.5 Calculating Formula Weights Configurations
Sample Exercise 3.16 Calculating the Amount of Product Sample Exercise 6.8 Electron Configurations for a Group
Formed from a Limiting Reactant Sample Exercise 7.2 Predicting Relative Sizes of Atomic
Sample Exercise 4.1 Relating Relative Numbers of Anions Radii
and Cations to Chemical Formulas Sample Exercise 8.2 Charges on Ions
23

24 INTERACTIVE MEDIA
Sample Exercise 8.6 Drawing a Lewis Structure Sample Exercise 21.1 Predicting the Product of a
Sample Exercise 9.1 Using the VSEPR Model Nuclear Reaction
Sample Exercise 10.3 Evaluating the Effects of Changes in P, Sample Exercise 22.4 Predicting Chemical Reactions among
V, n, and T on a Gas the Halogens
Sample Exercise 10.4 Using the Ideal Gas Equation Sample Exercise 23.2 Determining the Oxidation Number of
Sample Exercise 11.4 Relating Boiling Point to Vapor Pressure a Metal in a Complex
Sample Exercise 12.4 Identifying Types of Semiconductors Sample Exercise 24.2 Writing condensed structural
Sample Exercise 13.6 Calculation of Molarity Using the formulas
Density of the Solution Sample Exercise 25.4 R and S notation
Sample Exercise 14.3 Relating Rates at Which Products Sample Exercise 26.3 Drawing isomers
Appear and Reactants Disappear Sample Exercise 27.5 b-Elimination in haloalkanes
Sample Exercise 15.1 Writing Equilibrium Expressions Sample Exercise 28.6 Fischer projections
Sample Exercise 16.1 Identifying Conjugate Acids and Bases Sample Exercise 29.5 Soap structure
Sample Exercise 17.11 Calculating Ksp from Solubility Sample Exercise 30.2 Electrophilic aromatic substitution
Sample Exercise 18.1 Calculating Concentration from Sample Exercise 31.7 Drawing the structural formula of a
Partial Pressure tripeptide
Sample Exercise 19.1 Identifying Spontaneous Processes Sample Exercise 32.3 Differentiating between products of a
Sample Exercise 20.2 Balancing Redox Equations reaction
in Acidic Solution

PREFACE
To the Instructor to provide more effective means of testing and evaluating
student performance, while giving the student immediate
and helpful feedback. Pearson Mastering Chemistry not only
provides feedback on a question by question basis but, using
Philosophy Knewton-enhanced adaptive follow-up assignments, it now
We the authors of Chemistry: The Central Science are delighted continually adapts to each student, offering a personalized
and honored that you have chosen us as your instructional part- learning experience.
ners for your chemistry class. Collectively we have taught chem- As authors, we want this text to be a central, indispensable
istry to multiple generations of students. So we understand the learning tool for students. Whether as a physical book or in elec-
challenges and opportunities of teaching a class that so many tronic form, it can be carried everywhere and used at any time.
students take. We have also been active researchers who appreci- It is the best resource for students to obtain the information out-
ate both the learning and the discovery aspects of the chemical side of the classroom needed for learning, skill development, ref-
sciences. Our varied, wide-ranging experiences have formed the erence, and test preparation. The text, more effectively than any
basis of the close collaborations we have enjoyed as coauthors. In other instrument, provides the depth of coverage and coherent
writing our book, our focus is on the students: we try to ensure background in modern chemistry that students need to serve
that the text is not only accurate and up-to-date but also clear their professional interests and, as appropriate, to prepare for
and readable. We strive to convey the breadth of chemistry and more advanced chemistry courses.
the excitement that scientists experience in making new discov- If the text is to be effective in supporting your role as instruc-
eries that contribute to our understanding of the physical world. tor, it must be addressed to the students. We have done our best
We want the student to appreciate that chemistry is not a body of to keep our writing clear and interesting and the book attractive
specialized knowledge that is separate from most aspects of mod- and well illustrated. The book has numerous in-text study aids
ern life, but central to any attempt to address a host of societal for students including carefully placed descriptions of problem-
concerns, including renewable energy, environmental sustain- solving strategies. We hope that our cumulative experiences as
ability, and improved human health. teachers is evident in our pacing, choice of examples, and the
Publishing the fifteenth edition of this text bespeaks kinds of study aids and motivational tools we have employed.
an exceptionally long record of successful textbook writing. We believe students are more enthusiastic about learning chem-
We are appreciative of the loyalty and support the book has istry when they see its importance relative to their own goals
received over the years, and mindful of our obligation to justify and interests; therefore, we have highlighted many important
each new edition. We begin our approach to each new edition applications of chemistry in everyday life. We hope you make
with an intensive author retreat, in which we ask ourselves use of this material.
the deep questions that we must answer before we can move It is our philosophy, as authors, that the text and all the sup-
forward. What justifies yet another edition? What is changing plementary materials provided to support its use must work in
in the world not only of chemistry, but with respect to science concert with you, the instructor. A textbook is only as useful to
education and the qualities of the students we serve? How can students as the instructor permits it to be. This book is replete
we help your students not only learn the principles of chemis- with features that help students learn and that can guide them
try, but also become critical thinkers who can think more like as they acquire both conceptual understanding and problem-
chemists? The answers lie only partly in the changing face of solving skills. There is a great deal here for the students to use,
chemistry itself. The introduction of many new technologies too much for all of it to be absorbed by any student in a one-
has changed the landscape in the teaching of sciences at all year course. You will be the guide to the best use of the book.
levels. The use of the Internet in accessing information and Only with your active help will the students be able to uti-
presenting learning materials has markedly changed the role lize most effectively all that the text and its supplements offer.
of the textbook as one element among many tools for stu- Students care about grades, of course, and with encouragement
dent learning. Our challenge as authors is to maintain the they will also become interested in the subject matter and care
text as the primary source of chemical knowledge and prac- about learning. Please consider emphasizing features of the
tice while at the same time integrating it with the new ave- book that can enhance student appreciation of chemistry, such
nues for learning made possible by technology. This edition as the Chemistry Put To Work and Chemistry and Life boxes that
continues to incorporate a number of those new methodolo- show how chemistry impacts modern life and its relationship to
gies, including use of computer-based classroom tools, such health and life processes. Also consider emphasizing conceptual
as Learning CatalyticsTM, a cloud-based active learning analyt- understanding (placing less emphasis on simple manipulative,
ics and assessment system, and web-based tools, particularly algorithmic problem solving) and urging students to use the
Pearson Mastering Chemistry, which is continually evolving rich online resources available.
25

26 PREFACE
Organization and Contents nonmetals, and Chapter 23 with the chemistry of transition
metals, including coordination compounds. These last three
The first five chapters give a largely macroscopic, phenomeno- chapters are developed in an independent, modular fashion
logical view of chemistry. The basic concepts introduced—such and can be covered in any order.
as nomenclature, stoichiometry, and thermochemistry—pro- Organic chemistry is central to all living things and Chap-
vide necessary background for many of the laboratory experi- ters 24–32 lead us on a journey from elementary hydrocarbons
ments usually performed in chemistry. We believe that an early to elaborate bio-organic molecules. Much of what we discuss
introduction to thermochemistry is desirable because so much is treated from a fundamental level so students’ transition to
of our understanding of chemical processes is based on consider- tertiary studies in organic chemistry is smooth and rapid.
ations of energy changes. As before, we discuss bond enthalpies We place emphasis on the core reactions observed in organic
in the Thermochemistry chapter to emphasize the connection chemistry and treat many cases mechanistically. This fosters a
between the macroscopic properties of substances and the sub- deep understanding of why organic molecules react in the way
microscopic world of atoms and bonds. We believe this enables they do, thereby giving students an opportunity to understand
an effective, balanced approach to teaching thermodynamics much more chemistry than is discussed.
in general chemistry, as well as provides students with an intro- Chapter 24 provides a foundation to our examination of
duction to some of the global issues involving energy produc- organic chemistry by using hydrocarbons to illustrate how
tion and consumption. It is no easy matter to walk the narrow we represent and name organic molecules. It goes on to pro-
pathway between—on the one hand—trying to teach too much vide an overview of the functional groups—the reactive parts
at too high a level and—on the other hand—resorting to over- of the molecule—on which we build our understanding of
simplifications. As with the book as a whole, the emphasis has organic chemistry. The shape of a molecule may be pivotal in
been on imparting conceptual understanding, as opposed to determining its reactivity, particularly in a biological context,
presenting equations into which students are supposed to plug and Chapter 25 leads to an in-depth discussion of stereochem-
numbers. istry. The next six chapters cover the fundamental reactions
The next four chapters (Chapters 6–9) deal with electronic encountered in organic chemistry, at each step building to the
structure and bonding. For more advanced students, A Closer application of these reactions in a modern world (for exam-
Look boxes in Chapters 6 and 9 highlight radial probability func- ple, polymerisation in Chapters 26 and 29) and their essen-
tions and the phases of orbitals. Our approach of placing this tial role in the chemistry of life (for example, carbohydrates in
latter discussion in A Closer Look box in Chapter 9 enables those Chapter 28, fats in Chapter 29, proteins and nucleic acids in
who wish to cover this topic to do so, while others may wish to Chapter 31). Chapter 30 investigates aromatic compounds as a
bypass it. separate class. Here, it is important for the student to note the
In Chapters 10–13, the focus of the text changes to the differences in reactivity to the alkenes studied in Chapter 26.
next level of the organization of matter: examining the states Finally, Chapter 32 stands alone as a reference guide to
of matter. Chapters 10 and 11 deal with gases, liquids, and inter- mass spectrometry, NMR spectroscopy, and IR spectroscopy.
molecular forces, while Chapter 12 is devoted to solids, present- Whether these topics are taught with much emphasis on the
ing a contemporary view of the solid state as well as of modern technology is up to the instructor. What we believe is most
materials accessible to general chemistry students. The chap- important is students’ development at complex problem-
ter provides an opportunity to show how abstract chemical solving, bringing two or more concepts together to draw a log-
bonding concepts impact real-world applications. The modu- ical conclusion. The approach to solving molecular structure
lar organization of the chapter allows instructors to tailor cov- also confirms their knowledge of the basic principles of organic
erage to focus on the materials (semiconductors, polymers, chemistry, bonding, functional groups and drawing structural
nanomaterials, and so forth) that are most relevant to students formulas. Our coverage of organic chemistry gives students a
and instructors alike. This section of the book concludes with unique perspective and challenges the very ‘standard format’
Chapter 13, which covers the formation and properties of often seen in a first-year text.
solutions. Our chapter sequence provides a fairly standard organiza-
The next several chapters examine the factors that determine tion, but we recognize that not everyone teaches all the top-
the speed and extent of chemical reactions: kinetics (Chapter 14), ics in the order we have chosen. We have, therefore, made
equilibria (Chapters 15–17), thermodynamics (Chapter 19), and sure that instructors can make common changes in teaching
electrochemistry (Chapter 20). Also in this section is a chapter sequence with no loss in student comprehension. In particu-
on environmental chemistry (Chapter 18), in which the con- lar, many instructors prefer to introduce gases (Chapter 10)
cepts developed in preceding chapters are applied to a discussion after stoichiometry (Chapter 3) rather than with states of
of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. This chapter has increas- matter. The chapter on gases has been written to permit this
ingly come to be focused on green chemistry and the impacts of change with no disruption in the flow of material. It is also
human activities on Earth’s water and atmosphere. possible to treat balancing redox equations (Sections 20.1
After a discussion of nuclear chemistry (Chapter 21), and 20.2) earlier, after the introduction of redox reactions in
the book has two survey chapters. Chapter 22 deals with Section 4.4.

