alienation - describes the estrangement of
people from aspects of their human
nature; consequence of living in a
society stratified into social classes
alien - a person who owes allegiance to
another country; a non-citizen
amnesty - a pardon extended by the
government to a group or class of
persons, usually for a political
offense
anarchism - an ideology that is based on the
belief that government and laws are
not necessary
anthropology - the study of humans, past
and present
appoint - to select someone to perform the
functions and exercise the powers of
a given office
appointment - is the selection by the
proper authority of an individual
who is to exercise the powers and
functions of a given office.
barangay - smallest administrative division
of the government
bill - proposed legislation under
consideration by a legislature
capitalism - an economic system that
focuses on corporate or private
ownership of capital goods; under
capitalism, the prices, production,
and distribution of goods are driven
by free market competition; also,
individuals can acquire land and
wealth in a capitalist system
chief executive - head of state as well as
head of government
cohesion - the action or fact of forming a
united whole
communism - may be described as a socio-
economic structure which aims to
establish a society that is classless,
egalitarian, and stateless
component city - geographically part of a
province and is under the
administrative jurisdiction of a
province
consent - implies freedom of choice
conservatism - defined by the desire to
preserve institutions and is reflected
in a resistance to, or at least
suspicion of, change
constituents - the people that elected
politicians or public officials
represent
constitution - a set of fundamental
principles or established precedents
according to which a state or other
organization is governed; considered
as the highest law of the land
contract - a voluntary agreement between
two or more parties that is
enforceable by law as a binding legal
agreement
corruption - a form of dishonest or
unethical conduct by a person
entrusted with a position of
authority, often to acquire personal
benefit; abuse of power
dual allegiance - refers to the situation in
which a person simultaneously
owes, by some positive act, loyalty
to two or more states
due process - simply requires that there be
notice and an opportunity to be
heard and a judgment based on the
evidence presented by the parties
and on the applicable law
economics - the field of knowledge
concerned with the production,
distribution, and consumption of
goods and services
elections - the process by which voters in a
country select the officials who will
exercise the powers of government
for a period fixed by law
eminent domain - the inherent right of the
state (and of those entities to which
the power has been lawfully
delegated) to condemn private
property to public use upon
payment of just compensation
equality - situation in which all people
within a specific society or group
have the same status in certain
respects, often including civil rights,
freedom of speech, property rights,
and equal access to social goods and
services
ethical socialism - promotes an essentially
moral critique of capitalism
ethnic diversity - situation where members
of various interacting ethnic groups
not harmoniously; exists when
various ethnic live together
symbiotically, if groups comprise a
nation
fascism - a political ideology which adheres
to the maxim of strength through
unity and desires an organically
unified national community
feminism - a range of political movements,
ideologies, and social movements
that shares a common goal: to
define, establish, and achieve equal
political, economic, personal, and
social rights for women
geography - the study of places and the
relationships between people and
their environments
geopolitics - involves the study of the
influence of factors such as
population pressures, scarcity of raw
materials, location and size of a
country relative to others, and
national wealth, on domestic
policies, politics, and the conduct of
foreign affairs
governance - refers to all processes of
governing, whether undertaken by a
government, market or network,
whether over a family, tribe, formal
or informal organization or territory
and whether through laws, norms,
power or language
governing - adjective meaning having the
power to rule, or to control and
direct the actions of a political unit
or organization
hierarchy - a system or organization in
which people or groups are ranked
one above the other according to
status or authority
history - the study of past events
ideology - a set of opinions or beliefs of a
group or an individual
immigrant - a person who moves into a
country for the purpose of
permanent residence
impeachment - a formal process in which
an official is accused of unlawful
activity, the outcome of which,
depending on the country, may
include the removal of that official
from office as well as criminal or civil
punishment
in flagrante delicto - legal term used to
indicate that a criminal has been
caught in the act
institution - an established manner or
means of conducting an activity that
is widely accepted throughout
society
judicial power - power to resolve legal
disputes which is vested in the
Supreme Court and the lower courts
judicial review - pertains to the mandate of
the courts to decide on the validity
of executive and legislative acts in
the light of their conformity with the
Constitution
jurisdiction - is defined as the power of the
courts to take cognizance of and
decide cases
jus sanguinis - is the principle of citizenship
based on blood relations
jus soli - is the principle of citizenship based
on the place of birth
just compensation - defined as the full and
fair equivalent of the property taken
from its owner by the expropriator
law - a system of rules that are enforced
through social institutions to govern
behavior
legal standing - is a personal and substantial
interest in a case such that the party
has sustained or will sustain direct
injury as a result of the
governmental act that is being
challenged; the right to sue
liberalism - is a political ideology that gives
importance to the fulfillment of the
individual through the satisfaction of
his or her interests
local government unit - a political
subdivision of a nation or state
which is constituted by law and has
substantial control of local affairs
Marxism - a method of socioeconomic
analysis that analyzes class relations
and societal conflict using a
materialist interpretation of
historical development and a
dialectical view of social
transformation
military governor - title used for a military
officer who was given governmental
control over conquered territory
nation - refers to a large group of
individuals who believe that they
belong together because they share
a common identity
norms - informal understandings that
govern individual behavior in society
Ombudsman - has disciplinary authority
over all elective and appointive
officials of the government and its
subdivisions, instrumentalities and
 agencies, including members of the
cabinet, local government,
government-owned or controlled
corporations and their subsidiaries,
except over officials who may be
removed only by impeachment or
over members of Congress, and the
Judiciary
pardon - as an act of benevolence,
proceeding from the power
entrusted with the execution of the
laws, which exempts the individual,
on whom it is granted, from the
punishment the law inflicts for a
crime he or she has committed
police power - defined as the power
inherent in the state to regulate
liberty and property for the
promotion of the general welfare.
