M: Organizational Behavior 4th Edition

Steven Mcshane
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/m-organizational-behavior-4th-edition-steven-mcshan
e/
 ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOR McSHANE | VON GLINOW

4th Edition

IN WHICH COUNTRIES INTROVERTS CAN WHAT IS YOUR

DO EMPLOYEES BE EFFECTIVE SOCIAL PREFERRED
HAVE THE HIGHEST NETWORKERS, TOO! MANAGERIAL
ORGANIZATIONAL CH 9 LEADERSHIP STYLE?
COMMITMENT? CH 11
CH 4

is Motivation. is Momentum. is Moving Forward. is McGraw-Hill.

 McGraw-Hill Connect® is a highly reliable, easy-to-
use homework and learning management solution
that utilizes learning science and award-winning
adaptive tools to improve student results.

Homework and Adaptive Learning

▪ Connect’s assignments help students

contextualize what they’ve learned through
application, so they can better understand the
material and think critically.
▪ Connect will create a personalized study path
customized to individual student needs through
SmartBook®.
▪ SmartBook helps students study more efficiently
by delivering an interactive reading experience
through adaptive highlighting and review.

Over 7 billion questions have been

answered, making McGraw-Hill Using Connect improves retention rates
by 19.8 percentage points, passing rates
Education products more intelligent, by 12.7 percentage points, and exam
reliable, and precise. scores by 9.1 percentage points.

73% of instructors
who use Connect
Quality Content and Learning Resources require it; instructor
satisfaction increases
by 28% when Connect
▪ Connect content is authored by the world’s best subject is required.
matter experts, and is available to your class through a
simple and intuitive interface.
▪ The Connect eBook makes it easy for students to
access their reading material on smartphones
and tablets. They can study on the go and don’t
need internet access to use the eBook as a
reference, with full functionality.
▪ Multimedia content such as videos, simulations,
and games drive student engagement and critical
thinking skills. ©McGraw-Hill Education
Robust Analytics and Reporting

▪ Connect Insight® generates easy-to-read

reports on individual students, the class as a
whole, and on specific assignments.
▪ The Connect Insight dashboard delivers data
on performance, study behavior, and effort.
Instructors can quickly identify students who ©Hero Images/Getty Images

struggle and focus on material that the class

has yet to master.
▪ Connect automatically grades assignments
and quizzes, providing easy-to-read reports
on individual and class performance.

More students earn

As and Bs when they
use Connect.

Trusted Service and Support

▪ Connect integrates with your LMS to provide single sign-on and automatic syncing
of grades. Integration with Blackboard®, D2L®, and Canvas also provides automatic
syncing of the course calendar and assignment-level linking.
▪ Connect offers comprehensive service, support, and training throughout every
phase of your implementation.
▪ If you’re looking for some guidance on how to use Connect, or want to learn
tips and tricks from super users, you can find tutorials as you work. Our Digital
Faculty Consultants and Student Ambassadors offer insight into how to achieve
the results you want with Connect.

www.mheducation.com/connect
 4 th

EDITION

Organizational
Behavior
Steven L. McShane
University of Victoria (Canada)

Mary Ann Von Glinow

Florida International University
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: FOURTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2016, 2014, and
2012. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a
database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not
limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 LWI 21 20 19 18

ISBN 978-1-259-92767-6 (bound edition)

MHID 1-259-92767-9 (bound edition)

ISBN 978-1-260-15762-8 (loose-leaf edition)

MHID 1-260-15762-8 (loose-leaf edition)

Director: Michael Ablassmeir

Product Developer: Anne Ehrenworth
Marketing Manager: Debbie Clare
Content Project Managers: Harvey Yep (Core)/Keri Johnson (Assessment)
Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy
Design: Jessica Cuevas
Content Licensing Specialist: DeAnna Dausener (Image and Text)
Cover Image: ©Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock
Compositor: Aptara®, Inc.