PREFACE 27
We have brought students into greater contact with descrip- Key Features in This Edition
tive organic and inorganic chemistry by integrating examples
throughout the text. Students will find pertinent and relevant Chemistry: The Central Science, continues to provide relevant,
examples of “real” chemistry woven into all the chapters to up-to-date content—be it art or assessment material—that
illustrate principles and applications. Some chapters, of course, enhances the clarity and effectiveness of the text. Key features
more directly address the “descriptive” properties of elements for this edition include the following:
and their compounds, especially Chapters 4, 7, 11, 18, 22, and
• The treatment of energy and thermochemistry draws on
23. We also incorporate descriptive organic and inorganic chem-
significant revisions to previous editions. The introduc-
istry in the exercises found throughout each chapter.
tion of the concept of energy in Chapter 1 allows instruc-
New to This Edition tors greater freedom in the order in which they cover the
material. For example, this arrangement facilitates cover-
It is perhaps a natural tendency for chemistry textbooks to grow
age of Chapters 6 and 7 immediately following Chapter 2,
in length with succeeding editions, but it is one that we have
a sequence that is in line with an atoms-first approach to
resisted. There are, nonetheless, many updates to features to
teaching general chemistry. The discussion of bond en-
serve students and instructors better in the classroom. Chemistry:
thalpies in Chapter 5 emphasizes the connection between
The Central Science has traditionally been valued for its clarity
macroscopic quantities, like reaction enthalpies, and the
of writing, its scientific accuracy and currency, its strong end-
submicroscopic world of atoms and bonds. We feel this
of-chapter exercises, and its consistency in level of coverage.
leads to a better integration of thermochemical concepts
The book was updated in a way that did not compromise these
with the surrounding chapters. Bond enthalpies are re-
characteristics, and we have also continued to employ an open,
visited in Chapter 8 after students have developed a more
clean design in the layout of the book.
sophisticated view of chemical bonding.
The art program for the fifteenth edition continues the
trajectory set in the previous two editions: to make greater and • The text continues to provide students with a clear discus-
more effective use of the figures as learning tools, by drawing sion, superior problem sets, and better real-time feedback
the reader more directly into the figure. The style of the art on students’ understanding of the material. This is based
enhances clarity with a clean and modern look. This includes on the authors’ insight into student usage of the interactive
white-background annotation boxes with crisp, thin lead- e-book platform, such as the most frequently highlighted
ers; rich and saturated colors in the art, and use of 3D render- passages and the accompanying notes and questions.
ings. Using statistics from Pearson Mastering Chemistry, we • Extensive effort has gone into creating enhanced content
have shifted some Exercises to the ends of sections, where for the Pearson eText for the book. These features make
students are more likely to attempt them before moving on to the eText so much more than just an electronic copy of
more complex questions. Also in the ends of sections are new the physical textbook. Self-Assessment Exercises at the end
Self-Assessment Exercises that provide immediate assessment of each section are enhanced with specific wrong-answer
and feedback content in the form of multiple-choice questions feedback in the Pearson eText. New Smart Figures take key
meant to test the concepts learnt in the section. In the Pearson figures from the text and bring them to life through anima-
eText, these exercises provide specific wrong-answer feedback. tion and narration. Smart Sample Exercises animate key
Updates to subject matter in chapter text, Sample Exercises, sample exercises from the text, offering students a more in-
and assessment content reflect current trends in teaching depth and detailed discussion than can be provided in the
chemistry. printed text. These interactive features also include follow-
Each section now opens with new section-opening text and up questions, which can be assigned in Pearson Mastering
images that enhance students’ understanding of the concepts Chemistry.
introduced in that section as well as explicate the historical • Finally, Subtle but important changes have been made to
contexts around key inventions and discoveries in chemistry. allow students to quickly reference important concepts
This edition features eight detailed chapters on organic and assess their knowledge of the material. Key points are
chemistry for instructors and students who have more in-depth set in italic with line spaces above and below for greater
course discussions on organic chemistry than those covered emphasis. The skills-based How To . . . features offer step-
in the shorter, 24-chapter variant of this book. An additional by-step guidance for solving specific types of problems
chapter on spectrometry is also available. All these additional such as Drawing Lewis Structures, Balancing Redox Equa-
chapters come with the wealth of Sample Exercises, essay fea- tions, and Naming Acids. These features, with numbered
tures, assessment content, and updated art that has made the steps encased by a thin rule, are integrated into the main
title a favorite with students and instructors the world over. discussion and are easy to find. Finally, each Learning
• The essays titled Strategies in Chemistry, which provide ad- Objective is now correlated to specific end-of-chapter
vice to students on problem solving and “thinking like a exercises. This allows students to test their mastery of
chemist,” have been renamed Strategies for Success to better each learning objective when preparing for quizzes
convey their usefulness to the student. and exams.

28 PREFACE
We have continued to emphasize conceptual exercises Don’t fall behind! As the course moves along, new top-
in the end-of-chapter, problems. In each chapter, we begin ics will build on material already presented. If you don’t keep
the exercises with the well-received Visualizing Concepts cat- up in your reading and problem solving, you will find it much
egory. These exercises are designed to facilitate conceptual harder to follow the lectures and discussions on current topics.
understanding through use of models, graphs, photographs, Experienced teachers know that students who read the relevant
and other visual materials. They precede the regular end- sections of the text before coming to a class learn more from the
of-chapter exercises and are identified in each case with the class and retain greater recall. “Cramming” just before an exam
relevant chapter section number. A generous selection of Inte- has been shown to be an ineffective way to study any subject,
grative Exercises, which give students the opportunity to solve chemistry included. So now you know. How important to you,
problems that integrate concepts from the present chap- in this competitive world, is a good grade in chemistry?
ter with those of previous chapters, is included at the end of Focus your study. The amount of information you will
each chapter. The importance of integrative problem solv- be expected to learn may seem overwhelming. It is essential to
ing is highlighted by the Sample Integrative Exercise, which recognize those concepts and skills that are particularly impor-
ends each chapter beginning with Chapter 4. In general, we tant. Pay attention to what your instructor is emphasizing. As
have included more conceptual end-of-chapter exercises and you work through the Sample Exercises and homework assign-
have made sure that there is a good representation of some- ments, try to see what general principles and skills they employ.
what more difficult exercises to provide a better mix in terms A single reading of a chapter will generally not be enough for
of topic and level of difficulty. Many of the exercises are successful learning of chapter concepts and problem-solving
structured in a way that makes it easy to use them in Pearson skills. You will often need to go over assigned materials more
Mastering Chemistry. We have made extensive use of the meta- than once. Don’t skip the Go Figure features, Sample Exercises,
data from student use of Pearson Mastering Chemistry to ana- and Practice Exercises. These are your guides to whether you are
lyze end-of-chapter exercises and make appropriate changes, learning the material. They are also good preparation for test-
as well as to develop Learning Outcomes for each chapter. taking. The Learning Outcomes and Key Equations at the end of
The essays in our well-received Chemistry Put To Work and the chapter will also help you focus your study.
Chemistry and Life series emphasize world events, scientific dis- Keep good lecture notes. Your lecture notes will pro-
coveries, and medical breakthroughs relevant to topics devel- vide you with a clear and concise record of what your instructor
oped in each chapter. We maintain our focus on the positive regards as the most important material to learn. Using your lec-
aspects of chemistry without neglecting the problems that can ture notes in conjunction with this text is the best way to deter-
arise in an increasingly technological world. Our goal is to help mine which material to study.
students appreciate the real-world perspective of chemistry and Skim topics in the text before they are covered
the ways in which chemistry affects their lives. in lecture. Reviewing a topic before lecture will make it eas-
ier for you to take good notes. First read the end-of-chapter
To the Student Summary; then quickly read through the chapter, skipping
Sample Exercises and supplemental sections. Paying attention
Chemistry: The Central Science, Fifteenth Edition, has been writ- to the titles of sections and subsections gives you a feeling for
ten to introduce you to modern chemistry. As authors, we have, the scope of topics. Try to avoid thinking that you must learn
in effect, been engaged by your instructor to help you learn and understand everything right away.
chemistry. Based on the comments of students and instructors You need to do a certain amount of preparation
who have used this book in its previous editions, we believe before lecture. More than ever, instructors are using the lec-
that we have done that job well. Of course, we expect the text ture period not simply as a one-way channel of communica-
to continue to evolve through future editions. We invite you to tion from teacher to student. Rather, they expect students to
write to tell us what you like about the book so that we will know come to class ready to work on problem solving and critical
where we have helped you most. Also, we would like to learn of thinking. Coming to class unprepared is not a good idea for
any shortcomings so we may further improve the book in subse- any lecture environment, but it certainly is not an option for
quent editions. Our addresses are given at the end of the Preface. an active learning classroom if you aim to do well in the course.
After lecture, carefully read the topics covered in
Advice for Learning and class. As you read, pay attention to the concepts presented and
to the application of these concepts in the Sample Exercises. Once
Studying Chemistry you think you understand a Sample Exercise, test your under-
Learning chemistry requires both the assimilation of many con- standing by working the accompanying Practice Exercise.
cepts and the development of analytical skills. In this text, we Learn the language of chemistry. As you study chem-
have provided you with numerous tools to help you succeed in istry, you will encounter many new words. It is important to
both tasks. If you are going to succeed in your chemistry course, pay attention to these words and to know their meanings or the
you will have to develop good study habits. Science courses, and entities to which they refer. Knowing how to identify chemical
chemistry in particular, make different demands on your learn- substances from their names is an important skill; it can help
ing skills than do other types of courses. We offer the following you avoid painful mistakes on examinations. For example,
tips for success in your study of chemistry: “chlorine” and “chloride” refer to very different things.

PREFACE 29
Attempt the assigned end-of-chapter exercises. Use online resources. Some things are more easily learned
Working the exercises selected by your instructor provides nec- by discovery, and others are best shown in three dimensions. If
essary practice in recalling and using the essential ideas of the your instructor has included Pearson Mastering Chemistry with
chapter. You cannot learn merely by observing; you must be a your book, take advantage of the unique tools it provides to get
participant. If you get stuck on an exercise, however, get help the most out of your time in chemistry.
from your instructor, your teaching assistant, or another student. The bottom line is to work hard, study effectively, and use
Spending more than 20 minutes on a single exercise is rarely the tools available to you, including this textbook. We want
effective unless you know that it is particularly challenging. to help you learn more about the world of chemistry and why
Learn to think like a scientist. This book is written by chemistry is the central science. If you really learn chemistry,
scientists who love chemistry. We encourage you to develop your you can be the life of the party, impress your friends and parents,
critical thinking skills by taking advantage of features in this and . . . well, also pass the course with a good grade.
new edition, such as exercises that focus on conceptual learning,
and the Design an Experiment exercises.

30 PREFACE
Acknowledgments Each of us has benefited greatly from discussions with col-

leagues and from correspondence with instructors and students
The production of a textbook is a team effort requiring the in- both here and abroad. Colleagues have also helped immense-
volvement of many people besides the authors who contributed ly by reviewing our materials, sharing their insights, and pro-
hard work and talent to bring this edition to life. Although their viding suggestions for improvements. For this edition, we were
names don’t appear on the cover of the book, their creativity, particularly blessed with an exceptional group of accuracy
time, and support have been instrumental in all stages of its de- checkers who read through our materials looking for both tech-
velopment and production. nical inaccuracies and typographical errors.
Fourteenth Edition Reviewers

Carribeth Bliem, University of North Michelle Dean, Kennesaw State University Joe Lazafame, Rochester Institute of
Carolina, Chapel Hill John Gorden, Auburn University Technology
Stephen Block, University of Wisconsin, Tom Greenbowe, University of Oregon Rosemary Loza, The Ohio State University
Madison Nathan Grove, University of North Kresimir Rupnik, Louisiana State University
William Butler, Rochester Institute of Carolina, Wilmington Stacy Sendler, Arizona State University
Technology Brian Gute, University of Minnesota, Duluth Jerry Suits, University Northern Colorado
Rachel Campbell, Florida Gulf Coast Amanda Howell, Appalachian State University Troy Wood, State University of New York,
University Angela King, Wake Forest University Buffalo
Ted Clark, The Ohio State University Russ Larsen, University of Iowa Bob Zelmer, The Ohio State University
Fourteenth Edition Accuracy Reviewers

Ted Clark, The Ohio State University Amanda Howell, Appalachian State
Jordan Fantini, Denison University University
Fourteenth Edition Focus Group Participants