political economy - the interplay between
economics, law, and politics
political party - an organized group of
citizens advocating an ideology or
platform, principles, and policies for
the general conduct of government
and which, as the most immediate
means of ensuring their adoption,
regularly nominates and supports
some of its leaders and members as
candidates for public office
political science - a social science that deals
with systems of government and the
analysis of political activity and
political behavior
politician - a person who is professionally
involved in politics, especially as a
holder of or a candidate for an
elected office
politics - concerned with the authoritative
decision-making and action by the
government, i.e. "who gets what,
when, and how" according to
Laswell
pragmatism - a philosophical movement
that includes those who claim that
an ideology or proposition is true if
it works satisfactorily; that the
meaning of a proposition is to be
found in the practical consequences
of accepting it, and that impractical
ideas are to be rejected
procedural law - also known as adjective or
remedial law; constitutes the set of
rules of proceedings in a legal
system
propaganda - often used in a negative
sense, especially for politicians who
make false claims to get elected or
spread rumors to get their way
proportional system - applies the principle
that parties should be awarded seats
in direct proportion to their votes
psychology - the study of behavior and
mind, embracing all aspects of
human experience
quasi-judicial proceedings - involve the
proceedings of administrative bodies
in deciding disputes involving the
law they are tasked to implement
referendum - a political process where
voters either approve or reject
legislation through an election called
for that purpose
reformist socialism - takes the middle road
by adopting consent,
 constitutionalism, and party
competition which are basic liberal
democratic principles
regional trial courts - exercise jurisdiction
over all civil actions incapable of
pecuniary estimation, actions
involving the contract of marriage
and marital relations, cases
previously handled by the Juvenile
and Domestic Relations Court and
the Court of Agrarian Relations, and
others
regulations - an abstract concept of
management of complex systems
according to a set of rules and
trends
regulatory quality - captures the
perceptions of the ability of the
government to formulate and
implement sound policies and
regulations that permit and promote
private sector development
reprieve - an order that suspends the
imposition of the penalty
revolutionary socialism - takes the position
that socialism can only prevail if the
existing political and social system is
overthrown by revolution
rule of law - the legal principle that law
should govern a country, as opposed
to being governed by arbitrary
decisions of individual government
officials
scientific socialism - an analysis of historical
and social development in society
sectoral organization - refers to a group of
citizens or a coalition of groups
socialism - an ideology that stands in
opposition to capitalism and
proposes an alternative which is
more humane and equitable
social movements - defined as a particular
form of collective behavior wherein
the impetus to act comes from the
attitudes and aspirations of its
members
sociology - the study of social behavior or
society, including its origins,
development, organization,
networks, and institutions
sovereignty - the inherent power of the
state to impose its will on its people,
free from outside control
state - an organized political community
living under a single system of
government
subprovinces - political entities too large in
territory to be in one municipality
and too small in population or
income to qualify as a province
substantive law - provides for the rights and
duties of persons in relation to other
persons as well as to the state, and
includes the offenses for which
individuals who are alleged of having
committed them can be prosecuted
Supreme Court - the highest court in the
Philippines
tax - a financial charge or other levy
imposed upon a taxpayer by a state
or the functional equivalent of a
state to fund various public
expenditures
taxation - the power of the state to assess
and collect taxes
territory - an area of land under the
jurisdiction of a ruler or state.