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: McShane, Steven Lattimore, author. | Von Glinow, Mary Ann Young, 1949-
author. | Von Glinow, Mary Ann.
Title: Organizational behavior / Steven L. McShane, University of Western
Australia, Mary Ann Von Glinow, Florida International University.
Other titles: Organisational behavior
Description: Fourth Edition. | Dubuque, IA : McGraw-Hill Education, 2019. |
Revised edition of the authors’ Organizational behavior, ©2005.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017058678 | ISBN 9781259927676 (paperback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 1259927679 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Organizational behavior. | BISAC: BUSINESS & ECONOMICS /
Organizational Behavior.
Classification: LCC HD58.7 .M42 2018b | DDC 658--dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2017058678

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does
not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not
guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mheducation.com
about the

Authors
Steven L. McShane
Steven L. McShane is adjunct professor at the Peter B. Gustavson School of Business, University of Victoria
(Canada). He previously held the positions of professor at Simon Fraser University Business School in Canada
and professor of management at the University of Western Australia Business School. He currently teaches in
the Shanghai Jiao Tong University IMBA program. Early in his career, Steve taught at Queen’s University in
Canada. Steve has received awards for his teaching quality and innovation, and receives high ratings from
students in Perth, Shanghai, Singapore, ­Manila, and other cities where he has taught. He is also a popular visit-
ing speaker, having given dozens of invited talks and seminars in recent years to faculty and students in the
United States, China, Canada, Malaysia, India, and other countries.
Steve earned his PhD from Michigan State University, where he specialized in organizational behavior and Courtesy Steven McShane
labor relations. He also holds a Master’s of Industrial Relations from the University of Toronto and an under-
graduate degree from Queen’s University in Canada. Steve is a past president of the Administrative Sciences Association of Canada
(the Canadian equivalent of the Academy of Management) and served as director of graduate programs in Simon Fraser University’s
business faculty. He has conducted executive programs with Nokia, TÜV-SÜD, Wesfarmers Group, Main Roads WA, McGraw-Hill,
ALCOA World Alumina Australia, and many other organizations.
Along with coauthoring M:Organizational Behavior, Fourth Edition, Steve is lead coauthor of Organizational Behavior, Eighth
Edition (2018); Canadian Organizational Behaviour, Tenth Edition (2018); and Organisational Behaviour: Asia Pacific, Fifth Edition
(2016). He is also coauthor of editions or translations of his organizational behavior books in China, India, Quebec, Taiwan, and
Brazil. Steve has published several dozen articles and conference papers on workplace values, training transfer, organizational
learning, exit–voice–loyalty, employee socialization, wrongful dismissal, media bias in business magazines, and other diverse
topics.
Steve enjoys spending his leisure time hiking, swimming, body board surfing, canoeing, skiing, and traveling with his wife and two
daughters.

Mary Ann Von Glinow

Dr. Von Glinow is a Knight Ridder Eminent Scholar Chair in International Management at Florida In-
ternational University and is senior editor for the Journal of International Business Studies (JIBS). She
served as 2010 to 2012 president of the Academy of International Business (AIB) and the 1994–1995
president of the Academy of Management (AOM). Previously on the Marshall School faculty of the
University of Southern California, she has an MBA and a PhD in management science from Ohio State
University, and is a Fellow of the Academy of Management, the Academy of International Business, and
the ­Pan-Pacific Business Association. She sits on 13 editorial review boards and numerous international
panels and teaches in executive programs in Latin America, Asia, and the United States.
Dr. Von Glinow has authored over 100 journal articles and 13 books, most of which have been trans-
lated into Chinese, Hindi, and Spanish. Her book on organizational learning capability won a Gold Courtesy Mary Ann Von Glinow
Book Award from the Ministry of Economic Affairs in Taiwan in 2002. She is the 2005 recipient of the
Academy of Management’s Distinguished Service Award, one of the highest honors bestowed by the Academy.
Mary Ann has consulted widely and is on the board of directors of several organizations, including the advisory board to Volvo-
Geely in China. She is actively involved in several animal welfare organizations and received the 1996 Humanitarian Award of the
Year from Miami’s Adopt-a-Pet.
v
Dedication
Dedicated with love and devotion to Donna, and to our wonderful daughters, Bryton and Madison
—S.L.M.