Christine Barnes, University of Tennessee, Emmanue Ewane, Houston Community Bhavna Rawal, Houston Community College
Knoxville College Jerry Suits, University of Northern Colorado
Marian DeWane, University California Tom Greenbowe, University of Oregon
Irvine Jeffrey Rahn, Eastern Washington University
Pearson Mastering Chemistry Summit Participants

Phil Bennett, Santa Fe Community College Brad Herrick, Colorado School of Mines Matt Tarr, University of New Orleans
Jo Blackburn, Richland College Jeff Jenson, University of Findlay Dennis Taylor, Clemson University
John Bookstaver, St. Charles Community Jeff McVey, Texas State University at San Harold Trimm, Broome Community College
College Marcos Emanuel Waddell, University of Alabama,
David Carter, Angelo State University Gary Michels, Creighton University Huntsville
Doug Cody, Nassau Community College Bob Pribush, Butler University Kurt Winklemann, Florida Institute of
Tom Dowd, Harper College Al Rives, Wake Forest University Technology
Palmer Graves, Florida International Joel Russell, Oakland University Klaus Woelk, University of Missouri, Rolla
University Greg Szulczewski, University of Alabama, Steve Wood, Brigham Young University
Margie Haak, Oregon State University Tuscaloosa
Reviewers of Previous Editions of Chemistry: The Central Science

S.K. Airee, University of Tennessee Hafed Bascal, University of Findlay Daeg Scott Brenner, Clark University
John J. Alexander, University of Cincinnati Boyd Beck, Snow College Gregory Alan Brewer, Catholic University
Robert Allendoerfer, SUNY Buffalo Kelly Beefus, Anoka-Ramsey Community of America
Patricia Amateis, Virginia Polytechnic College Karen Brewer, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Institute and State University Amy Beilstein, Centre College and State University
Sandra Anderson, University of Wisconsin Donald Bellew, University of New Mexico Ron Briggs, Arizona State University
John Arnold, University of California Victor Berner, New Mexico Junior College Edward Brown, Lee University
Socorro Arteaga, El Paso Community Narayan Bhat, University of Texas, Pan Gary Buckley, Cameron University
College American Scott Bunge, Kent State University
Margaret Asirvatham, University of Colorado Merrill Blackman, United States Military Carmela Byrnes, Texas A&M University
Todd L. Austell, University of North Academy B. Edward Cain, Rochester Institute of
Carolina, Chapel Hill Salah M. Blaih, Kent State University Technology
Yiyan Bai, Houston Community College James A. Boiani, SUNY Geneseo Kim Calvo, University of Akron
Melita Balch, University of Illinois at Chicago Leon Borowski, Diablo Valley College Donald L. Campbell, University of
Rebecca Barlag, Ohio University Simon Bott, University of Houston Wisconsin
Rosemary Bartoszek-Loza, The Ohio State Kevin L. Bray, Washington State Gene O. Carlisle, Texas A&M University
University University Elaine Carter, Los Angeles City College

PREFACE 31
Robert Carter, University of Massachusetts David Frank, California State University Donald Kleinfelter, University of Tennessee,
at Boston Harbor Cheryl B. Frech, University of Central Knoxville
Ann Cartwright, San Jacinto Central College Oklahoma Daniela Kohen, Carleton University
David L. Cedeño, Illinois State University Ewa Fredette, Moraine Valley College David Kort, George Mason University
Dana Chatellier, University of Delaware Kenneth A. French, Blinn College Jeffrey Kovac, University of Tennessee
Stanton Ching, Connecticut College Karen Frindell, Santa Rosa Junior College George P. Kreishman, University of Cincinnati
Paul Chirik, Cornell University John I. Gelder, Oklahoma State University Paul Kreiss, Anne Arundel Community College
Ted Clark, The Ohio State University Robert Gellert, Glendale Community College Manickham Krishnamurthy, Howard
Tom Clayton, Knox College Luther Giddings, Salt Lake Community University
William Cleaver, University of Vermont College Sergiy Kryatov, Tufts University
Beverly Clement, Blinn College Paul Gilletti, Mesa Community College Brian D. Kybett, University of Regina
Robert D. Cloney, Fordham University Peter Gold, Pennsylvania State University William R. Lammela, Nazareth College
John Collins, Broward Community College Eric Goll, Brookdale Community College John T. Landrum, Florida International
Edward Werner Cook, Tunxis Community James Gordon, Central Methodist College University
Technical College John Gorden, Auburn University Richard Langley, Stephen F. Austin State
Elzbieta Cook, Louisiana State University Thomas J. Greenbowe, University of Oregon University
Enriqueta Cortez, South Texas College Michael Greenlief, University of Missouri N. Dale Ledford, University of South Alabama
Jason Coym, University of South Alabama Eric P. Grimsrud, Montana State University Ernestine Lee, Utah State University
Thomas Edgar Crumm, Indiana University John Hagadorn, University of Colorado David Lehmpuhl, University of Southern
of Pennsylvania Randy Hall, Louisiana State University Colorado
Dwaine Davis, Forsyth Tech Community John M. Halpin, New York University Robley J. Light, Florida State University
College Marie Hankins, University of Southern Donald E. Linn, Jr., Indiana University–
Ramón López de la Vega, Florida Indiana Purdue University Indianapolis
International University Robert M. Hanson, St. Olaf College David Lippmann, Southwest Texas State
Nancy De Luca, University of Daniel Haworth, Marquette University Patrick Lloyd, Kingsborough Community
Massachusetts, Lowell North Campus Michael Hay, Pennsylvania State University College
Angel de Dios, Georgetown University Inna Hefley, Blinn College Encarnacion Lopez, Miami Dade College,
John M. DeKorte, Glendale Community David Henderson, Trinity College Wolfson
College Paul Higgs, Barry University Michael Lufaso, University of North Florida
Michael Denniston, Georgia Perimeter Carl A. Hoeger, University of California, San Charity Lovett, Seattle University
College Diego Arthur Low, Tarleton State University
Daniel Domin, Tennessee State University Gary G. Hoffman, Florida International Gary L. Lyon, Louisiana State University
James Donaldson, University of Toronto University Preston J. MacDougall, Middle Tennessee
Patrick Donoghue, Appalachian State Deborah Hokien, Marywood University State University
University Robin Horner, Fayetteville Tech Community Jeffrey Madura, Duquesne University
Bill Donovan, University of Akron College Larry Manno, Triton College
Stephen Drucker, University of Wisconsin- Roger K. House, Moraine Valley College Asoka Marasinghe, Moorhead State University
Eau Claire Michael O. Hurst, Georgia Southern Earl L. Mark, ITT Technical Institute
Ronald Duchovic, Indiana University–Purdue University Pamela Marks, Arizona State University
University at Fort Wayne William Jensen, South Dakota State Albert H. Martin, Moravian College
Robert Dunn, University of Kansas University Przemyslaw Maslak, Pennsylvania State
David Easter, Southwest Texas State University Janet Johannessen, County College of Morris University
Joseph Ellison, United States Military Milton D. Johnston, Jr., University of South Hilary L. Maybaum, ThinkQuest, Inc.
Academy Florida Armin Mayr, El Paso Community College
George O. Evans II, East Carolina University Andrew Jones, Southern Alberta Institute of Marcus T. McEllistrem, University of
James M. Farrar, University of Rochester Technology Wisconsin
Debra Feakes, Texas State University at San Booker Juma, Fayetteville State University Craig McLauchlan, Illinois State University
Marcos Ismail Kady, East Tennessee State University Jeff McVey, Texas State University at San
Gregory M. Ferrence, Illinois State University Siam Kahmis, University of Pittsburgh Marcos
Clark L. Fields, University of Northern Steven Keller, University of Missouri William A. Meena, Valley College
Colorado John W. Kenney, Eastern New Mexico Joseph Merola, Virginia Polytechnic
Jennifer Firestine, Lindenwood University University Institute and State University
Jan M. Fleischner, College of New Jersey Neil Kestner, Louisiana State University Stephen Mezyk, California State University
Paul A. Flowers, University of North Carl Hoeger, University of California at San Diane Miller, Marquette University
Carolina at Pembroke Diego Eric Miller, San Juan College
Michelle Fossum, Laney College Leslie Kinsland, University of Louisiana Gordon Miller, Iowa State University
Roger Frampton, Tidewater Community Jesudoss Kingston, Iowa State University Shelley Minteer, Saint Louis University
College Louis J. Kirschenbaum, University of Rhode Massoud (Matt) Miri, Rochester Institute of
Joe Franek, University of Minnesota Island Technology

32 PREFACE
Mohammad Moharerrzadeh, Bowie State Gregory Robinson, University of Georgia Edmund Tisko, University of Nebraska at
University Mark G. Rockley, Oklahoma State University Omaha
Tracy Morkin, Emory University Lenore Rodicio, Miami Dade College Richard S. Treptow, Chicago State University
Barbara Mowery, York College Amy L. Rogers, College of Charleston Michael Tubergen, Kent State University
Kathleen E. Murphy, Daemen College Jimmy R. Rogers, University of Texas at Claudia Turro, The Ohio State University
Kathy Nabona, Austin Community College Arlington James Tyrell, Southern Illinois University
Robert Nelson, Georgia Southern University Kathryn Rowberg, Purdue University at Michael J. Van Stipdonk, Wichita State
Al Nichols, Jacksonville State University Calumet University
Ross Nord, Eastern Michigan University Steven Rowley, Middlesex Community College Philip Verhalen, Panola College
Jessica Orvis, Georgia Southern University James E. Russo, Whitman College Ann Verner, University of Toronto at
Mark Ott, Jackson Community College Theodore Sakano, Rockland Community Scarborough
Jason Overby, College of Charleston College Edward Vickner, Gloucester County
Robert H. Paine, Rochester Institute of Michael J. Sanger, University of Northern Community College
Technology Iowa John Vincent, University of Alabama
Robert T. Paine, University of New Mexico Jerry L. Sarquis, Miami University Maria Vogt, Bloomfield College
Sandra Patrick, Malaspina University James P. Schneider, Portland Community Tony Wallner, Barry University
College College Lichang Wang, Southern Illinois University
Mary Jane Patterson, Brazosport College Mark Schraf, West Virginia University Thomas R. Webb, Auburn University
Tammi Pavelec, Lindenwood University Melissa Schultz, The College of Wooster Clyde Webster, University of California at
Albert Payton, Broward Community College Gray Scrimgeour, University of Toronto Riverside
Lee Pedersen, University of North Carolina Paula Secondo, Western Connecticut State Karen Weichelman, University of
Christopher J. Peeples, University of Tulsa University Louisiana-Lafayette
Kim Percell, Cape Fear Community College Michael Seymour, Hope College Paul G. Wenthold, Purdue University
Gita Perkins, Estrella Mountain Community Kathy Thrush Shaginaw, Villanova University Laurence Werbelow, New Mexico Institute
College Susan M. Shih, College of DuPage of Mining and Technology
Richard Perkins, University of Louisiana David Shinn, University of Hawaii at Hilo Wayne Wesolowski, University of Arizona
Nancy Peterson, North Central College Lewis Silverman, University of Missouri at Sarah West, University of Notre Dame
Robert C. Pfaff, Saint Joseph’s College Columbia Linda M. Wilkes, University at Southern
John Pfeffer, Highline Community College Vince Sollimo, Burlington Community Colorado
Lou Pignolet, University of Minnesota College Charles A. Wilkie, Marquette University
Bernard Powell, University of Texas Richard Spinney, The Ohio State University Darren L. Williams, West Texas A&M
Jeffrey A. Rahn, Eastern Washington David Soriano, University of Pittsburgh- University
University Bradford Troy Wood, SUNY Buffalo
Steve Rathbone, Blinn College Eugene Stevens, Binghamton University Kimberly Woznack, California University of
Scott Reeve, Arkansas State University Matthew Stoltzfus, The Ohio State University Pennsylvania
John Reissner Helen Richter Thomas James Symes, Cosumnes River College Thao Yang, University of Wisconsin
Ridgway, University of North Carolina, Iwao Teraoka, Polytechnic University David Zax, Cornell University
University of Akron, University of Domenic J. Tiani, University of North Dr. Susan M. Zirpoli, Slippery Rock University
Cincinnati Carolina, Chapel Hill Edward Zovinka, Saint Francis University
We would also like to express our gratitude to our many team terms of consistency and student understanding. The Pearson
members at Pearson whose hard work, imagination, and com- team is a first-class operation.
mitment have contributed so greatly to the final form of this There are many others who also deserve special recognition,
edition: Chris Hess, our chemistry editor, for many fresh ideas including the following: Mary Tindle, our production editor,
and his unflagging enthusiasm, continuous encouragement, who skillfully kept the process moving and us authors on track;
and support; Jennifer Hart, Director of Development, who has and Roxy Wilson (University of Illinois), who so ably coordi-
brought her experience and insight to oversight of the entire nated the difficult job of working out solutions to the end-of-
project; Matt Walker, our development editor, whose depth of chapter exercises. Finally, we wish to thank our families and
experience, good judgment, and careful attention to detail were friends for their love, support, encouragement, and patience as
invaluable to this revision, especially in keeping us on task in we brought this edition to completion.
Theodore L. Brown H. Eugene LeMay, Jr. Bruce E. Bursten Catherine J. Murphy Patrick M. Woodward Matthew W. Stoltzfus
Department of Department of Department of Department of Department of Department of
Chemistry Chemistry Chemistry and Chemistry Chemistry and Chemistry and
University of Illinois at University of Nevada Biochemistry University of Illinois at Biochemistry Biochemistry
Urbana-Champaign Reno, NV 89557 Worcester Polytechnic Urbana-Champaign The Ohio State The Ohio State
Urbana, IL 61801 lemay@unr.edu Institute Urbana, IL 61801 University University
tlbrown@illinois. Worcester, MA 01609 murphycj@illinois. Columbus, OH 43210 Columbus, OH 43210
edu or tlbrown1@ bbursten@wpi.edu edu woodward.55@ stoltzfus.5@osu.
earthlink.net osu.edu edu

