ETHICS REVIEWER
PHILOSOPHY AND OTHER FIELDS OF
1 INTRODUCTION
PHILOSOPHY
 Oldest field of science
 Mother or Father of different types of
study. Social and Political Philosophy,
logic, Moral theory, aesthetics, History,
and traditions of the Philippines,
Political Science, Morality, Metaphysics,
and Science.
 Coined by Pythagoras, a Greek
Philosopher.
 Came from greek words Philo - love,
Sophia - wisdom.
 Philosophy - lover of wisdom.
 We tend to find answers and the essence
of certain things. It is because of
curiosity that we find the reason why we
pursue and find and analyze truth in our
situation.
 Curiosity - go beyond what is
transparent.
THREE CLASSIFICATIONS OF LOVE
1. Eros (erasthai) - passionate/intense love
for something, sexual desire, erotic
(erotikos.)
2. Philia - love that seeks
truth/appreciation of the other, of person
or reality.
3. Agape - love of God for men.
 Highest level of love
 Unconditional Love
 It knows no boundaries, it goes
beyond reason.
 Kahit life ang kapalit.
OTHER ESSENTIAL DEFINITION OF
PHILOSOPHY
1. Search for Meaning
2. Search of all sciences
3. Mother of all sciences
4. Search for the ultimate meaning of
reality.
SCIENCES
1. Philosophy and Sciences - both discuss
truths about the universe.
2. Philosophy and history - The latter
serves as the breeding ground of
philosophy while the former defines
history and interprets it.
3. Philosophy and Mathematics - both
are logical bodies of knowledge.
4. Philosophy and Religion - That one
justifies the other.
WHY IS PHILOSOPHY IMPORTANT?
 Provides students with fundamental
views in coping with the changing
demands and ethical problems.
 Develops students ability to
comprehend, systematic learning, and
enhance critical thinking skills.
 Gives us to the ability to understand
things. We can cope up with changes of
times and ethical problems.
MAJOR DISCIPLINE IN PHILOSOPHY
1. Logic - study of right and sound
reasoning.
2. Epistemology - study of the validity of
knowledge
3. Metaphyics - seeks to explain the
fundamental concepts of being
4. Aesthetics - philosophical study of
beauty
5. Cosmology - study of real things in the
universe
6. Theodicy - study of God and His nature
7. Social Philosophy - study of human and
society
ETHICS
 From greek word “ethos” or “ethikos” -
character.
 It reflects our characters. Values and
characteristics of a person which
considered as improffesional.
 We cannot separate ethics from
Imperatives of Ethics
Imperatives of Ethics  We value this because we are taught that
1. Human Freedom this particular thing to do and that is the
 be responsible for one’s action wrong thing to avoid.
 Everything we do has
consequences and reaction. We Example:
have to be liable to our actions.  Do not cheat
 In every action, there is a  Be loyal
reaction — Isaac Newton  Be patient
 Always tell the truth
 Be generous
2. Existence of God
 God’s presence is the salient ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
factor that makes sense in the 1. Truthfulness/Honesty
study of Ethics. God alone can  Among the basic principles of
give the final judgement. natural moral law.
 We are created in the image of 2. Loyalty
God, and we should be living in  The willing, practical and
the will of God. thoroughgoing devotion of a
 We must be obeying God for not person to a cause.
doing so will result on hell. 3. Respect
3. Immortality of the souls  “Respect for a person”
 A cornerstone in ethics 4. Fairness
 Equity, respect, justice, and
RULES stewardship pf the shared world.
 Instructions that tell what we are allowed 5. Integrity
to do and not to do.  Imposes an obligation on all
individuals to be straightforward
WHY DO WE HAVE RULES? and honest in all professional and
 It organizes relationships between business relationship.
individuals.
 Rules make it clear what is right to
MORAL ETHICS
do/follow in the society and what we
should avoid/refrain from doing so. Right and wrong Good or evil
 It provides opportunity to achieve
personal and societal goals General guidelines Response to particular
 It regulates various social institution to framed by the situation
fulfill their integral rules for the common society
welfare.
Dictated by society, Chosen by a person under
MORAL culture, or religion the dictate of right reason
 FROM LATIN WORD “MOS” -
CUSTOM/Tradition Vary from society- Remains the same
 Refers to social, cultural, and religious society and culture- regardless of any culture,
beliefs/values practiced overtime by ulture relion/society
individual/group to do what is right and
Expressed in a form Translated into an explicit
refrain from doing what is wrong.
of statement action
 It must be practice in a span of time,
hence, ws consented by the society. It’s
the culture.