Dedicated to Zack, Emma, Googun, Blue, Chloe, Jackson, and Boomer

—M.A.V.G.

vi
Brief

Contents
part one Introduction 2
1 Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 2

part two Individual Behavior and Processes 28

2 Individual Behavior, Personality, and 4 W
 orkplace Emotions, Attitudes, and
Values 28 Stress 78
3 Perceiving Ourselves and Others in 5 Employee Motivation 106
Organizations 54 6 Decision Making and Creativity 136

part three Team Processes 160

7 Team Dynamics 160 10 C
 onflict and Negotiation in the
8 Communicating in Teams and Workplace 232
Organizations 186 11 Leadership in Organizational Settings 256
9 Power and Influence in the Workplace 210

part four Organizational Processes 278

12 Designing Organizational Structures 278 14 Organizational Change 320
13 Organizational Culture 298

Indexes 341

vii
Contents
part one Introduction 2
©Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock
part two Individual Behavior and Processes 28
2 Individual Behavior,
Personality, and
Values 28
MARS MODEL OF INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE 29
Employee Motivation 29
Ability 30
Role Perceptions 30
Situational Factors 32
viii
1 Introduction to the
Field of Organizational
Behavior 2
THE FIELD OF ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR 3
Historical Foundations of
Organizational Behavior 4
Why Study Organizational
Behavior? 5
CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENTS
FACING ORGANIZATIONS 6
Technological Change 6
Globalization 7
Emerging Employment
Relationships 7
Increasing Workforce Diversity 9
Consequences of Diversity 9
TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR 32
Task Performance 32
Organizational Citizenship 32
Counterproductive Work Behaviors 33
Joining and Staying with the
Organization 33
Maintaining Work Attendance 33
PERSONALITY IN ORGANIZATIONS 34
Personality Determinants: Nature
versus Nurture 35
ANCHORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR KNOWLEDGE 10
The Systematic Research Anchor 11
The Multidisciplinary Anchor 11
The Contingency Anchor 12
The Multiple Levels of Analysis
Anchor 12
PERSPECTIVES OF ORGANIZATIONAL
EFFECTIVENESS 12
Open Systems Perspective 12
Organizational Learning Perspective 14
High-Performance Work Practices
Perspective 16
Stakeholder Perspective 18
Connecting the Dots: An Integrative
Model of Organizational
Behavior 20
THE JOURNEY BEGINS 21
Five-Factor Model of Personality 35
Jungian Personality Theory
and the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator 38
VALUES IN THE WORKPLACE 39
Types of Values 40
Values and Individual Behavior 41
Values Congruence 42
ETHICAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOR 42
Three Ethical Principles 43
 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT 91
Consequences of Affective and
Continuance Commitment 91
Building Organizational Commitment 92
WORK-RELATED STRESS AND ITS
MANAGEMENT 93
General Adaptation Syndrome 93
Consequences of Distress 94
Stressors: The Causes of Stress 94
Individual Differences in Stress 96
Managing Work-Related Stress 96

5 Employee Motivation 106

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT 107
EMPLOYEE DRIVES AND NEEDS 108
Individual Differences in Needs 109
Four-Drive Theory 110
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory 111
©PeopleImages/Digital Vision/Getty Images
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 112
Moral Intensity, Moral Sensitivity, and Attribution Theory 65 Learned Needs Theory 113
Situational Influences 43 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 67 EXPECTANCY THEORY OF
Supporting Ethical Behavior 44 Other Perceptual Effects 68 MOTIVATION 114
VALUES ACROSS CULTURES 45 IMPROVING PERCEPTIONS 69 Applying Expectancy Theory 114
Individualism and Collectivism 45 Awareness of Perceptual Biases 69 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Power Distance 47 Improving Self-Awareness 69 MODIFICATION AND SOCIAL
Uncertainty Avoidance 47 COGNITIVE THEORY 116
Meaningful Interaction 70
Achievement-Nurturing Organizational Behavior
GLOBAL MINDSET: DEVELOPING
Orientation 47 Modification 116
PERCEPTIONS ACROSS BORDERS 71
Caveats about Cross-Cultural Social Cognitive Theory 117
Developing a Global Mindset 72
Knowledge 47 GOAL SETTING AND FEEDBACK 118
Characteristics of Effective Feedback 119
4 Workplace Emotions,
3 Perceiving Ourselves Sources of Feedback 120
Attitudes, and Stress 78
and Others in Evaluating Goal Setting and
Organizations 54 EMOTIONS IN THE WORKPLACE 79 Feedback 121
Types of Emotions 80 ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE 121
SELF-CONCEPT: HOW WE PERCEIVE
Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior 81 Equity Theory 121
OURSELVES 55
Cognitive Dissonance 83 Procedural Justice 123
Self-Concept Complexity, Consistency,
Emotions and Personality 84
and Clarity 55
Self-Enhancement 57 MANAGING EMOTIONS AT WORK 85
Self-Verification 58 Emotional Display Norms across
Self-Evaluation 58 Cultures 85
The Social Self 59 Emotional Dissonance 85
Self-Concept and Organizational EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 86
Behavior 60 Emotional Intelligence Outcomes and
PERCEIVING THE WORLD Development 87
AROUND US 61 JOB SATISFACTION 88
Perceptual Organization and Job Satisfaction and Work Behavior 88
Interpretation 62 Job Satisfaction and Performance 89
SPECIFIC PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES Job Satisfaction and Customer
AND PROBLEMS 63 Satisfaction 90
Stereotyping in Organizations 63 Job Satisfaction and Business Ethics 91 ©Elnur/Shutterstock