topography - a detailed map of the surface
features of land
treason - committed by a citizen who levies
war against his country or adheres
to the country's enemies, giving
them aid or comfort
treaty - an international agreement
concluded between states in written
form and governed by international
law, whether embodied in a single
instrument or in two or more related
instruments and whatever its
particular designation
veto - power of a president or governor to
reject a bill proposed by a legislature
by refusing to sign it into law
writ - a written order issued by a court
mandating a concerned party to
perform or refrain from performing
a certain act
writ of habeas corpus - a judicial process
which inquires into all manner of
involuntary restraint and serves to
relieve a person therefrom if such
restraint is illegal; the writ of habeas
corpus extends to all cases of illegal
confinement or detention by which
any person is deprived of his or her
liberty, or by which the rightful
custody of any person is withheld
from the person entitled to it

KEY POINTS
• David Easton defines politics as "human
activity concerned with the authoritative
decision- making and action by the
government that results in an authoritative
allocation of values for society." By contrast,
Harold Lasswell states that politics is
concerned with "who gets what, when, and
how."
• Although viewed differently by people,
politics generally involves the public issues
that give rise to conflict.
• Political science is a social science
concerned chiefly with the description and
analysis of political and governmental
institutions and processes.
• Studying politics may involve the study of
concepts that are universal in politics, such
as power, justice, and force; or the study of
the institutions and processes of politics.
• Political science can be immensely
appreciated by analyzing its relationship
with various related disciplines, such as
history, economics, sociology, anthropology,
psychology, geography, and law, among
others.
• Governance can be broadly defined as the
exercise of sovereign authority; in particular,
the exercise of authoritative direction or
control over a particular political unit or
organization.
• Recognizing the essential link between
politics and governance will provide both
government officials and citizens a clear
idea of the type of political activity essential
for good governance.
• The term "ideology" was conceived in
1796 by the French philosopher Destutt de
Tracy to refer to a new science that
endeavored to uncover the origins of
conscious thought and ideas.
• Political ideology pertains to a coherent
set of ideas that provides a basis for
organized polit- ical action.
• Political ideologies are both descriptive
and prescriptive; they provide lenses for
positive and normative analysis of socio-
political conditions.
• Among the different political ideologies
are liberalism, conservatism, socialism,
anarchism, communism, Marxism, fascism,
and feminism.
• The political ideology of a state inevitably
shapes the configuration of the political
community because the form of
government reflects the ideals advocated by
the political ideology.
• The ideologies espoused by the
succession of Philippine presidents have
had varying effects on the social and
political lives of Filipinos.
• Power is manifested in the ability to do
something that is desired and can be sensed
when Individuals can direct the actions of
others in a society.
• The exercise of power may take the form
of decision-making, agenda setting, or
thought control.
• The state's inherent powers include police
power, power of eminent domain, and
power of taxation.
• Police power is the power inherent in the
state to regulate liberty and property for the
promotion of the general welfare.
• Eminent domain is the inherent right of
the state to condemn private property to
public use upon payment of just
compensation.
• Taxation is the power of the state to
assess and collect taxes.
• The power exercised by political leaders
emanates from the authority conferred to
them by the law.
• Nation refers to a large group of
individuals who believe that they belong
together because the share a common
identity as a people.
• The state is a people organized by law
within a definite territory, possessing both
internal and external sovereignty.
• Global economy refers to the growing
trend for economic activity to operate
between countries and even beyond them.
• Developed states have adopted new
policies to gain the upper hand in economic
competitiveness.
• The weak structures of developing
countries render them vulnerable to
external economic forces.
• Even before the arrival and colonization of
the Spaniards, the Philippines already had a
civilization and its own system of
government (barangay).
• From 1565 to the outbreak of the
Philippine Revolution, the Philippines was
ruled by the King of Spain and administered
by the Council of the Indies.
• Centuries of Spanish abuses led Filipinos
to pursue reforms initially, through the
Propaganda Movement; and eventually,
independence, through the Katipunan.
• The Malolos Constitution established a
government intended to be popular,
representative, and responsible.
• The First Philippine Republic was
inaugurated on January 23, 1899 with
Emilio Aguinaldo as president.
• The Americans took over control of the
Philippines after the Filipino-American War
and the president of the US administered
the country initially through the military,
which was eventually replaced by a civilian
government.
• The campaign for Philippine
independence from the US culminated in
the establishment and inauguration of the
Commonwealth government on November
15, 1935 with Manuel Luis Quezon as
president and Sergio Osmena as vice
president.
• The Commonwealth government served
as a transitional government preparatory to
the resumption of Philippine independence.
