Electrical and Electronic

Engineering
(Superposition theorem, Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem and Max.
power transfer theorem)

Course- EC&EE Eng (ENEL2EE) (2024)

Course Lecturer- Dr. P. Kumar
Email- kumarp@ukzn.az.za
1
 Superposition theorem
• The superposition theorem states “In any network containing linear resistances, the current
flowing in any branch (or voltage at any point) is the sum of all the currents in the branch (or
sum of all the voltages at the point) that would flow if each source in the network were
connected individually, in turn, with every other source being suppressed at that time”.
• Rules for suppressing sources:
=> Replace an ideal voltage source with a short circuit.
=>Replace an ideal current source with a open circuit.
In Fig., we need to determine current I in R2.
If we replace B2 by a short circuit and calculate current in R2 as I1.
If we replace B1 by short circuit and calculate current in R2 as I2.
=> I=I1+I2

2
 Superposition theorem (cont.)
Example- Consider the circuit shown in figure and find the current 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥
using the superposition theorem.

3
 Superposition theorem (cont.)
Solution-
=> Suppressing 3V source as shown in Fig.
6
⇒𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥1 = × 2 = 1𝐴𝐴
6+6
=> Suppressing 2A source as shown in Fig.
3
⇒𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥2 = = 0.25𝐴𝐴
6+6
⇒𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥2 = 1 + 0.25 = 1.25 A

4
 Sources transformations- Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems
• We found in our earlier analysis that it is generally easier to use mesh current analysis
when all the sources are voltage sources.
• Similarly, it is usually easier to use nodal current analysis when all sources are current
sources.
• Thus if we have both current and voltage sources in a circuit, it is valuable to make a set
of adjustments to the circuit so that all the sources are of one type.
• It is possible to transform an independent voltage source in series with a resistor into a
current source in parallel with a resistor, or vise versa.
• A source transformation is a procedure for transforming one source into another while
retaining the terminal characteristics of the original source.
• A source transformation rests on the concept of equivalence.
• An equivalent circuit is one whose terminal characteristics remain identical to those of
the original circuit. It is important to note that equivalence implies an identical effect at
the terminals, but not within the equivalent circuits themselves.

5
 Sources transformations- Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems (cont.)
• Suppose we want the circuit in Fig.(a) below to transform into the circuit of Fig.(b).

a
a
Rs

Vs Is Rp

b
b
(b)
(a)

• We then require that both circuits have the same characteristics for all external resistors R
connected between terminals a and b.

6
 Sources transformations- Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems (cont.)
• The same circuits shown with termination R are shown below. We shall try two extreme
values: R=0 and R=∞.
i i
a
a
Rs

Vs Is
R Rp R

b
b
(a) (b)

• When the resistance R=0, we have a short circuit across terminals a and b. First, we
require the short-circuit current to be the same for each circuit. The short-circuit current
for Fig. (a) is:
v
i= s 7
Rs
 Sources transformations- Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems (cont.)
• The short circuit current for Fig. (b) is is. Therefore we require that:
v
is = s
Rs
• For the open-circuit condition, R is infinite. Then, from Fig (a), vab=vs.
• For Fig. (b), we have:
vab = is Rp

• Since vab must be equal for both circuits to be equivalent, we require that:
vs = is Rp
• Therefore from the foregoing and earlier equations, we find that:
vs = is Rp = is Rs
∴ Rp = Rs 8
 Sources transformations- Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems (cont.)
• To show that the relationship between Rp and Rs holds for all R, apply KVL to Fig (a), with
i being the series current from the source:
vs = iRs + iR = iRs + vab
v v i i
⇒ s = i + ab a
a
Rs Rs
Rs

• If we apply KCL to Fig (b), we have: Vs Is Rp

R R
vab vab
is = +
Rp R
b
b
(a) (b)