CONTENTS ix
JOB DESIGN 124
Job Design and Work Efficiency 124
Scientific Management 125
Problems with Job Specialization 126
Job Design and Work Motivation 126
Job Design Practices That
Motivate 128
6 Decision Making and
Creativity 136
RATIONAL CHOICE DECISION
MAKING 137
Rational Choice Decision-Making
Process 139
Problems with Rational Choice Decision
Making 139
part three Team Processes 160
7 Team Dynamics 160
TEAMS AND INFORMAL GROUPS 161
Informal Groups 162
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF TEAMS 163
The Challenges of Teams 164
A MODEL OF TEAM
EFFECTIVENESS 165
Organizational and Team
Environment 166
TEAM DESIGN ELEMENTS 167
Task Characteristics 167
Team Size 167
Team Composition 168
©Moopixel/Shutterstock
x CONTENTS
IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS AND
OPPORTUNITIES 139
Problems with Problem Identification 140
Identifying Problems and Opportunities
More Effectively 141
SEARCHING FOR, EVALUATING, AND
CHOOSING ALTERNATIVES 141
Problems with Goals 141
Problems with Information
Processing 141
Problems with Maximization 143
Selecting Opportunities 144
Emotions and Making Choices 144
Intuition and Making Choices 145
Making Choices More Effectively 145
IMPLEMENTING DECISIONS 146
TEAM PROCESSES 170
Team Development 170
Team Norms 173
Team Cohesion 174
Team Trust 175
SELF-DIRECTED TEAMS 176
Success Factors for Self-Directed
Teams 176
VIRTUAL (REMOTE) TEAMS 176
Success Factors for Virtual
Teams 177
TEAM DECISION MAKING 178
Constraints on Team Decision
Making 178
Improving Creative Decision Making in
Teams 179
8 Communicating in Teams
and Organizations 186
THE IMPORTANCE OF
COMMUNICATION 187
A MODEL OF COMMUNICATION 188
Influences on Effective Encoding and
Decoding 189
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS 189
Internet and Digital
Communication 190
Problems with Email and Other Digital
Message Channels 190
EVALUATING DECISIONS 146
Escalation of Commitment 147
Evaluating Decision Outcomes More
Effectively 148
CREATIVITY 148
The Creative Process 148
Characteristics of Creative People 149
Organizational Conditions Supporting
Creativity 151
Activities That Encourage
Creativity 151
EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT IN
DECISION MAKING 152
Benefits of Employee Involvement 153
Contingencies of Employee
Involvement 153
Workplace Communication through
Social Media 191
Nonverbal Communication 192
CHOOSING THE BEST
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL 194
Synchronicity 194
Social Presence 194
Social Acceptance 194
Media Richness 195
Communication Channels and
Persuasion 197
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
(NOISE) 197
Information Overload 198
CROSS-CULTURAL AND GENDER
COMMUNICATION 199
Nonverbal Differences across
Cultures 200
Gender Differences in
Communication 200
IMPROVING INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION 200
Getting Your Message Across 201
Active Listening 201
IMPROVING COMMUNICATION
THROUGHOUT THE HIERARCHY 202
Workspace Design 202
Internet-Based Organizational
Communication 203
Direct Communication with Top
Management 203
COMMUNICATING THROUGH THE
GRAPEVINE 204
Grapevine Characteristics 204
Grapevine Benefits and
Limitations 204
9 Power and Influence in
the Workplace 210
THE MEANING OF POWER 211
SOURCES OF POWER IN
ORGANIZATIONS 212
Legitimate Power 213
Reward Power 214
Coercive Power 214
Expert Power 214
Referent Power 215
CONTINGENCIES OF POWER 215
Substitutability 215
Centrality 216
Visibility 216
Discretion 216
THE POWER OF SOCIAL
NETWORKS 216
Social Capital and Sources of
Power 217
Gaining Power through Social
Networks 218
CONSEQUENCES OF POWER 220
INFLUENCING OTHERS 221
Types of Influence Tactics 221
Consequences and Contingencies of
Influence Tactics 224
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS 226
Minimizing Organizational
Politics 226
10 Conflict and Negotiation
in the Workplace 232
THE MEANING AND CONSEQUENCES
OF CONFLICT 233
Is Conflict Good or Bad? 233
THE EMERGING VIEW: TASK AND
RELATIONSHIP CONFLICT 235
Task Conflict 235
Relationship Conflict 235
Separating Task from Relationship
Conflict 235
CONFLICT PROCESS MODEL 236
©EllisDon Corporation
STRUCTURAL SOURCES OF CONFLICT
IN ORGANIZATIONS 237
Incompatible Goals 237 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Differentiation 237 PERSPECTIVE 258
Interdependence 238 Develop and Communicate a Strategic
Scarce Resources 238 Vision 259
Ambiguous Rules 238 Model the Vision 260
Communication Problems 238 Encourage Experimentation 260
Build Commitment toward the
INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT-
Vision 261
HANDLING STYLES 239
Transformational Leadership and
Choosing the Best Conflict-Handling
Charisma 261
Style 240
Evaluating the Transformational
Cultural and Gender Differences in
Leadership Perspective 261
Conflict-Handling Styles 242
MANAGERIAL LEADERSHIP
STRUCTURAL APPROACHES TO
PERSPECTIVE 262
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT 242
Interdependence of Managerial and
Emphasizing Superordinate Goals 242
Transformational Leadership 262
Reducing Differentiation 243
Task-Oriented and People-Oriented
Improving Communication and Mutual
Leadership 263
Understanding 243
Servant Leadership 263
Reducing Interdependence 244
Increasing Resources 244
PATH–GOAL AND LEADERSHIP
SUBSTITUTES THEORIES 264
Clarifying Rules and Procedures 244
Path–Goal Leadership Theory 264
THIRD-PARTY CONFLICT
RESOLUTION 245 Leadership Substitutes Theory 266