• The Japanese occupation of the + power to enter into treaties or
Philippines during the Second World War international agreements;
resulted in the establishment of the
+ power to submit the budget to Congress;
National Assembly, which elected Jose P.
and
Laurel as president of the Second Republic.
+ power to address Congress.
• The republican years after the war were
characterized by the adoption of the 1973 • Philippine presidents from Manuel A.
Constitution to replace the 1935 Roxas to Corazon C. Aquino have wielded
Constitution, declaration of Martial Law, the their executive powers differently.
People Power Revolution, the adoption of
the Freedom Constitution to replace the
1973 Constitution, and the eventual • Laws are rules of conduct or action
adoption of the 1987 Constitution. prescribed or formally recognized as binding
or enforced by a controlling authority.
• The types of laws are based on its nature
• The three branches of government
(1.e., substantive and procedural laws) and
possess distinct powers: the legislative
scope (i.e., general and special laws).
branch creates laws; the judiciary interprets
these laws; and the executive implements • Substantive law provides for the rights
these laws through various agencies and and duties of persons in relation to other
instrumentalities. persons and states, whereas procedural law
constitutes the set of rules governing the
• Executive power is vested in the President
proceedings in court.
of the Philippines as stipulated in Article VII,
Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution. • A general law embraces a class of subjects
or places and does not omit any subject or
• Article VII of the 1987 Constitution
place naturally belonging to such class,
enumerates the other powers of the
whereas a special law relates to particular
president aside from executing the laws:
persons or things in a class.
+ power of control over all executive
• Legislature is a body of individuals
departments, bureaus, and offices;
selected to formulate, amend, or repeal
+ appointing power; laws.
+ powers under the commander-in-chief • The legislative branch of the Philippine
clause; government is the Congress, which is
divided into two houses, namely, the Senate
+ power to grant reprieves, commutations,
and the House of Representatives.
and pardons;
+ power to grant amnesty with the
concurrence of Congress; + power to
contract or guarantee foreign loans;
• The powers of the Congress include
powers of legislation, appropriation,
taxation, impeachment, legislative inquiry,
and others.
• The Philippine Congress has developed a
reputation of enacting laws without fail. It
exerts immense influence on the country's
development.
• The power to resolve legal disputes is
vested in the Supreme Court and the lower
courts under its supervision.
• Among the lower courts under the
supervision of the Supreme Court are the
Court of Appeals, Sandiganbayan, Court of
Tax Appeals, Regional Trial Courts, and
other trial courts.
• Due process is enshrined in Article III,
Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution, which
states that "No person shall be deprived of
life, liberty, or property without due process
of law, nor shall any person be denied the
equal protection of the laws."
• Jurisdiction is defined as the power of the
courts to take cognizance of and decide
cases.
• The power of judicial review pertains to
the mandate of the courts to decide on the
validity of executive and legislative acts in
the light of their conformity to the
constitution.
• Applicants for appointment to the
judiciary have to be screened by the JBC.
• An even-handed administration of justice
requires the virtues of political neutrality
and fairness.
• A local government unit (LGU) is a political
subdivision of a nation or state which is
constituted by law and has substantial
control of local affairs,
• Local governance means the management
of political, economic, and administrative
affairs of the territorial and political
subdivisions of the state.
• Local governance in the Philippines can be
historically traced to the barangay of
ancient Filipinos.
• In 1991, Congress passed Republic Act No.
7160 or the Local Government Code, which
constitutes the most radical decentralization
measure with regard to the powers,
responsibilities, resources, and personnel
devolved to LGUs.
• Provinces, cities, and municipalities
comprise the three major levels of local
government in the Philippines. The
barangay is a submunicipal unit.
• The constitutional guaranty of local
autonomy refers to administrative
autonomy of LGUs or the decentralization of
government authority.
• Decentralization signifies a transfer of the
powers and responsibilities of state
institutions to local governments, which
makes local autonomy possible.
• Elections are the process by which voters
in a country select the officials who will
exercise the powers of government for a
period fixed by law.
• Elections are generally classified as regular
and special elections.
• The elective officials in the Philippines are
the president, vice president, senators,
members of the House of Representatives,
provincial governors, vice governors, board
members, mayors, vice mayors, councilors,
punong barangays, and kagawads.
• The Commission on Elections (COMELEC)
is tasked by the Constitution "to enforce
and administer all laws and regulations
relative to the conduct of an election,
plebiscite, initiative, referendum, and
recall."
• In 1997, Congress passed RA No. 8436 or
the Automated Election System Law
authorizing the COMELEC to use an
automated election system.