 MORAL NON MORAL Dilemma
STANDARD STANDARD  Difficult situation in which an individual is
confronted to choose between two or more
Concerned Rules that are unrelated alternative actions to resolve the problem.
with/relating to to moral/ethical Types of Dilemma
human behavior consideration 1. Classic Dilemmas – Different criteria,
especially the same behavior.
distinction of good a. Order vs. Freedom
and bad or b. Empowerment vs. Alignment
right/wrong 2. Temporal Dilemmas – Same process,
different criteria applied at a different time.
Associated with Example: Etiquette, a. Innovation vs. Manufacturability.
special emotions and fashion standard, b. Speed (customer satisfaction) vs.
vocabulary. basketball rules, rules Accuracy (process integrity)
in games, house rules, 3. Orthogonal Dilemmas – Different
legal staties (laws, behaviors, different criteria
ordinances) a. Centralization vs.
Decentralization
Associated with special b. Service orientation vs. Product
emotion: legal staties orientation
(laws, ordinances), 4. Sequential Dilemmas - Different
etiquette behaviors, different times
a. Performance vs. Development
b. Work vs. Home
ETHICAL STANDARD 5. Unequal Dilemma – The dilemma is split
 Principles that when followed promotes across unequal status
values such as honesty patience, respect, a. High growth vs. Organization
and kindness. integrity
b. Fiscal stability through cost
cutting vs. Preserving capability
6 CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL
c. Product innovation vs. Support
STANDARD for existing product lines

Moral Dilemma
1. It involves serious wrong/significant  It is defined as any situation in which the
benefits (ex. following/violating rules in person making the decision experiences a
a game). It will cause harm to people. conflict between the moral rightness of a
2. It ought to preferred to other values (Ex. decision and the quality of the results it
White lies, following one's dream but produces.
leaving one's family, unbearable laws)  Many times it involve a morally wrong
3. It is not established by authority figure.
decision that produces a desirable result, or
Personal relationship standard.
vice versa.
4. It has a trait of universality (Golden
 Other times it involve a decision in which
rule). It applies to everyone.
5. It abides by impartial considerations. the person is forced to choose only one of
Regardless of your situation and two good things.
bcircumstances, it is based in impartial
Types of Moral Dilemma
considerations.
1. Personal Dilemma - These are situations in
CHAPTER 2 – DILLEMA AND FOUNDATION which an individual has a choice to be made
OF MORALITY between two options, neither of which
 resolves the situation in an ethically
acceptable fashion.
2. Organizational Dilemma –
Organizational ethics are the principals and
standards by which businesses operate,
according to Reference for Business. They
are best demonstrated through acts of
fairness, compassion, integrity, honor and
responsibility.
3. Systematic Dilemma – The process of
systematic moral analysis is predicated on
moral rule violations, which result in harm
to another person or persons.
Foundation of Morality
1. Freedom
 as the power or right to act, speak, or think as
one wants without hindrance or restraint; “we do
have some freedom of choice.”
 in politics, consists of the social, political, and
economic freedoms to which all community
members are entitled. In philosophy, freedom
involves free will as contrasted with
determinism.
 Kant claims that freedom is the source of all
value
 Saint Augustine showed that human is free
physically, yet bound to obey the law
 For Gorbachev (1988), the principle of freedom
is a must - refusal to recognize this principle will
have serious consequences to the issue of world
peace.
 Moral freedom involves freedom over the
things that matter most.
 Quito (2008) explains that no ethics is likewise
possible without human freedom. (human being
are accountable for their actions)
Reason and Impartiality
 Immanuel Kant argued that “morality was
based on reason alone, and once we
understood it, we would see that acting
morally is the same as acting rationally.”
 Reason - enables us to think and reflect
over actions that we intend to do and
decide which of them to take.