Choosing the Best Third-Party IMPLICIT LEADERSHIP

Intervention Strategy 245
RESOLVING CONFLICT THROUGH
NEGOTIATION 246
Distributive versus Integrative
Approaches to Negotiation 246
Preparing to Negotiate 247
The Negotiation Process 248
The Negotiation Setting 249
Gender and Negotiation 250
11 Leadership in
Organizational Settings 256
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP? 257
©Hero Images/Getty Images Shared Leadership 257
PERSPECTIVE 267
Prototypes of Effective
Leaders 267
The Romance of Leadership 268
PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES PERSPECTIVE
OF LEADERSHIP 268
Most Important Leadership
Attributes 268
Authentic Leadership 270
Personal Attributes Perspective
Limitations and Practical
Implications 271
CROSS-CULTURAL AND GENDER
ISSUES IN LEADERSHIP 271
Gender and Leadership 271

CONTENTS xi
 part four Organizational Processes 278
12 Designing Organizational
Structures 278
DIVISION OF LABOR AND
COORDINATION 279
Division of Labor 279
Coordination of Work Activities 280
ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURE 282
Span of Control 282
Centralization and Decentralization 284
Formalization 285
Mechanistic versus Organic
Structures 285
FORMS OF DEPARTMENTALIZATION 286
Simple Structure 286
Functional Structure 286
Divisional Structure 287
Team-Based Structure 289
Matrix Structure 290
CONTINGENCIES OF
ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN 292
External Environment 292
Organizational Size 293
Technology 293
Organizational Strategy 293
13 Organizational Culture 298
ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE 299
Espoused versus Enacted Values 299
Content of Organizational Culture 300
Organizational Subcultures 302
©Jacob Lund/Shutterstock
xii CONTENTS
DECIPHERING ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURE THROUGH ARTIFACTS 302
Organizational Stories and
Legends 303
Organizational Language 303
Rituals and Ceremonies 304
Physical Structures and
Symbols 304
IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
IMPORTANT? 305
Meaning and Potential Benefits of a
Strong Culture 305
Contingencies of Organizational
Culture and Effectiveness 305
Organizational Culture and Business
Ethics 307
MERGING ORGANIZATIONAL
CULTURES 308
Bicultural Audit 308
Strategies for Merging Different
Organizational Cultures 308
CHANGING AND STRENGTHENING
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 310
Model Desired Culture through the
Actions of Founders and
Leaders 310
Align Artifacts with the Desired
Culture 311
Introduce Culturally Consistent
Rewards and Recognition 311
Support Workforce Stability and
Communication 312
Use Attraction, Selection, and
Socialization for Cultural Fit 312
ORGANIZATIONAL
SOCIALIZATION 313
Learning and Adjustment
Process 313
Stages of Organizational
Socialization 313
Improving the Socialization
Process 314
14 Organizational
Change 320
LEWIN’S FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS
MODEL 321
UNDERSTANDING RESISTANCE TO
CHANGE 322
Why Employees Resist
Change 323
UNFREEZING, CHANGING, AND
REFREEZING 325
Creating an Urgency for
Change 325
Reducing the Restraining
Forces 327
Refreezing the Desired
Conditions 329
LEADERSHIP, COALITIONS, AND
PILOT PROJECTS 329
Transformational Leadership and
Change 329
Coalitions, Social Networks, and
Change 329
Pilot Projects and Diffusion of
Change 331
TWO APPROACHES TO
ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE 331
Action Research Approach 332
Appreciative Inquiry Approach 333
CROSS-CULTURAL AND ETHICAL
ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE 335
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR: THE
JOURNEY CONTINUES 335
Organization Index 341
Name Index 343
Glossary/Subject Index 356
What’s New
in the Fourth Edition
M: Organizational Behavior, Fourth Edition, has been significantly
revised, guided by useful feedback from reviewers and our active
monitoring of evidence-based literature. All chapters have new
examples and either new or revised factoids; most chapters have
new conceptual content or literature foundation. The most
substantial changes have occurred in Chapter 1 (introduction to OB),
Chapter 4 (workplace emotions, attitudes, and stress), Chapter 6
(decision making and creativity), Chapter 8 (communication), and
Chapter 10 (conflict and negotiation). The authors personally
researched, selected, and wrote all of this content, thereby
providing superior integration of knowledge and ensuring that the
examples are relevant and recent. Here are the key changes we’ve
made to this fourth edition, broken out by chapter:
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Field of
Organizational Behavior
Technological change has been added in the section on
contemporary developments facing organizations. The section on
perspectives of organizational effectiveness has been streamlined.
Most topics have updated content, particularly the text on the four
contemporary developments, why study OB, and several aspects of