PREFACE 33
Acknowledgments for the

Global Edition
Pearson would like to acknowledge and thank Adrian George, University of Sydney, for his detailed revisions to the Global Edition,
and the following for contributing to and reviewing it:
Contributor and Reviewer

Jakob “SciFox” Lauth, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences
Contributors
Angela Pui-Ling TONG, The University of Hong Kong Angela Mai-Yan YUEN, The University of Hong Kong
Reviewers
James Brady, University of Auckland Teo Yin Yin, University of Malaya
Katherine Stevens, University of Adelaide Nor Saadah Binti Mohd Yusof, University of Malaya
Kennethh Ozoemena, University of the Witwatersrand
Contributors for Earlier Editions

Pearson would like to thank Dalius Sagatys, who has retired from
Queensland University of Technology, for his work on the 3rd
Australian edition of this title.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Our authors value collaboration as an integral component to overall success. While each author brings unique talent, research
interests, and teaching experiences, the team works together to review and develop the entire text. It is this collaboration
that keeps the content ahead of educational trends and contributes to continuous innovations in teaching and learning
throughout the text and technology.
Theodore L. Brown received his Ph.D. enjoyed Visiting Professorships at the University of North
from Michigan State University in 1956. Carolina at Chapel Hill, at the University College of Wales in
Since then, he has been a member of the Great Britain, and at the University of California, Los Angeles.
faculty of the University of Illinois, Urbana- Professor LeMay is a popular and effective teacher, who has
Champaign, where he is now Professor of taught thousands of students during more than 40 years of uni-
Chemistry, Emeritus. He served as Vice versity teaching. Known for the clarity of his lectures and his
Chancellor for Research, and Dean of The sense of humor, he has received several teaching awards, includ-
Graduate College, from 1980 to 1986, and as ing the University Distinguished Teacher of the Year Award
Founding Director of the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Institute (1991) and the first Regents’ Teaching Award given by the State
for Advanced Science and Technology from 1987 to 1993. of Nevada Board of Regents (1997).
Professor Brown has been an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
Research Fellow and has been awarded a Guggenheim Bruce E. Bursten received his Ph.D. in
Fellowship. In 1972 he was awarded the American Chemical Chemistry from the University of Wisconsin
Society Award for Research in Inorganic Chemistry and received in 1978. After two years as a National Science
the American Chemical Society Award for Distinguished Service Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow at Texas
in the Advancement of Inorganic Chemistry in 1993. He has A&M University, he joined the faculty of
been elected a Fellow of the American Association for the The Ohio State University, where he rose to
Advancement of Science, the American Academy of Arts and the rank of Distinguished University Profes-
Sciences, and the American Chemical Society. sor. In 2005, he moved to the University of
Tennessee, Knoxville, as Distinguished Pro-
H. Eugene Lemay, Jr., received his B.S. fessor of Chemistry and Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences.
degree in Chemistry from Pacific Lutheran In 2015, he moved to Worcester Polytechnic Institute as Provost
University (Washington) and his Ph.D. in and Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry. Professor Bursten
Chemistry in 1966 from the University of has been a Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation Teacher-
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He then Scholar and an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Research Fellow, and
joined the faculty of the University of he is a Fellow of both the American Association for the Advance-
Nevada, Reno, where he is currently ment of Science and the American Chemical Society. At Ohio
Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus. He has State he received the University Distinguished Teaching Award in
34

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 35
1982 and 1996, the Arts and Sciences Student Council Outstand- Professor. He has enjoyed visiting professorships at the Universi-
ing Teaching Award in 1984, and the University Distinguished ty of Bordeaux in France and the University of Sydney in Austra-
Scholar Award in 1990. He received the Spiers Memorial Prize lia. Professor Woodward has been an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
and Medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 2003, and the Research Fellow and a National Science Foundation CAREER
Morley Medal of the Cleveland Section of the American Chemi- Award winner. He has served as Vice Chair for Undergraduate
cal Society in 2005. He was President of the American Chemical Studies in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at
Society for 2008 and Chair of the Section on Chemistry of the Ohio State University, and director of the Ohio REEL program.
American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2015. In He is currently the Vice President of the Neutron Scattering Soci-
addition to his teaching and service activities, Professor Bursten’s ety of America. Professor Woodward’s research program focuses
research program focuses on compounds of the transition-metal on understanding the links between bonding, structure, and
and actinide elements. properties of solid-state inorganic materials.
Catherine J. Murphy received two B.S. Matthew W. Stoltzfus received his B.S.
degrees, one in Chemistry and one in Bio- degree in Chemistry from Millersville Uni-
chemistry, from the University of Illinois, versity in 2002 and his Ph. D. in Chemistry
Urbana-Champaign, in 1986. She received in 2007 from The Ohio State University. He
her Ph.D. in Chemistry from the University spent two years as a teaching postdoctoral
of Wisconsin in 1990. She was a National assistant for the Ohio REEL program, an
Science Foundation and National Institutes NSF-funded center that works to bring au-
of Health Postdoctoral Fellow at the Califor- thentic research experiments into the gen-
nia Institute of Technology from 1990 to 1993. In 1993, she eral chemistry lab curriculum in 15 colleges
joined the faculty of the University of South Carolina, Colum- and universities across the state of Ohio. In 2009, he joined the
bia, becoming the Guy F. Lipscomb Professor of Chemistry in faculty of Ohio State where he currently holds the position of
2003. In 2009 she moved to the University of Illinois, Urbana- Chemistry Lecturer. In addition to lecturing general chemistry,
Champaign, as the Peter C. and Gretchen Miller Markunas Pro- Stoltzfus served as a Faculty Fellow for the Digital First Initiative,
fessor of Chemistry. Professor Murphy has been honored for inspiring instructors to offer engaging digital learning content
both research and teaching as a Camille Dreyfus Teacher- to students through emerging technology. Through this initia-
Scholar, an Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Research Fellow, a Cot- tive, he developed an iTunes U general chemistry course, which
trell Scholar of the Research Corporation, a National Science has attracted over 200,000 students from all over the world. The
Foundation CAREER Award winner, and a subsequent NSF iTunes U course, along with the videos at www.drfus.com, are
Award for Special Creativity. She has also received a USC Mortar designed to supplement the text and can be used by any gen-
Board Excellence in Teaching Award, the USC Golden Key Fac- eral chemistry student. Stoltzfus has received several teaching
ulty Award for Creative Integration of Research and Undergrad- awards, including the inaugural Ohio State University 2013 Pro-
uate Teaching, the USC Michael J. Mungo Undergraduate vost’s Award for Distinguished Teaching by a Lecturer and he is
Teaching Award, and the USC Outstanding Undergraduate Re- recognized as an Apple Distinguished Educator.
search Mentor Award. From 2006–2011, Professor Murphy
served as a Senior Editor for the Journal of Physical Chemistry; in Steven J. Langford received his BSc
2011 she became the Deputy Editor for the Journal of Physical (Hons I) and PhD from The University of
Chemistry C. She is an elected Fellow of the American Associa- Sydney. After postdoctoral work in the UK
tion for the Advancement of Science (2008), the American under the auspices of a Ramsay Memorial
Chemical Society (2011), the Royal Society of Chemistry (2014), Fellowship, and at the University of UNSW
and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (2015). Professor as an ARC Postdoctoral Fellow, he joined
Murphy’s research program focuses on the synthesis, optical the School of Chemistry at Monash Uni-
properties, surface chemistry, biological applications, and envi- versity in 1998. He was appointed Profes-
ronmental implications of colloidal inorganic nanomaterials. sor of Organic Chemistry in 2006, where
he became Deputy Dean and Associate Dean (Research) of the
Patrick M. Woodward received B.S. de- Faculty of Science. He is currently Dean of Research and Devel-
grees in both Chemistry and Engineering opment at the Faculty of Science, Engineering & Technology at
from Idaho State University in 1991. He re- the Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology at Swinburne
ceived a M.S. degree in Materials Science and Univeristy of Technology. He is known for his entertaining and
a Ph.D. in Chemistry from Oregon State Uni- enthusiastic teaching style. In 2005, Professor Langford was
versity in 1996. He spent two years as a post- awarded the inaugural Faculty of Science Dean’s Excellence in
doctoral researcher in the Department of Science Teaching Award and in 2006 was one of only a handful
Physics at Brookhaven National Laboratory. of scientists to receive a Carrick Citation For Outstanding Con-
In 1998, he joined the faculty of the Chemistry Department at tributions to Student Learning in Australian university teach-
The Ohio State University where he currently holds the rank of ing. He was also awarded the Centenary of Federation teaching

36 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
award from the Royal Australian Chemical Institute—its pre- Carrick Institute Award for Programs that Enhance Learning
mier teaching award—in that same year. His research interests (2007). He has been Director of First Year Studies in the School
focus on concept transfers from nature, particularly in the areas of Chemistry and the Associate Dean (Teaching and Learning)
of photosynthesis and genetic encoding. He has published over in the Faculty of Science at The University of Sydney. He cur-
100 research articles and was awarded the 2006 Young Investi- rently divides his time between academic pursuits at The Uni-
gator Award by the Society of Porphyrins and Phthalocyanines. versity of Sydney and rain forest regeneration in northern New
South Wales.
Adrian V. George received his BSc(Hons)
and PhD degrees from The University of Michael W. Lufaso received his B.S. de-
Reading in England and joined the staff gree in Chemistry from Youngstown State
there as a lecturer in 1984. After a short University in 1998 and his Ph.D. in Chemis-
spell as a guest scientist at The University try from the Ohio State University in 2002.
of California, Berkeley he moved to The He was a National Research Council Post-
University of Sydney in 1988. His research has doctoral Fellow at the National Institute
ranged from organic synthesis at extremely for Standards and Technology and a post-
high pressures and the development of new doctoral fellow at the University of South
organometallic materials to the use of isotope ratio mass spec- Carolina. In 2006 he joined the University
trometry in the detection of doping in competitive sports and of North Florida where he currently holds the rank of Associ-
chemistry education. He has conducted research in Japan and ate Professor in the Department of Chemistry. He was a Brian
taught University level chemistry in Sweden. He has always had Andreen Cottrell College Science Award winner from Research
a passion for teaching and obtained a graduate certificate of Corporation. He was named a Munoz Presidential Professor in
education in 2000. He has been awarded a University of Sydney 2011 and received an Outstanding Faculty Scholarship award in
Excellence in Teaching award (1999), Vice Chancellor’s award 2014. He has authored laboratory manuals and taught ten dif-
for Support of the Student Experience twice (2007, 2011), the in- ferent undergraduate courses primarily in the areas of general,
augural Royal Australian Chemical Institute Centenary of Fed- inorganic, and solid state chemistry. His undergraduate research
eration Teaching Award (2001), Australian College of Education program focuses on structure prediction, synthesis, and charac-
Teaching Award (2001) and was part of a team that received the terization of the structure and properties of solid state materials.