 A mere knowledge of morality will not
make human moral (there has to be an
application of it, by obeying the rules)
 Impartiality - is a principle of justice
holding that decisions or judgment on
something or someone should be
objective not on the basis of bias or
prejudice to favor someone irrationally
CHAPTER 3 – MORAL AGENT AND
CULTURE
Moral Agent
 “a being who is capable of acting with
reference to right and wrong.”
 expected to meet the demands of morality
(choosing between good and evil)
 must also be capable of conforming to at
least some of the demands of morality.
 should have the capacity to rise above their
feelings and passions and act for the sake of
the moral law.
 someone who is capable of doing things
rightly or wrongly.
 a person who has the ability to discern right
from wrong and to be held accountable for
his or her own actions.
 have a moral responsibility not to cause
unjustified harm
 those who can be held responsible for their
actions.
Culture
 It is an aggregate of beliefs, attitudes etc.
which can be viewed as a “blessing” and a
preserver of values, heritage, arts and good
behavior.
 It can also be a “baggage” when we consider
that it transmits some irrational and out-of-
date attitudes included in it as custom.
 It changes with time.
Types of Culture
1. High Culture – is linked with the elite,
upper class society, those families and
individuals with an ascribed status position.
It is often associated with the arts such as
 opera, ballet and classical music, and sports
such as polo.
2. Cultural Diversity – is a concept relating
to culturally embedded differences within
society, it’s the fact that different cultures
exist alongside each other.
3. Subculture – culture enjoyed by a small
group within society. In this sense it is a
minority part of majority culture. They have
distinct norms and values which make them
sub-section of society.
6. Global Culture – A global culture is a
key feature of globalisation, they emerged
due to patterns of migration, trends in
international travel and the spread of the
media, exposing people to the same images
of the same dominant world companies.
Importance of Culture
1. Culture affects perceptions
2. Culture influences behavior.
3. Culture shapes personalities.
4. Our culture shapes our values and belief system.
Moral behaviors
 are what one believes to be the right things to
do.
 For example, following your society’s (or other
social group’s) rules of good behavior where
honesty is highly valued, telling the truth is
important
Role of Culture in Moral Behavior
 play a significant pseudo role within shaping
moral behavior and extends even further to
social norms.
 influences human behavior at any given
society’s belief system, laws, mores,
practices, language and attitudinal variables
which make a people unique from others
(Victor, 2017).
 has a great impact in the development of the
human person in varied ways; may it be in
physical, knowledge, thought, relationship,
religious or moral development.
 to mould and establish a social identity that
brings people as well to provide the
knowledge of common objectives which
members would try to achieve
 the principle that surrounds the moral
development of the people that may not
always promote what is good and just for all
Cultural Relativism
 is the principle of regarding the beliefs,
values, and practices of a culture from the
viewpoint of that culture itself. Factor as
diverse geography is the primary shaper of
one’s culture.
 It is an affirmation that holds that societies
are dissimilar in their moral standards, their
laws and culture protocols
Ethical Relativism
 is the theory that holds that morality is
relative to the norms of one’s culture. That
is, whether an action is right or wrong
depends on the moral norms of the society in
which it is practiced.
 It denies the existence of one universal
moral law.
Moral Relativism
 is the view that moral judgments are true or
false only relative to some particular
standpoint (for instance, that of a culture or
a historical period) and that no standpoint is
uniquely privileged over all others
 There is no universal or absolute set of
moral principles.
 there is always one right answer to any ethical
question.
 It is an ethical judgment which claims that no
ethical system is better than another (Jeff
Landauer and Joseph Rowlands, 2001)
 that values are subjective
 there is no objective morality; that there is no
such thing as right or wrong, good or evil.
 the denial of truth in ethical questions
 holds that ethical systems are subjective, it
claims that none is better or worse than another,
that any system that claims to be true or absolute
is evil, it falls ironic for it still maintains a
distinct moral principle leading to the possibility
of truth in ethics.
Moral Relativism can be understood in the ff.
ways
a. Descriptive moral relativism/cultural
relativism - says that moral standards are culturally
defined, which is generally true.
b. Meta-ethical moral relativism - there are no
objective grounds for preferring the moral values of
one culture over another.
c. Normative moral relativism - idea that all
societies should accept each other’s differing moral
values, given that there are no universal moral
principles.
CHAPTER 4 – ASIAN MORAL CHARACTER
 Buddhism - shapes character in Southeast
Asia as Christianity does in Europe.