• Thus the two circuits are equal when:

vs
is = ; Rs = Rp
Rs 9
 Sources transformations- Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems (cont.)
• Thus any source voltage vs with its associated series resistor Rs can be replaced by an
equivalent current source is with an associated parallel resistance Rp or conductance Gp,
where v 1
is = s
; Rs = Rp ⇒ G p =
Rs Rs
• Any parallel combination of is and Gp can be replaced by an equivalent series
combination of vs and Rs.
a
a
Rs
vs
is = ; R p = Rs
Rs
Vs  
→ Is Rp
v s = is R p ; Rs = R p
←
Thevenin Norton

b b 10
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem
• The goal of Thevenin’s theorem is to reduce some portion of a circuit to an equivalent source and
a single element.
• This reduced equivalent circuit connected to the remaining part of the circuit will enable us to
find the current and voltage of interest.
• Thevenin’s theorem rests on the concept of equivalence: a circuit equivalent to another exhibits
identical characteristics at identical terminals.
• This circuit simplification process can be illustrated below in Fig.
R1 R3
a RT a

vs R2
RL VTvs
RL

b b 11
(a) (b)
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem
(cont.)
• If we wish to determine the current or power delivered to load RL, the rest of the circuit
can be reduced to Fig (b).
• The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown to the left of terminals a-b, and consists of a
voltage VT and resistance RT.
• The Thevenin principle is particularly useful when we wish to determine the resulting
current, voltage, or power delivered to a single element, especially when the element is
variable.
• We reduce the rest of the circuit to RT in series with a voltage VT, and later connect it to
the element.
• Thevenin’s theorem may be stated as follows:
“For any circuit of resistance elements and energy sources with an identified terminal
pair, the circuit can be replaced by a series combination of an ideal voltage source VT and
a resistance RT, where VT is the open-circuit voltage at the two terminals, and RT is the
ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the short-circuit current at the terminal pair.”

12
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem (cont.)
Step 1: Identify circuit
The following steps show the A and Circuit B CIRCUIT A CIRCUIT B

procedure for determining the

Thevenin equivalent of a
circuit. Step 2: Separate Circuit
A from Circuit B CIRCUIT A
RT

RT

Step 3: Replace Circuit

A with its Thevenin VT vs
Equivalent

RT

Step 4: Reconnect
Circuit B and determine VT vs CIRCUIT B
the variable of interest,
e.g. load current
13
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem
(cont.)
Example- Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine the current i through
the resistor R in the circuit below:
5Ω 4Ω

50 V
20Ω R2R

14
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem (cont.)
• By removing resistor R from the circuit, we determine the open-circuit voltage, and the
terminal resistance as:
 20 
voc =   x 50V = 40V = VT
 20 + 5 
20 x 5
RT = 4 + = 8Ω
20 + 5

• Reconnecting the circuit to resistor R, we obtain the figure below.

8Ω

40 Vvs
R

• Therefore the current i through resistor R is found from:

 40 
i=  15
 R + 8
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem
(cont.)
Example: Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown in the
figure below.
10 Ω 4Ω
a

10V 2A
40Ω R2

16
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem
(cont.)
Solution (Approach 1):
• The resulting Thevenin resistance is determined by short-circuiting the voltage source
and open-circuiting the current source. Then we have:
 40 x10 
RTH = 4 + (40 // 10 ) = 4 +   = 12Ω
 40 + 10 

• To obtain the Thevenin voltage, we use the superposition principle, as follows: First use
the 10-V source, while we open-circuit the 2-A current source, to give VTH1. Then short-
circuit the 10-V source and use the 2-A source to get VTH2.
 40 
VTH 1 = 10  = 8V
 40 + 10 
 10 
VTH 2 = (I 40 Ω )40Ω = 2  x 40 = 16V
 40 + 10 
∴VTH = VTH 1 + VTH 2 = 24V
17
Sources transformations- Thevenin’s theorem
(cont.)
Solution (Approach 2):