New Levels of Student Interaction for
Improved Conceptual Understanding
Assignable in Pearson Mastering Chemistry, unique features engage students

through interactivity to enhance the reading experience and help them learn
challenging chemistry concepts.
Interactive Sample Exercises bring key Sample

Exercises in the text to life through animation
and narration. Author Matt
Stoltzfus uses the text’s Analyze–Plan–Solve–
Check technique to guide students through the
problem-solving process. Play icons within the
text identify each Interactive Sample Exercise.
Clicking the icon in the eText launches a visual
and conceptual presentation which goes
beyond the static page. The Practice Exercises
within each Sample Exercise can also be
assigned in Pearson Mastering Chemistry where
students will receive answer-specific feedback.
Smart Figures walk students through complex visual

representations, dispelling common misconceptions
before they take root. Each Smart Figure converts a
static in-text figure into a dynamic process narrated
by author Matt Stoltzfus. Play icons within the text
identify each Smart Figure. Clicking the icon in the
eText launches the animation. Smart Figures are
assignable in Pearson Mastering Chemistry where
they are accompanied by a multiple-choice question
with answer-specific video feedback. Selecting the
correct answer launches a brief wrap-up video that
highlights the key concepts behind the answer.

Visually Revised to Better Help
Students Build Chemistry
The visual program enhances clarity with a clean, modern look. Style changes
include: expanded use of 3D renderings, new white annotation boxes with crisp
leader lines, and a more saturated art palette.
Phenolphthalein indicator Methyl red indicator
Color-change interval 8.3 < pH < 10.0 Color-change interval 4.2 < pH < 6.0
14 14
12 12
Equivalence point
Annotations offer
Equivalence point
10 10 expanded explanations;
8 8 additional new
pH
6
pH
6
leaders emphasize key
relationships and key
4 4
points in figures.
2 2
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
mL NaOH mL NaOH
Good choice. Suitable indicator for titration of a Poor choice. Unsatisfactory indicator for titration of a
weak acid with a strong base because equivalence weak acid with a strong base because color
point falls within the color-change interval changes before reaching equivalence point
Before and after photos

clearly show characteristics of
endothermic and exothermic
reactions. Added reaction
equations connect the chemistry
to what’s happening in the
photos.

Knowledge and Understanding
The authors used the wealth of student data in Pearson Mastering Chemistry to
identify the areas where students struggle most, revising discussions, figures, and
exercises throughout the text to address misconceptions and encourage thinking
about the real-world use of chemistry. The Nature of Chemical Energy 221 SECTION 5.1
Go Figure A positively charged particle and a negatively charged particle The author team
are initially far apart. What happens to their electrostatic
potential energy as they are brought closer together? utilized Mastering
metadata to edit
Smaller separation, greater Greater separation, less
repulsion, higher Eel repulsion, lower Eel and clarify in-chapter
Like charges Go Figure questions,
(repulsion)
Eel > 0
as well as end-of-
Q1 Q2 chapter problems. User
data helped them to
Eel = 0
Separation
` identify problematic
distance
questions and then
modify, replace, or
Eel < 0
Q1 Q2
delete—resulting
Opposite charges in a more diverse
(attraction)
and polished set of
Smaller separation, greater Greater separation, less
attraction, lower Eel attraction, higher (less problems.
negative) Eel
▲ Figure 5.2 Electrostatic potential energy. At finite separation distances the electrostatic
potential energy, Eel, is positive for objects with like charges, and negative for objects
that are oppositely charged. As the particles move farther apart, their electrostatic potential energy
approaches zero.
SECTION 17.5 Factors That Affect Solubility 849
separation of the charged particles. Figure 5.2 illustrates how Eel behaves
A CLOSER as the LOOK distance Lead Contamination in Drinking Water
between two charges is varied. When Q1 and Q2 have the same signAccess (fortoexample, both
clean drinking water is something most people in the This layer prevents corrosion that would otherwise allow lead to be
industrialized world take for granted. Unfortunately, there are rare oxidized and dissolve into the water as Pb2+ ions. The water treatment
are positive), the two charged particles repel each other, and a repulsive force pushes
instances in which tap water is not safe to drink, as illustrated by the facility in Detroit was adding phosphate ions, PO43 - , to their water to
them apart. In order to bring two positively charged objects close together, one would
discovery in 2015 of elevated levels of lead in the municipal water inhibit corrosion, whereas the people managing water treatment in
supply of Flint, a city in Michigan State, USA. Flint elected not to do so. The presence of PO43 - ions promotes the
have to do work to overcome the repulsive force that exists between the
Lead two. Upon
is detrimental to many organs in the human body, but the formation of highly insoluble phosphate salts on the inner surface of
brain and central nervous system are particularly sensitive to its pres- the pipes that helps prevent corrosion.
releasing them, they would move away from each other as potential energy is 2+con-
ence. In the brain, Pb2+
ions interfere with cell communication and Another factor that appears to have contributed to the problem
growth by mimicking Ca ions. One of the most serious side effects is a drop in the pH of the water, from 8.0 in December 2014 to 7.3 in
verted to kinetic energy. In this case, Eel is positive, and the potential energy
of lead decreases
poisoning occurs in young children, where it leads to cognitive August 2015. Because the insoluble lead salts that form the passivat-
impairment. Although lead compounds were once used in a variety of ing layer, like Pb31PO422, PbHSO4, and PbCO3, contain anions that
as the distance between particles increases. When Q1 and Q 2 have applications—as
opposite asigns, the in pigments, shotgun pellets, glass, can act as weak bases, anything that makes the water more acidic
gasoline additive,
and water pipes—our daily exposure to lead dropped dramatically once increases their solubility.
particles attract each other, and an attractive force pulls them toward each
governmental other.
agencies In
started regulating its use in the 1970s. According Another contributing factor was the presence of high levels
to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, the mean of chloride ions. The treated water from Detroit had chloride lev-
this case Eel is negative, and the potential energy increases (becomes less negative)
concentration asfor an average U.S. resident dropped els of about 11 ppm, whereas the treated Flint water had chloride
of lead in the blood
from 150 ppb in 1976 to 16 ppb by 2002, nearly an order-of-magnitude levels of 85 ppm in August 2015. While PbCl2 is fairly insoluble
the particles move apart. decrease. 1Ksp = 1.7 * 10 - 52, high concentrations of chloride ions can lead to
The regulatory limit set by the U.S. Environmental Protection the formation of soluble complex ions such as PbCl3- and PbCl42 - .
To understand the relationship between electrostatic potential Agencyenergy
(EPA) for leadand the water is 15 parts per billion (ppb). The increased chloride levels were due in part to the addition of FeCl3,
in drinking
According to EPA regulations, utilities serving more than 50,000 which was used to help coagulate and filter out unwanted organic
energy stored in chemical bonds, it is instructive to consider an ionicpeople compound
must monitor the level likeof lead in their water and take cor- matter that was leading to problems with E. coli contamination.
NaCl. The Na+ cations and Cl - anions are held together by the electrostatic
rective action if more than 10% of the homes sampled exceed the 15 Chloride ions are also produced when unwanted organic matter is
attraction
ppb limit. Tests performed on samples collected in September 2015 oxidized by hypochlorite ions, which are added to kill bacteria. Run-
by researchers from Virginia Tech found that in 10% of the 252 Flint off containing chloride salts used to treat icy roads in the winter may
between the oppositely charged ions. In chemistry we refer to this force as ionic bond-
homes tested the lead concentration exceeded 25 ppb, and in several have also contributed.
ing. We’ll go into the details of ionic bonding in Chapter 8, but for now it is sufficient to
homes the concentration exceeded 100 ppb. At the same time, a local In the face of mounting evidence that the lead in Flint’s drink-
pediatrician analyzed the results of infant blood tests and found that ing water was at unsafe levels, in October of 2015 the city switched
understand that the ionic bonds that hold sodium and chloride ionsthe together
percentage of are based
children with elevated concentrations of lead in back to water piped in from Detroit. Over a period of many months,
their bloodstream ( 7 50 ppb) had doubled from 2.4% in the 2013 to the circulation of properly treated water should restore the passivat-
on the electrostatic attraction between cations and anions. To separate4.9% the ions, we must
in 2015. ing layers inside the pipes. However, cleanup costs are expected to
The troubles began in April 2014 when the city began using the be in excess of $120 million and possibly much more, a large sum
overcome, or break, the ionic bonds between Na+ and Cl - , increasing the
nearbypotential energy,
Flint River as the natural source of its municipal water. Prior compared to the estimated $50,000 per year that it would have cost
to that, Flint obtained water from Detroit, where water taken from to treat the water with phosphates. More importantly, the damage
as illustrated in Figure 5.3. The energy to do this must come from someLakeother source. The
A Closer Look features reflect
Huron was treated before piping it to Flint. The source of the done to people who drank the contaminated water, especially chil-
lead was not the Flint River itself, but corrosion from lead pipes that dren, cannot be undone.
reverse process where ions separated by a large distance are allowed to come
are present together
in the undergroundto water distribution network. Why did Although the use of lead in plumbing has been banned in the
the change in water supply dramatically increase the leaching of lead United States since 1986, it is estimated that millions of kilometers of
news and discoveries in the field of

form ionic bonds lowers the potential energy and therefore releasesfrom
trates a fundamental principle of thermochemistry:
energy. This
the old pipes? Manyillus-
factors were at play, but basically they all buried lead pipe are still in use in America’s cities. Vigilance by water
came down to solubility considerations. treatment facilities and environmental protection agencies is needed
When water is properly treated, a passivation layer of insoluble to avoid a repeat of the tragedy in Flint.
chemistry, providing relevance and

Energy is released when chemical bonds are formed;
lead salts builds up on the inner surface of the lead pipes (Figure 17.21). Related Exercises: 17.107, 17.111
applications for students. End-of-

energy is consumed when chemical bonds are broken. Mineral passivation layer Metallic Pb(s)
(a) (b)
chapter questions give students O 32 O2 OCl2 OCl2 OCl2 Cl2 Cl2
OCl2
the chance to test whether they

Cl2 OCl2 OCl2
O P O
Protected Cl2 Unprotected
OCl2 Pipe Cl2 Pipe
O Cl2 OCl2
OCl2
understood the concept or not.
OCl2 O2
Phosphate ion
O2 O2 OCl−
M05_BROW7616_15_GE_C05.indd 221 28/05/21 10:13 AM
Phospate corrosion inhibitor helps
maintain a mineral passivation layer on the
inner surface of the pipe.
▲ Figure 17.21 Protected and unprotected lead pipes. (a) A lead pipe that has a protective
passivation layer, and (b) a lead pipe where the lack of a phosphate corrosion inhibitor
causes the passivation layer to dissolve and fall off, exposing the lead to oxidizing
agents such as O2 and OCl - .
M17_BROW7616_15_GE_C17.indd 849 04/06/21 13:39