 Theravada Buddhism - encourages its
practitioners to keep their emotions and
passions in check and stresses karma over
determination, which often means people are
more willing to accept their lot in life and is
sometimes is viewed by Westerners as a
lack of ambition or unwillingness to work
hard to improve their positions in life
Buddhism 5 Basic Moral Prohibitions
1) refrain for taking life;
2) don’t steal;
3) avoid illicit sexual activity;
4) don’t speak falsely; and
5) refrain from consuming inebriating
substances
5 Cardinal Virtues
1)benevolence in terms of sympathy for
others (jen);
2) duty reflected in the shame felt after
doing something wrong (yi);
3) manners, propriety and feelings of
deference (li);
4) wisdom, in terms of discerning right and
wrong (chih;) and
5) loyalty and good faith (hsin).
Filipino Moral Character
 friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily
offended, nosy, garrulous, direct, hospitable,
feisty, irreverent, good natured, clever,
witty, gregarious, happy, generous, easy to
laugh, gracious, easy to befriend, casual, fun
loving, sensitive and hospitable.
 Value education, has shame (hiya)
 Filipinos as “the easiest people in Asia to
get along with.”
Strengths
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao - basic sense of justice and
fairness, concern for others and ability to empathize
with others
2. Strong Family Ties - possess a genuine and deep
love for family - source of personal identity,
emotional and material support. Has honor to elder
and care to children
3. Joy and Humor – being cheerful and fun loving
4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity - We can
adjust and to adapt to circumstances and the
surrounding environment, both physical and social
6. Faith and Religiosity
Weakness
1. Extreme Personalism - We tend to give personal
interpretations to actions, i.e., “take things
personally”.
2. Extreme Family Centeredness results to a lack of
concern for the common good and acts as a block to
national consciousness.
3. Lack of Discipline - being impatient and unable to
delay gratification or reward
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
5. Colonial mentality
6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection - There is
a tendency in the Filipino to be superficial and even
somewhat flighty.
Filipino Positive Values
 Hospitability
 Helpful to others/Bayanihan
 Respectful (mano, po and opo, halik sa
kamay)
 Bravery
 Jolliness and sense of humor
 Discretion and dignity
 Gratefulness
 Honesty and commitment (palabra de honor)
 Helpfulness
 Family-oriented
 Adaptability and resilience
 Resourcefulness and creativity
 Faithfulness
 Thriftiness
Filipino Negative Values
1. Fatalism - An attitude of “what goes
around, comes around” or “come what
may.”
2. Crab mentality - people tend to push
each other down to clear the way for their
own gain.
 3. Ningas-Kugon - leaving our work either
half-baked or unfinished.
4. Filipino Time - known to be minutes or
hours behind the standard time. Thus, we
tend not to observe punctuality at all.
5. Colonial Mentality - preference for all
things foreign over our own
6. General Disregard for Rules - Filipinos
are known law abiding individuals but with
stronger inclination to disregard these laws
7. Procrastination or “Mañana Habit”
8. Corruption
9. Gossiping - talking about others’
business.
10. Passivity (lack of leadership) - lack of
initiative for change
CHAPTER 5 – MORAL AGENT
Values
 From Latin word “Valere” which means “to
be of worth”
 means to price, to esteem, to appraise, to
estimate (John Dewey)
Human Values
 are the virtues that guide us to take into
account human element when one interacts
with one other human being.
 our feelings for the human essence of others.
Moral Values
 help us distinguish between what’s right and
wrong, good or bad for you as well as
society.
 principles that govern our lives and beliefs
that make us realize the importance of life,
the goals that we want to attain or
accomplish in life.
Types of Moral Values
a. Acceptance: having an objective attitude
toward others‘ ideas and practices that differ
from your own
b. Compassion: understanding the suffering of
others or self and wanting to do something about
it
c. Courage: willingness to do difficult things.
d. Equality: believing everyone deserves equal
rights and to be treated with respect.
e. Fairness: acting in a just way, sharing
appropriately
f. Generosity: willingness to give resources,
help or time to others
g. Honesty: being truthful and sincere
h. Integrity: sticking to your moral and ethical
principles and values
i. Kindness: being considerate and treating
others well
j. Perseverance: persisting in a course of action,
belief or purpose
k. Politeness: using good manners, acting in
socially acceptable ways
l. Respect: showing consideration for the worth
of someone or something
m. Responsibility: being reliable in your
obligations
n. Self-control: staying in control of your words
and behavior
Sources of our Moral Values
1. Education
2. Family
3. Personality
4. Leadership/Members
5. Culture
6. Experience
7. Religion
3 Theological Virtues
 Faith is the virtue of believing in God’s
word without seeing.