• Using nodal equations at Node c: vc = 10

• At node d, applying nodal equations, we have

vd vd − vc v v v 10 v
+ = 2 ⇒ d − c = 2 ⇒ d − = 2 ⇒ d = 3 ⇒ vd = 24 V
40 10 8 10 8 10 8
∴VTH = vd = 24 V
40 x10
RTH = 4 + = 4 + 8 = 12 Ω
40 + 10 18
 Sources transformations- Norton’s theorem
• A Norton equivalent circuit consists of an independent current source in parallel with the Norton
equivalent source.
• We can derive it from a Thevenin equivalent circuit simply by making a source transformation: Thus the
Norton current equals the short-circuit current at the terminals of interest, and the Norton resistance is
identical to the Thevenin resistance, (see below.)
• Norton’s theorem may thus be stated as follows:
“For any circuit of resistance elements and energy sources with an identified terminal pair, the circuit can
be replaced by a parallel combination of an ideal current source, isc, and a conductance Gn, where isc is the
short-circuit current at the two terminals and Gn is the ratio of the short-circuit current to the open-circuit
voltage at the terminal pair.”
a

isc
Rn
Rn

19
b
 Sources transformations- Norton’s theorem
Example: (cont.)
• Determine the Norton equivalent for the circuit shown below.
4Ω

24V 3A 12Ω R2

Solution (Approach 1)
• To determine the open-circuit resistance, open the current sources and short-circuit the
voltage sources. Then:
12 x 4
Rn = = 3Ω
12 + 4

20
 Sources transformations- Norton’s theorem
(cont.)
• In order to determine the short-circuit current, we transform the voltage source into a current
source, as shown below:
a a

6A 3A 12Ω
R
2 9A 3Ω
Rn
4Ω
b

b
Norton Equivalent

• After the transformation of the voltage source into a current source in parallel with the 4-Ω
resistor, we have the short-circuit current at terminals a-b as:
isc = 6 A + 3 A = 9 A

• The resulting Norton equivalent circuit is shown in the right-hand figure.

21
 Sources transformations- Norton’s theorem
(cont.)
Solution (Approach 2)
c

I2
I1

The Norton current is the short-circuit current at terminals a-b (circuit to the left).
This therefore shorts the 12-Ω resistor, resulting in the circuit to the right.
Therefore applying the loop equations, we get loop current I1 and I2 as follows:
I 2 − I1 = 3 ⇒ I N − I1 = 3 ⇒ I N = I1 + 3
Loop1 : 24 = 4 I1 + vcb ⇒ 4 I1 = 24 − vcb = 24(vcb = 0 − short − circuit )
∴ I1 = 6 A; I N = I1 + 3 ⇒ I N = 9 A
12 x 4
RN = RTH = =3 Ω 22
12 + 4
 Maximum power transfer theorem
• Circuit analysis plays an important role in the analysis of systems designed to transfer power from
a source to a load.
• Maximum power transfer can best be described with the aid of the circuit shown below.

RTH
a

VTH
R2R
L

• We assume a resistive network containing independent and dependent sources, and a designated
pair of terminals, a-b, to which a load, RL,is to be connected.
• The problem is to determine the value of RL that permits maximum power delivery to RL.
• First, we replace the resistive network with its Thevenin equivalent, as shown above.
23
 Maximum power transfer theorem (cont.)
• Derivation of RL requires expressing the power dissipated in RL as a function of the three circuit
parameters, VTH, RTH, and RL.Thus:
2
2  VTH 
p = i RL =   RL
 RTH + RL 

• Next, we recognize that for a given circuit, RTH and VTH will be fixed; therefore the power dissipated is a
function of the single variable RL.
• To find the value of RL that maximizes power transfer, we use elementary calculus. Thus, for maximum
power transfer, we have:
2 2 2
 V     
dp d 2  1  d  1
= 
TH
 RL  = VTH   + RL   
dRL dRL  RTH + RL    RTH + RL  dRL  RTH + RL  

2 3
 1   1  
2
= VTH   − 2 R L   = 0 for max imum
 R
 TH + R   R + R L 
L TH

∴ 2 RL = RTH + RL ⇒ RTH = RL
2
VTH
∴ pmax =
4 RL

• Therefore maximum power transfer occurs when the load resistance RL is equal to the Thevenin
resistance, RTH. 24