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comprehensiveness, and again to the inner harmony or systematic
structure of the interest it embodies, it constitutes a genuine self-
existing individual whole of the kind which psychologists recognise
as a “self.” And again, in so far as my life exhibits determinate
character, so far do these systematic purposes or minor “selves”
form a larger system, also individual, which may be called my “total
self.” And both the many lesser “selves” and the larger “self” are real
in the same sense of the word. Neither exists merely in or for the
other; the wider or whole “self” is no mere collection or resultant or
product of the more special “selves,” nor are they again mere results
of a theoretical process of analysis and abstraction. In so far as they
are genuine systems at all, they are not mere “parts” of a whole, but
each is the expression, in a concrete conscious life, of the nature of
a larger whole from a special “point of view.” The whole, if not
equally in every part, is yet as a whole present in every part, and
precisely for that reason the category of part and whole is
inadequate to express their relation. Somewhat after this fashion we
must conceive the structure of any individual whole of lesser
individuals. Why, in spite of the analogy, it is desirable not to speak
of the whole of Reality as a “Self,” will be made clearer as we
proceed.[63]
§ 8. The view we have formulated is perhaps more closely akin to
Spinoza’s conception of the relation of the human mind to the
“infinite intellect of God,” than to any other historically famous theory.
According to Spinoza, the individual human mind is an “eternal mode
of consciousness which, taken together with all other such ‘modes,’
makes up the infinite intellect of God.” The meaning of the epithet
“eternal” we cannot, of course, enter into until we have discussed the
relation of the time-process to experience. The rest of the definition
pretty clearly coincides in its general sense with the view we have
tried to expound of the nature of the relation between the supreme
experience and its constituent experiences. For the “modes” of
Spinoza are definitely thought of as genuinely individual
manifestations of the nature of his ultimate reality, “substance” or
“God.” Their individuality and their infinite multiplicity is no result of
illusion or illegitimate abstraction. And, on the other hand,
“substance” itself is genuinely individual; it is no mere abstract name
for the common properties of a number of ultimately independent
things.
Most of the adverse criticism which Spinozism has met with, as far
at least as regards its doctrine of the nature of the human mind,
seems to be based on misapprehension about the first of these
points. From his use of the numerical category of whole and part to
express the relation between substance and its modes, Spinoza has
incorrectly been taken to be denying the fact of the genuine
individuality of the finite experience, and therefore to be declaring the
very existence of the finite to be mere baseless illusion. With his
doctrine as thus misinterpreted, ours has, of course, no similarity.
Nothing is explained away by calling it “illusion”; the “illusory” fact is
there in spite of the hard names you choose to bestow on it, and
demands explanation no less than any other fact. Our theory aims
not at dismissing finite individuality as illusion, but at ascertaining
what it means, what are its limits, and how it stands related to the
complete individual whole of experience which Spinoza calls the
infinitus intellectus Dei.[64]
The mention of Spinoza will no doubt suggest to the reader the
famous doctrine, which has played so large a part in the subsequent
development of philosophical Monism, of the double “aspects” or
“attributes” of Reality. It is from Spinoza that modern Monism has
learned the view that the mental and physical orders are related as
two parallel but distinct manifestations of a common underlying
reality, so that to every member of one order there corresponds a
determinate member of the other. The two are thus everywhere
inseparable and everywhere irreducible “parallel” expressions of a
nature which is neither mental nor physical. On this fundamental
point our theory, as will have been seen already, completely parts
company with Spinozism. That the nature of one and the same
common whole should be equally manifested in two entirely
irreducible forms, is a patent impossibility. Either the unity of the
whole or the absolute disparateness of its twin manifestations must
be surrendered if we are to think consistently. Hence we cannot
avoid asking in which of the two series the assumed common nature
is more adequately expressed. According as we answer this
question we shall find ourselves led in the end either to thorough-
going Materialism or to thorough-going Idealism. For our own part,
the perception that Reality is experience and nothing else has
already committed us to the view that both of the seemingly
disparate series must in the end be mental. Thus our doctrine may
be said to be much what Spinoza’s would be if the attribute of
“extension” were removed from his scheme, and the whole of Reality
identified with the “infinite intellect of God.”[65]
Consult further:—B. Bosanquet, Essentials of Logic, lect. 2; Logic,

vol. ii. chap. 7; F. H. Bradley, Appearance and Reality, chaps. 13, 14,
20; L. T. Hobhouse, Theory of Knowledge, pt. 3, chap. 6, “Reality as
a System”; H. Lotze, Metaphysic, bk. i. chap. 6 (Eng. trans., vol. i.
pp. 163-191); J. S. Mackenzie, Outlines of Metaphysic, bk. i. chaps.
2, 3; bk. iii. chap. 6; J. E. M‘Taggart, Studies in Hegelian Cosmology,
chap. 2.
54. This consideration obviously influenced Leibnitz. It is a much-
decried doctrine in his system that every “monad,” or simple real
thing, perceives nothing but its own internal states; there are no
“windows” through which one monad can behold the states of
another. It is easy to show that this doctrine leads to extremely far-
fetched and fantastic hypotheses to account for the apparent
communication between different monads, but not so easy to show
that Pluralism can afford to dispense with it. See in particular
Leibnitz’s New System of the Nature of Substances (Works, ed.
Erdmann, 124 ff.; ed. Gerhardt, iv. 477 ff.; Eng. trans. in Latta’s
Leibnis: the Monadology, etc., p. 297 ff.), especially §§ 13-17 and
Monadology, §§ 7-9, 51.
55. See for a recent treatment of this point in its bearing upon the
theory of volition and moral accountability, Mr. Bradley’s article on
“Mental Conflict and Imputation” in Mind for July 1902. There is
probably no part of Psychology which suffers more from an improper
over-simplification of awkward facts.
56. As the reader will readily collect from the preceding discussion,
I do not myself admit that they are justified. On the contrary, I should
hold that any consistent Pluralism must issue in what, if I held it
myself, I should feel compelled to describe as Atheism, and the
doctrine of blind chance as the arbiter of all things. In this matter I
should like to associate myself entirely with the emphatic protest of
Mr. Bradley, in Mind July 1902, p. 313, and with the remarks of Mr. B.
Russell in his work on The Philosophy of Leibniz, p. 172. I need not
say that I do not make these remarks for the purpose of
disparagement. By all means, if Atheism is the logical outcome of
consistent thinking, let us say so; what I object to is the constant
appeal to theistic beliefs on the part of metaphysicians who, so far as
I can see, ought to be atheists if they were in earnest with their own
position.
57. For a popular exemplification of the kind of appeal to religious
and ethical interests here objected to, see the first essay in Prof.
James’s Will to Believe. I have never been able to understand why
these appeals, if legitimate, should not be allowed in Psychology or
any other science as readily as in Metaphysics. Would Prof. James
regard it as a valid argument for the “timeless self” or the
Innervationsgefühle, that some men may be better or happier for
believing in them? Or again, is it in itself an objection to the study of
Ethics that certain persons may become both less moral and less
happy as a consequence of studying it?
58. N.B.—These possibilities, it must be remembered, though
numerically infinite, are assumed to be qualitatively determinate,
being constituted of the condition of conformity to the logical principle
of non-contradiction. Now there is no reason in the nature of a
plurality of independent things why this principle should be
recognised rather than not.
59. A medley of independent things would not even be really
“many.” For until you can count “first, second, third....” you have not
your Many. And nothing but the terms of a coherent connected series
can be counted. What you can count as many is shown by the very
fact of your ability to count it to have a common nature or ground
which permits of its orderly arrangement, and thus to be part of one
system. Compare Plato, Parmenides, 164, 165.
60. As Aristotle more than once says, a human hand, for instance,
is not when severed from the rest of the body a “hand” at all, except
ὁμωνύμως “equivocally,” any more than the “hand” of a statue is a
true hand. (I.e. it is only a “true hand” so long as it does the work of a
hand. Captain Cuttle’s hook probably deserved the name of “hand”
better than the severed member it replaced).
61. I shall attempt to show in a later chapter (Bk. IV. chap. 3) that,
in any useful signification of the term “self,” Reality is not a “self” nor
yet a mere community of “selves.”
62. Again, I must remind the reader that this recognition of the
teleological character of mind does not in the least preclude the
necessity for psychological analysis of mental states. Still less does
it require us to include in our analysis a volitional element as one
distinguishable aspect or component of the isolated mental state by
the side of others, such as the presentational and emotional aspects.
It might even be contended that a “tripartite” or three-aspect
Psychology commits the mistake of counting in the whole psychical
fact as one of its own components.
63. See infra, Bk. IV. chap. 3, where we shall find that the relation
of the individual self to a social whole probably furnishes a still better,
though not altogether satisfactory, illustration of our principle.
64. For Spinoza’s doctrine see especially Ethics, I. 15, 25; II. 11,
40; III. 6-9; V. 22, 23, with the explanations of any good exposition of
his system, such as that of Pollock or Joachim.
65. See further on the “Parallelistic” doctrine, Bk. IV. chap. 2.
CHAPTER III
REALITY AND ITS APPEARANCES—THE

DEGREES OF REALITY
§ 1. Reality being a single systematic whole, the nature of its constituent elements
is only finally intelligible in the light of the whole system. Hence each of its
“appearances,” if considered as a whole in itself, must be more or less
contradictory. § 2. But some “appearances” exhibit the structure of the whole
more adequately than others, and have therefore a higher degree of reality. §
3. This conception of degree of reality may be illustrated by comparison with
the successive orders of infinites and infinitesimals in Mathematics. It would
be the task of a complete Philosophy to assign the contents of the world to
their proper place in the series of “orders” of reality. § 4. In general any
subordinate whole is real in proportion as it is a self-contained whole. And it is
a self-contained whole in proportion as it is (a) comprehensive, (b) systematic;
that is, a thing is real just so far as it is truly individual. § 5. The two criteria of
individuality, though ultimately coincident, tend in particular cases to fall apart
for our insight, owing to the limitation of human knowledge. § 6. Ultimately
only the whole system of experience is completely individual, all other
individuality is approximate. § 7. In other words, the whole system of
experience is an infinite individual, all subordinate individuality is finite.
Comparison of this position with the doctrines of Leibnitz. § 8. Recapitulatory
statement of the relation of Reality to its Appearances.
§ 1. Reality, we have seen, is to be thought of as a systematic