 Hope is the virtue of keeping trust in Divine
Providence.
 Charity is the virtue of loving God and His
creatures
4 Cardinal Values
 Prudence is the virtue of knowing what to
do under peculiar circumstances which
enables one to see the best means to
approach a given situation.
 Justice is a virtue of giving anyone his/her
due under no condition.
 Fortitude is a virtue of keeping resolute in
the face of overwhelming odds.
 Temperance is the virtue of curbing or
managing the sensitive appetites.
Moral Character
 a function of whether he/she has or lacks
various moral virtues and vices.
  formed by one’s actions -- habits, actions,
and emotional responses of the person of
good character
Theory of Lawrence Kohlberg
 states that the moral development of most
people begins with a desire to avoid
personal punishment and may evolve over
time to a desire to make the world a better
and more just place for all people.
 Kohlberg used Piaget’s storytelling
technique to tell people stories involving
moral dilemmas.
Conscience
 from its Latin origin known as cum alia
scientia; it means the application of
knowledge.
 an act of reason
 an act of the practical moral judgment
 an act guided by reason
 The best way to educate our conscience is to
always obey laws.
Acts and Character
 Acts that Build Character
- Character is developed through time
and experiences
- It will determine our success
 Acts that Emanate from Character
- Character is what we are, it is inside
us, hidden, and shaped through
times, while acts are outward
manifestation of who we are
CHAPTER 6 – THE ACT
The Act
 an activity that is attributed to human being
Human Act
 refers to any activity, either external or
mental that is performed by a person
Constituents of Human Act
1. Knowledge -the agent is aware upon
performing the act as well its consequences.
2. Freedom - the agent/doer is not
constrained in doing the act.
3. Voluntariness - an agent must know and
free to choose which act to perform or not to
perform.
Feelings and Moral Decision-Making
1. Positive emotions – love, care,
understanding, friendship, happiness,
satisfaction etc.
2. Negative emotions – anger, hate, envy,
greed, frustrations, etc.
Approaches to Moral Decision
 Utilitarian Approach – this answers the
dilemma of which option will produce the
greatest benefits and least harm.
 Rights Approach – this follows the belief
that individuals have the ability to make
their decisions freely (if the act does not
respect everyone’s moral rights, it is wrong
to act)
 Fairness/Justice Approach – this gives the
individual the opportunity to reflect if the
action is fair to the people. (“equals should
be treated equally and unequal unequally.”-
Aristotle)
 Common Good Approach – this helps
drive our choice to decide if the action taken
will be good for ourselves and the
community.
 Virtue Approach – reflects what kind of
person you should be and what it will do to
your character.
  is the courage to take action for moral
reasons despite the risk of adverse
Reason and Impartiality as Minimum consequences.
Requirements of Morality
 More so, morally courageous individuals
 Reason is the capacity for consciously act upon their ethical values to help others
making sense of things, establishing and during difficult ethical dilemmas, despite the
verifying facts, applying logic, and changing adversity they may face in doing so.
or justifying practices, institutions, and  To be morally courageous means standing
beliefs based on new or existing up for what you believe even when it means
information. that you do so alone (Murray, 2015).
 Reasoning is associated with thinking,
cognition, and intellect.
 Practical reason is reasoning which is used
to guide action, and is contrasted with
theoretical reason, which is used to guide
thinking.
 Impartiality (also called evenhandedness
or fair mindedness) is a principle of justice
holding that decisions should be based on
objective criteria, rather than on the basis of
bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to
one person over another for improper
reasons
 The Principle of Impartiality - all persons
are considered equal and should be treated
accordingly.
 Kant’s Categorical Imperative is universal
and impartial -- universal because all people,
in virtue of being rational, would act in
precisely the same way, and impartial
because they respect the dignity and
autonomy of every human being and do not
put their own personal ambitions above the
respect that others deserve.

Reason

 On a Kantian view of the practical, if reason

is practical, the will, guided by reason, can
effect, or cause, action.
 He says that “a good will is not good
because of what it affects or accomplishes, it
is good through its willing alone – that is
good in itself.”

Will

 According to Aquinas, will is the rational

appetite, which basically means that will as
‘appetite’ is the form of desire, but, as
rational, will is guided by intellect/reason.

Moral Courage