organizational effectiveness.
Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality,
and Values
Several topics in this chapter have been updated, particularly
coverage of the five-factor model of personality and work
performance, values and individual behavior, and moral
sensitivity.
Chapter 3: Perceiving Ourselves and Others
in Organizations
This book pioneered the full model of self-concept and its
relevance to organizational behavior. This edition further
develops this important topic and provides new information on
the opposing motives for distinctiveness and inclusion. The
section on stereotyping also incorporates the concept of
stereotype threat.
Chapter 4: Workplace Emotions, Attitudes,
and Stress
This edition significantly revises and updates discussion on four key
workplace stressors, with new writing about organizational
constraints and interpersonal conflict as stressors. In addition, there
is new content on attitude–behavior contingencies.
Chapter 5: Employee Motivation
New to this edition is the topic of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
as well as the question of whether introducing extrinsic sources of
motivation reduces intrinsic motivation. We also have reorganized
and refined the writing on drives and needs, Maslow’s needs
hierarchy, and four-drive theory. The previous edition introduced
the social and information processing characteristics of jobs. This
edition further refines that emerging topic.
Chapter 6: Decision Making and Creativity
This chapter has been substantially revised and updated in several
ways. Design thinking now receives more attention as a concept
and practice to improve workplace creativity. ­The topic of problems
with information processing when choosing alternatives also has
been substantially updated. Additional updates have been made to
solution-focused problems, problems with goals, implicit favorite
bias, and satisficing (problems with maximization).
Chapter 7: Team Dynamics
This edition refines discussion introduced in the previous edition
on the three characteristics that distinguish types of teams. It
also offers more detail about social loafing, team mental models
(as part of team development), and team development through
team building.
Chapter 8: Communicating in Teams and
Organizations
This edition substantially revises and updates the important topic of
choosing the best communication medium. Specifically, this topic
xiii
discusses four key factors (synchronicity, social presence, social
acceptance, and media richness) as well as associated
contingencies to consider when choosing a communication
channel. This edition continues to shift the focus toward various
forms of digital communication (less focus on email alone). Another
noticeable change is the updated discussion on the characteristics
and benefits of enterprise social media.
Chapter 9: Power and Influence
in the Workplace
This chapter contains updates on topics including legitimate power,
visibility, and organizational politics.
Chapter 10: Conflict and Negotiation
in the Workplace
This edition substantially reorganizes and updates the entire
section on resolving conflict through negotiation. The new or
revised topics include distributive and integrative approaches
to bargaining, understanding needs, bargaining zone dynamics,
how BATNA increases bargaining power, the importance of
listening, and strategies for making concessions. This edition
also introduces recent evidence about gender differences in
negotiation. Elsewhere in this chapter, we update the topics of
task and relationship conflict and problems resulting from
relationship conflict. We also revised portions on the topic of
whether conflict is good or bad.
xiv
Chapter 11: Leadership in Organizational
Settings
This chapter, substantially revised in the previous edition, includes
updates on the topics of transformational leadership, comparing
transformational with managerial leadership, and evaluating
path–goal theory.
Chapter 12: Designing Organizational
Structures
This chapter has been revised to include updates on span of
control, problems with flatter structures, and types of divisional
structure. It also includes numerous new in-text examples of
companies that apply various forms of departmentalization.
Chapter 13: Organizational Culture
In addition to replacing most examples and updating references, this
chapter has revised content on the topics of espoused versus enacted
values, content of organizational culture, types of organizational culture
artifacts, adaptive cultures, the integration strategy for merging
cultures, and how founders and leaders shape and strengthen culture.
Chapter 14: Organizational Change
This edition includes updates on understanding resistance to
change, social networks and viral change, and appreciative inquiry.
As with other chapters, it also has several new real-world examples.
Organizational
Behavior
 PART 1 1 Introduction to the Field of
Organizational Behavior