whole forming a single individual experience, which is composed of
elements or constituents which are in their turn individual
experiences. In each of these constituents the nature of the whole
system manifests itself in a special way. Each of them contributes its
own peculiar content to the whole system, and as the suppression or
change of any one of them would alter the character of the whole, so
it is the nature of the whole which determines the character of each
of its constituents. In this way the whole and its constituent members
are in complete interpenetration and form a perfect systematic unity.
In the happy phrase of Leibnitz, we may say that each of the partial
experiences reflects the whole system from its own peculiar “point of
view.” If we call the completed system, as it is for itself, Reality par
excellence, we may appropriately speak of the partial experiences in
which its nature is diversely manifested as its Appearances. We
must remember, however, that to call them appearances is not to
stamp them as illusory or unreal. They will only be illusory or unreal
when we forget that they are one and all partial aspects or
manifestations of a whole of which none of them adequately
exhausts the contents.
When we forget this and treat any partial experience as though it
were the complete and adequate expression of the whole nature of
Reality,—in other words, when we try to apply to existence or the
universe as a whole conceptions which are only valid for special
aspects of existence,—we shall inevitably find ourselves led to
contradictory and absurd results. Each partial aspect of a total
system can only be ultimately understood by reference to the whole
to which it belongs, and hence any attempt to treat the part in
abstraction as itself a self-contained whole,—or, in other words, to
treat the concepts with which we have to work in dealing with some
special aspect of the world of experience as ultimately valid in their
application to the whole system,—is bound to issue in contradiction.
Again, just because our knowledge of the structure of the system as
a whole is so imperfect as it is, our insight into the structure of its
constituents is also necessarily limited. Hence it will commonly
happen that, even within the limits of their applicability, the special
concepts of our various sciences are not, when thought out, free
from internal contradiction. For instance, we are led to absurd results
when we try, as Materialism does, to interpret the whole system of
experience in terms of the concepts used in the purely physical
sciences; and again, even in their restricted use as physical
categories, these concepts seem incapable of being so defined as to
involve no element of contradiction.
In both these senses all Appearance implies an element of
contradiction; only for an insight which could take in at once the
whole system of existence would its details be completely coherent
and harmonious. But this does not alter the fact that, so far as our
insight into any part of the whole and its connection with other parts
is self-consistent, it does convey genuine, though imperfect,
knowledge of the whole. Though our detailed insight into the
structure of the whole may never reach the ideal of perfect self-
consistency, yet it may approximate to that ideal in different degrees,
at different stages, or with reference to different aspects. And the
closer the approximation the less the modification which our
knowledge would require to bring it into complete harmony with itself,
and the greater therefore the element of truth about Reality which it
contains.
In particular, we must carefully avoid falling into the mistake of
thinking of the Reality and the world of its appearances as though
they formed two distinct realms. In a systematic unity, we must
remember, the whole can exist only in so far as it expresses its
nature in the system of its parts, and again the parts can have no
being except as the whole expresses itself through them. To the
degree to which this condition is departed from by any of the types of
system familiar to us, those systems fall short of being perfectly
systematic. Reality, then, being a systematic whole, can have no
being apart from its appearance, though neither any of them taken
singly, nor yet the sum of them thought of collectively,[66] can exhaust
its contents. And though no appearance is the whole of Reality, in
none of them all does the whole Reality fail to manifest itself as a
whole. The whole is truly, as a whole, present in each and every
part, while yet no part is the whole.[67]
We may once more illustrate by an appeal to our own direct
experience. Consider the way in which we set to work to execute any
systematic scheme or purpose, e.g. the mastery of a particular
science or a particular business. We have in such a case a central
aim or purpose, which in the process of execution spreads out into a
connected system of subordinate ideas and interests welded into
one by the reference to a common end which pervades the whole.
The supreme or central aim is only realised in the successive
realisation of the subordinate stages; at the same time, while it is
what sustains all the members of the system, it has no existence
apart from them, though it is identical neither with any one of them
nor yet with their sum collectively considered.
§ 2. If our conviction that Reality is a single systematic unity
pervading and manifesting itself in lesser systematic unities is
correct, we shall expect to find that some of the lesser systematic
unities with which we have to deal in practical life and in the various
sciences exhibit more of the full character of the whole to which they
belong than others. The “points of view” from which each minor
system reflects the whole, though all true, need not be all equally
true. Though the whole, in a genuine system, must be present as a
whole in every part, it need not be equally present in all; it may well
not be “as full, as perfect in a hair as heart.” To take a concrete
example, a cluster of mass-particles, a machine, a living organism,
and a human mind engaged in the conscious systematic pursuit of
truth, are all to some degree or other systematic unities, and all to
some degree, therefore, repeat the structure of the universal whole
to which they all belong. But it does not follow that all manifest the
structure of that whole with equal adequacy and fulness. Indeed, any
philosophy which admits development as a genuine feature of the
world-process must maintain that they do not, that the nature of the
whole system of Reality is exhibited with infinitely greater adequacy
and clearness in the working of the conscious mind than in the
changes of configuration of the system of mass-particles or even the
vital processes of the physical organism.
In practical life, too, one of our most ineradicable convictions is
that there are degrees of worth which coincide with degrees of the
adequacy with which partial systems exhibit the nature of the larger
wholes to which they belong. For instance, among the different
mental systems which may be called my partial “selves,” there are
some which I call “truer” than others, on the ground that they more
fully reveal my whole character as an individual human being. My
whole character undoubtedly appears in and determines all the
subordinate systems which make up my mental life. Each of them is
the whole character in a special aspect, or as reacting upon a
special system of suggestions, but some of them contain the whole
in a more developed and explicit form than others. I am in one sense
myself wherever I may be and whatever I may be doing, and yet I
am “more myself” in health than in sickness, in the free pursuit of
self-chosen studies than in the forced discharge of uncongenial
tasks imposed on me by the necessity of earning an income.
We ought, then, to be prepared to find the same state of things
universally in the relation of Reality to its Appearances. In a world
where “higher” and “lower,” “more” and “less” true have a meaning,
some of the lesser systems in which the nature of the whole is
expressed must be fuller and more adequate representations of that
nature than others. This is as much as to say that it would require
comparatively little transformation of some of the partial systems
recognised by our knowledge to show how the common nature of the
whole system of Reality is expressed in them; in other cases the
amount of transformation required to show how the whole repeats
itself in the part would be much more extensive. To take a single
instance, if our preceding analysis of the general nature of Reality is
sound, we can see much more clearly how that nature reappears in
the structure of a human mind than how it is exhibited in what we call
a physical thing, and we may therefore say the human mind
expresses the fundamental character of the whole system much
more fully and adequately than physical nature, as it exists for our
apprehension. More briefly, the same thought may be expressed by
saying that Reality has degrees, and that the forms of Appearance in
which its common nature is most fully and clearly manifested have
the highest degrees of reality.
§ 3. This conception of Reality as capable of degrees may at first
seem paradoxical. How can anything, it will be asked, be more or
less “real” than anything else? Must not anything either be entirely
real or not real at all? But the same difficulty might be raised about
the recognition of degree in other cases where its validity is now
universally admitted. Thus to some minds it has appeared that there
can be no degrees of the infinite or the infinitesimal; all infinites, and
again all zeros, have been declared to be manifestly equal. Yet it
hardly seems possible to escape the conclusion that the concept of
successive orders of infinitely great, and again of infinitely small,
magnitudes is not only intelligible but absolutely necessary if our
thought on quantitative subjects is to be consistent (When the sides
of a rectangle, for instance, become infinitely great or infinitely small
relatively to whatever is our standard of comparison, it still remains a
rectangle, and its area therefore is still determined by the product of
its sides, and is therefore infinitely great or small, as the case may
be, in relation not only to our original standard but to the sides
themselves.[68]) What is in one sense not a matter of degree, may yet
in another not only admit but positively require the distinction of
degrees of more and less. And this is precisely the case with Reality
as it manifests itself in its various appearances. In the sense that it is
the same single experience-system which appears as a whole and in
its whole nature in every one of the subordinate experience-systems,
they are all alike real, and each is as indispensable as every other to
the existence of the whole. In the sense that the whole is more
explicitly present in one than in another, there is an infinity of
possible degrees of reality and unreality. We should be justified in
borrowing a term from mathematical science to mark this double
relation of the appearances to their Reality, and speaking of them as
successive orders of Reality. And we might then say that it is one of
the principal problems of a complete Philosophy to ascertain and
arrange in their proper sequence, as far as the limitations of our
knowledge permit, the orders of Reality.
§ 4. Such a task as this could only be carried out by an intelligence
equally at home in metaphysical analysis and in the results of the
special sciences, and would form the proper work of applied
Metaphysics. In a discussion of general metaphysical principles it is
sufficient to indicate the general nature of the criteria by which the
degree of reality exhibited by any special partial system must be
determined. Now, this general nature has been already made fairly
clear by the foregoing inquiry into the unity of Reality. Reality, we
have seen, is one in the sense of being an individual self-contained
whole of experience. And its individuality means that it is the
systematic embodiment of a single coherent structure in a plurality of
elements or parts, which depend for their whole character upon the
fact that they are the embodiment of precisely this structure. If this is
so, we may say that degrees of reality mean the same thing as
degrees of individuality, and that a thing is real precisely to the same
extent to which it is truly individual.
A thing, that is, no matter of what kind, is really what it appears to
be, just in so far as the thing, as it appears for our knowledge, is
itself a self-contained and therefore unique systematic whole. Or, in
other words, just in so far as what we recognise as one thing shows
itself, in the face of philosophical criticism and analysis, to be a self-
contained systematic whole, so far are we truly apprehending that
thing as a manifestation of the fundamental character of Reality, of
seeing it as it really is, and so far does our knowledge give us
genuine Reality. On the other hand, just so far as what at first
seemed a self-contained whole is discovered by subsequent
analysis not to be so, so far have we failed to see the facts in their
true place in the single whole of Reality, and so far is our knowledge
affected with error and unreality. Or, again, the more truly anything is
a self-contained individual whole, the higher its place in the scale of
Reality.
When we ask what are the marks by which one thing may be
shown to be more of a true individual whole than another, we shall
find that they may be reduced to two, both of which we can easily
see to be in principle the same, though, owing to the limitations of
our insight, they do not always appear to coincide in a given case.
One thing is ceteris paribus more truly an individual whole than
another: (1) when the wealth of detailed content it embraces is
greater; (2) when the completeness of the unity with which it
embraces that detail is greater. Or, the degree of individuality
possessed by any system depends: (1) on its comprehensiveness;
(2) on its internal systematisation. The more a thing includes of
existence and the more harmoniously it includes it, the more
individual it is.
It is manifest, of course, that these two characteristics of a
systematic whole are mutually interdependent. For, precisely
because all Reality is ultimately a single coherent system, the more
there is outside any partial system the greater must be the
dependence of its constituents for their character upon their
connection with reality outside, and the less capable must the
system be of complete explanation from within itself. The more the
partial system embraces, the less will its constituents be determined
by relation to anything outside itself, and the more completely will its
organisation be explicable by reference to its own internal principle
of structure. That is, the greater the comprehensiveness of the
system, the completer in general will be its internal coherence. And,
conversely, the more completely the working of the whole system in
its details is explicable from within as the expression of a single
principle of internal structure, the less must be the dependence of its
contents on any external reality; and therefore, seeing that all reality
is ultimately interconnected, the less must be the extent of what lies
outside the system in question. That is, the greater the internal unity,
the greater in general the comprehensiveness of the system. Thus
ultimately the two criteria of individuality coincide.
§ 5. In practice, however, it constantly happens, as a consequence
of the fragmentary way in which our experiences come to us, that
comprehensiveness and thorough-going systematic unity seem to be
opposed to one another. Thus we can see, as a general principle,
that the systematic organisation of knowledge depends upon its
extent. The wider our knowledge, the greater on the whole the
degree to which it exhibits organic structure; the systematisation of
science and its extension ultimately go together. Yet at any one
moment in the development of knowledge the recognition of fresh
truths may necessitate a temporary introduction of disorganisation
and discrepancy among the accepted principles of science. Thus in
the history of geometry the recognised principles of the science were
temporarily disorganised by the admission of incommensurable
magnitudes which was forced upon the early Greek mathematicians
by the discovery that the side and diagonal of a square have no
common measure, and the discrepancy was only removed when it
became possible to revise the principles of the theory of numbers
itself. So again at the present day there is a real danger that
premature anxiety to give the study of Psychology precise
systematic character by an exact definition of its subject and its
relation to the various physical and mental sciences, may stand in
the way of the extension of our knowledge of the facts of psychical
life. We have often to purchase an important extension of knowledge
at the cost of temporary confusion of principles, and to be content to
wait for the future readjustment of facts to principles in the course of
subsequent progress.
So in our moral life we judge one man’s character more individual
than another’s, either on the ground of the superior breadth of his
interests, or of the superior consistency with which his interests are
wrought into a self-consistent whole. The man of many interests has
so far a truer individuality than the man of few, and again the man of
steady purpose than the man whose energies are dissipated in
seemingly conflicting pursuits. But the two criteria do not always, for
our insight, coincide. An increase in variety and breadth of interests
may be accompanied by a diminution in coherency of aim, and a
gain in coherency of aim appears often to be bought by
concentration upon a few special objects. And we should find it hard
or impossible to decide, where the two aspects of individuality
appear to fall thus apart, whether the man of many interests and
relatively dissipated energies, or the man of few interests and
intense concentration upon them, exhibits the higher individuality.
For what looked like self-dissipation in the pursuit of disconnected
objects might really be the systematic pursuit of a consistent purpose
too wide to be clearly apprehended in its unity either by
contemporary observers or by the actor himself, yet apparent
enough to the reflective historian reading the significance of a life by
its whole effect upon society, and what seemed at the time the single
object of the man of one idea might similarly be found in the light of
the sequel to be the hasty combination of radically inconsistent aims.
[69]
Such reflections, however, only show that our limited insight is