• A political party refers to an organized
group of citizens advocating an ideology or
platform, principles, and policies for the
general conduct of government. Such a
party selects and supports some of its
leaders and members as candidates in
elections.
• The party-list system in the Philippines is a
mechanism of proportional representation
in the election of representatives to the
House of Representatives from national,
regional, and sectoral parties, organizations,
or coalitions registered with the COMELEC.
• Electoral system pertains to the set of
rules that are applied to govern the conduct
of elections. The types of electoral system
include the proportional, non-proportional,
and mixed systems.
• Civil society pertains to the "space, arena,
or sector" situated between the state and
the market.
• An institution, which may be formal or
informal, is an established manner or means
of conducting an activity that is widely
accepted throughout society.
• The unique features of a civil society are
institutional space, distinct realm of values,
and institutional mechanism.
• Civil society organizations are associations
that are established independently, and
operate outside the state and market.
• Social movements are defined as a
particular form of collective behavior
wherein the impetus to act comes from the
attitudes and aspirations of its members.
• New social movements include the
women, green, and peace movements.
• Civil society organizations and social
movements generally contribute to the
development of various countries, including
the Philippines.
• In the traditional sense, citizenship is the
status of having the rights, duties, and
privileges of a citizen.
• Citizenship has the following attributes: it
is determined by law, it is more than the
combination of the privileges and
obligations of a citizen under the law, and it
allows for involvement in the political
processes of the State.
• Jus soli is the principle of citizenship based
on place of birth, whereas jus sanguinis is
the principle based on blood relations
(which is followed in the Philippines).
• Section 1, Article IV of the 1987
Constitution states who may be considered
citizens of the Philippines, whereas Section
of the same article defines natural-born
citizens.
• The two recognized bases of citizenship by
birth are land or place of birth and
parentage or blood relations.
• The 1987 Constitution provides for the
rights and obligations of a Filipino citizen.
• Unlike the freedoms guaranteed in the Bill
of Rights, citizenship may be lost or
reacquired in the manner provided by law.
• State-centric citizenship holds that the
State takes charge and has sole control of
the governance processes.
• Participatory citizenship entails the
participation of citizens in the governance
processes. Under the concept of dual
citizenship, Filipinos who have become
citizens of other countries
• can reacquire their Filipino citizenship
while retaining their status as naturalized
citizens of the countries in which they live.
• Section 6, Article II of the 1987
Constitution provides for the separation of
church and state.
• The separation of church and state
provides that the state cannot interfere with
religious affairs and the church cannot
impose its dogma on the government and
decide how it should be run.
• Constitutional commissions are
independent government bodies enjoying
fiscal autonomy. They cannot be abolished
by the Congress.
• Article IX of the 1987 Constitution deals
with the constitutional commissions,
namely the Civil Service Commission (CSC),
Commission on Elections (COMELEC), and
Commission on Audit (COA).
• The CSC exercises supervision over
personnel matters involving the entire civil
service.
• The COMELEC enforces and administers all
laws and regulations relative to the conduct
of an election, plebiscite, initiative,
referendum, and recall.
• The COA is the constitutional agency with
the power, authority, and duty to examine,
audit, and settle all accounts pertaining to
the revenue and receipts, and expenditures
or uses of funds and property owned or
held in trust by the government or any of its
subdivisions, agencies, or
instrumentalities. .
• The Office of the Ombudsman is a
constitutional body that is authorized to
examine the acts of government officials
and employees, and prosecute and punish
these civil servants if they have committed
administrative offenses. Impeachment is a
formal proceeding wherein a high official of
the government is charged with misconduct
in office.
• The impeachable officials are the
president, vice-president, justices of the
Supreme Court, members of the
constitutional commissions, and the
Ombudsman.
• Section 26, Article II of the 1987
Constitution states that "The State shall
guarantee equal access to opportunities for
public service, and prohibit political
dynasties as may be defined by law."
• Political dynasty may be defined as
concentration, consolidation, or
continuation of public office and political
power by persons related to one another.
• Section 13, Article II of the 1987
Constitution provides the constitutional
basis for youth empowerment: "The State
recognizes the vital role of the youth in
national building and shall promote and
protect their physical, moral, spiritual,
intellectual, and social well-being. It shall
inculcate in the youth patriotism and
nationalism, and encourage their
involvement in public and civic affairs."
• Youth empowerment in the Philippines is
assured by the Local Government Code
through the Sangguniang Kabataan.
• The participatory notion of citizenship
entails the participation of the youth in
constructive politics and nation-building,
and requires that they be provided with the
necessary tools to make that possible.