insufficient to assign to every appearance with certainty its own
place in the ordered system of appearances through which the single
Reality expresses itself. They do not touch our general position, that
where comprehensiveness and harmony can be seen to go together,
we are justified in using them as the measure of the individuality and
therefore of the reality of the partial system in which we discover
them. It is on such grounds, for instance, that we may safely
pronounce that an organism, which is the living unity of its members,
is more individual and therefore a higher reality that a mere
aggregate of pre-existing units, in which the nature of the parts is
wholly or mainly independent of the structure of the whole; and
again, that a mind consciously and systematically pursuing a
coherent self-chosen system of ends is more individual, and
therefore again a higher reality, than an organism reacting according
to the temporary character of its environment or its momentary
internal condition in ways which form no systematic execution of a
connected scheme of ends. And it is clear that, if only on this ground,
we should have to say that we are nearer the truth in thinking of the
individual whole of complete Reality as an organism than in thinking
of it as an aggregate, and nearer the truth still in thinking of it as a
mind. Similarly in our judgments upon our own lives and character.
So far as one life possesses more breadth and again more
conscious unity of aim than another, so far it is more truly individual,
and therefore a more adequate type of complete reality. Just so far
as I am individual, I am truly real. And just so far as I fall short of
systematic individuality, whether from the poverty of my interests or
their mutual incompatibility, the appearance of unity in my life is
illusory, and I must be pronounced an unreal appearance.
At this point we may observe our metaphysical criterion of reality
coincides with our ethical criterion of moral worth. For in morality too
we esteem one life worthier than another, either for the superior
comprehensiveness of its ideals or for the thoroughness with which
they are wrought into a harmonious whole of coherent purpose. The
better man is either the man of the wider ideal, or again the man of
completer and purer self-devotion to his ideal. And thus for Morality
the measure of our worth, as for Metaphysics the measure of our
reality, lies in our individuality. And for Morality no less than for
Metaphysics individuality is pre-eminently a thing of degrees. In both
cases, again, the same difficulty besets us as soon as we attempt to
use our criterion for application to particular cases. Its two aspects
fall apart; it is not always the more comprehensive ideal which is
served with the higher fidelity of purpose. And so our actual moral
judgments on the worth of particular men, like our metaphysical
judgments on the order of reality to which particular things belong,
are often necessarily uncertain and fluctuating. We rate one man
morally high for the comprehensive rationality of his ideals, though
he suffers from a lack of concentrated energy, another for the steady
and earnest purpose with which he follows what we perhaps deplore
as a contracted ideal.
§ 6. One more point of supreme importance concerning the
relation of the lesser individuals to the perfect individual which is the
absolute whole of Reality. Now that we have learned what is meant
by degrees of individuality, we can see that there can, in the last
resort, be only one perfect and complete individual, the whole of
Reality itself, and that the subordinate individuals can never be
wholly and entirely individual in themselves. For to be a complete
individual would be, as we have seen, to be a whole system
absolutely self-contained and explicable solely by reference to
internal structure. Whatever requires, for the full understanding of its
systematic character, reference to existence outside itself, we have
seen, must also, so long as it is considered apart from the rest of
existence, be internally wanting in complete systematic harmony,
and thus must fall doubly short of the ideal of individuality.
And precisely because the whole of experience is a single system,
no lesser system within the whole is entirely explicable in terms of its
own internal structure. For a full understanding of the nature of the
lesser system, and of the way in which it manifests a common
character through the variety of its elements, you have always, in the
last resort, to go outside the system itself, and take into account its
relation to the rest of the whole system of existence. And for that
very reason no subordinate individual, considered in itself, is a
completely coherent self-determined whole. For a limited knowledge
like our own, which has in the main to deal with subordinate systems
as we find them, and without that complete understanding of the
whole structure of Reality which would enable us to see their precise
place in the whole, the subordinate systems themselves, when
closely scanned by a resolute philosophical analysis, will inevitably
exhibit some degree of discrepancy and want of systematic unity.
Consider, for instance, such a system as is formed by the life-work
of a man of marked “individuality.” On the whole, the life of such a
man may fairly be said to be the systematic working out of a
consistent scheme of purposes. But this is, after all, only
approximately the truth. It is not the case that the nature of the
central or dominant purpose of the scheme is of itself enough to
determine the nature and order of the successive stages by which it
finds expression. We have to take into account factors in the man’s
“heredity,” and again in his social and physical environment which
form no part of the nature of his central dominant ideal and yet
influence the manner of its fulfilment. We are thus thrown back for
our full understanding of the “individual” system in question upon
circumstances which are, so far as that system is concerned,
“accidental,” i.e. which are equally with itself part of the whole
system of experienced fact, without our being able to see how it and
they form a wider coherent whole. The subordinate individual,
because incapable of explication solely from within, is in the end only
approximately “individual,” and we therefore fall into contradictions
whenever we isolate it from the rest of Reality and treat it as
absolutely individual and self-contained.
In dealing with subordinate wholes, we always, if we go far
enough, come to a point where we have to recognise their
dependence upon a realm of external fact which our knowledge fails
to see in its systematic relation with them, and has therefore to treat
as accidental or as an ultimate “collocation.” This is why, as has
already been said, full knowledge of our own aims and interests as a
genuine systematic whole would coincide with complete insight into
the structure of the whole universe. We may invert the sentiment of a
hackneyed verse, and say with equal truth that until you know what
God and man is, you cannot really know what the “flower in the
crannied wall” is. This is as much as to say that every appearance
must involve some element of contradiction for our philosophical
analysis precisely because we cannot in the end see fully how any
appearance is related to the whole of Reality. But we must carefully
remember that if appearances, taken by themselves, are
contradictory, this is not because they are appearances, but
because, as so taken, they are all to some extent mere appearance.
The conclusion of the whole matter is, that the individuality of
anything less than the ultimate whole of being is a matter of degree
and approximation. We shall be equally in error if we assume that
because no subordinate system is fully individual, some are not
more individual and therefore more real than others or if we declare
that, because whatever is real at all must be in its degree individual,
therefore every element of Reality is completely real in its isolation.
The first error is that of a one-sided Monism, the second that of an
equally one-sided Pluralism.
Once more we may note a point of coincidence between our
general metaphysical theory of individuality and our personal
experience as moral agents. In so far as each of us is truly an
individual, his aims and ends form a system with an internal unity
pervading its structure, and therefore capable of progressive
realisation as a system. Yet again, because each of us is less than
the whole of Reality, or, what is the same thing, because the
systematic unity of our inner life is never complete, and our totality of
interests relations, and aspirations never a completely self-contained
ordered whole, our ideals will always be found to contain aspects
which will not fully harmonise, elements which fall outside such a
unity of structure as it is possible to effect within the limit of our
single personality. And thus all our victories contain an inseparable
element of defeat. The defeated aspects of the self may no doubt,
and in general do, in proportion to the degree of our individuality,
belong to the “lower” and relatively more “untrue” self, yet they are
elements in the whole self, and their suppression is a genuine if
necessary self-suppression. There is a sense in which an aspect of
failure is an inevitable feature in the life of every subordinate and
therefore imperfect individual. Human life, even in the millennium, as
we rightly feel, would not be human life if the note of sadness were
altogether absent from it. Only in the single experience of the
absolute whole can the discordant notes be finally resolved into a
faultless harmony.
§ 7. Technically, we may mark the distinction between complete
and approximate individuality by saying that the absolute whole is an
infinite individual, whereas all lesser wholes are but finite individuals.
And here it is important to note carefully the true meaning of these
often much-abused terms. The infinite must not be confounded with
the indefinite or unfinished. Its fundamental property is not the
merely negative one of having no end or “last term,” but the positive
one of having an internal structure which is the harmonious and
complete expression of a single self-consistent principle. The finite,
again, is finite not primarily merely because it has a “last term,” i.e.
because there is something else outside it, but because its “last
term” is arbitrarily determined, i.e. determined by something other
than the principles of its internal structure. In other words, the
essential defect of the finite is that it is not solely determined by its
own structural principle.
We can see this even in the simple case of the familiar “infinite
series” of arithmetic and algebra. Such a series as 1, 1/2, 1/4 ... is
“infinite” not merely because you never come to the last term, but
because its character is determined from within, solely by the
principle according to which each term is derived from the one
before it; that the series has no end is a simple consequence of this
positive property of self-determination. But suppose I take n terms of
this series and no more, where n is a specified number, the resulting
series is now finite, not primarily because there are more terms of
the same kind outside it, but because the number of terms to be
taken is not prescribed by the law of formation of the series, but fixed
with reference to some object independent of the principle of the
series itself. In other words, only the infinite is in the full sense of the
words a completely self-determined whole. The finite is the
imperfect, not primarily because there is something outside it, but
because its contents are not solely prescribed by the principle of
structure which they embody. I, for instance, am a finite being, not
principally or merely because there are other men in the world, but
because my ideas and purposes are not a fully coherent systematic
whole in themselves.[70]
The view we have taken of individuality and the distinction
between finite and infinite individuality is closely akin to some of the
most fundamental ideas in the philosophy of Leibnitz. It was the
doctrine of Leibnitz that each of his monads “represented” the nature
of the whole system of existence, i.e. repeated the structure of the
whole in its own special structure, from a particular “point of view.”
According to the fulness and clearness of the “representation,” i.e.
the adequacy with which the structure of the monad repeated the
structure of the whole system, the monads were classed as higher or
lower in the scale of existence. The clearer a monad’s representation
of the whole within itself, the greater the monad’s “activity”; the more
confused the representation, the greater its “passivity.” It followed
that, inasmuch as no created monad fully exhibits the systematic
structure of the whole of Reality within itself, every one contains
some element of “passivity,” and that to be “passive” primarily means
not to be affected by extraneous influences, but to contain internal
“confusion.”

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Chemistry: The Central Science,

Expanded Edition, 15th Global Edition

The Central Science

The Central Science

Fifteenth Global Edition

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SI unit: Kelvin (K)

°C = -95 (°F - 32°)

SI unit: Pascal (Pa)

SI unit: cubic meter (m3)

1 in3 = 16.4 cm3

Color Chart for Common Elements

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and Associated Companies throughout the world

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ISBN 10: 1-292-40876-6

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

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ANSWERS TO SELECTED EXERCISES 1518 GLOSSARY 1589

ANSWERS TO GO FIGURE 1573 PHOTO AND ART CREDITS 1613

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PRACTICE EXERCISES 1579 INDEX 1615

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1 Introduction: 2.4 Atomic Weights 101

Matter, Energy, 2.5 The Periodic Table 104

1.5 Units of Measurement 62 Chapter Summary and Key Terms 127

3 Chemical Reactions and

Chemistry Put to Work Chemistry and the

2 Atoms, Molecules, Decomposition, and Combustion 139

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3.4  vogadro’s Number and the Mole;

Solution 175 5.6 Hess’s Law 244

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9 Molecular Geometry and 10.4 The Ideal Gas Equation 483

9.1 Molecular Shapes 412 10.5  as Mixtures and Partial

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12 Solids and Modern

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14.7 Catalysis 695

15 Chemical Equilibrium 715

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17.4 Solubility Equilibria 837

18 Chemistry of the Temperature Variation of Entropy 923 Standard

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20.3 Voltaic Cells 959 21.6  adiation in the Environment

21 Nuclear Chemistry 1007

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22.10 The Other Group 14 Elements:

23 Transition Metals 24.7 Reactions of Alkanes 1172

and Coordination Free-Radical Reactions and Electron Movement 1175

Chemistry and Life Chiral Drugs 1199

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26 Chemistry of Alkenes and 27.6  aloalkanes to Alkenes:

Isomerism in Alkenes—The E, Z System 1219 Chemistry and Life Vitamin D 1256

Chemistry and Life Terpenes and Isoprene 1216

27 Alcohols, Haloalkanes, Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1327

27.1  lcohols: Structure, Properties, and

1 Introduction: 2.4 Atomic Weights 101

3 Chemical Reactions and

2 Atoms, Molecules, Decomposition, and Combustion 139

3.4 vogadro’s Number and the Mole;

9 Molecular Geometry and 10.4 The Ideal Gas Equation 483

9.1 Molecular Shapes 412 10.5 as Mixtures and Partial

12 Solids and Modern

18 Chemistry of the Temperature Variation of Entropy 923 Standard

20.3 Voltaic Cells 959 21.6 adiation in the Environment

22.10 The Other Group 14 Elements:

23 Transition Metals 24.7 Reactions of Alkanes 1172

26 Chemistry of Alkenes and 27.6 aloalkanes to Alkenes:

27 Alcohols, Haloalkanes, Chapter Summary and Key Terms 1327

27.1 lcohols: Structure, Properties, and

29 Carboxylic Acids and

30 Benzene and its 32.2

31 Nitrogen-Containing A Mathematical Operations 1503