©Robert Kneschke/Shutterstock
Learning Objectives After you read this chapter, you should be able to:

LO1-1 Define organizational behavior and
organizations, and discuss the importance
of this field of inquiry.
LO1-2 Debate the organizational
opportunities and challenges of
technological change, globalization,
emerging employment relationships, and
workforce diversity.
LO1-3 Discuss the anchors on which
organizational behavior knowledge is
based.
LO1-4 Compare and contrast the four
perspectives of organizational
effectiveness.

2

A
pple and Amazon are the two most admired compa-
nies in the world, according to Fortune magazine’s
annual list. Yet neither of these firms was on any-
one’s radar screen two decades ago. Apple was on life support in the
late 1990s, barely clinging to a few percentage points of market
share in the computer industry. Amazon started selling books online
in 1995, a few months after its founder, Jeff Bezos, took a course
from the American Booksellers Association on how to start a
bookstore!1
The dramatic growth of Apple and Amazon illustrates the many
workplace activities that contribute to success in today’s turbu-
lent economic environment. In every sector of the economy, or-
ganizations need skilled and motivated people who can realize
their potential, work in teams, and maintain a healthy lifestyle.
They need leaders with foresight and vision, who support inno-
vative work practices and make decisions that consider the in-
terests of multiple stakeholders. In other words, the best
companies succeed through the concepts and practices that we
discuss in this organizational behavior book.
Our purpose is to help you understand what goes on in orga-
nizations. We examine the factors that make companies effec-
tive, improve employee well-being, and drive successful
collaboration among co-workers. We look at organizations from
numerous and diverse perspectives, from the deepest founda-
tions of employee thoughts and behavior (personality,
The World’s Most
Admired
The World’s Companies
Most Admired Companies2
9b 1
Microsoft (tied)
Apple
9a 2 tions relate to each other and to their counterparts in other
Amazon.com
Facebook (tied)
8 3
Starbucks
Southwest Airlines
7 4
Berkshire Hathaway
General Electric
6 5
Disney
Alphabet (Google)
organizational behavior
(OB) the study of what
people think, feel, and do in
self-concept, attitudes, etc.) to
and around organizations
the complex interplay between
the organization’s structure organizations groups
and culture and its external of people who work
environment. Along this jour- interdependently toward
ney, we emphasize why things some purpose
happen and what you can do
to predict and guide organiza-
tional events.
We begin this chapter by introducing you to the field of or-
ganizational behavior and why it is important to your career
and to organizations. This is followed by an overview of four
major societal developments facing organizations: technologi-
cal change, globalization, emerging employment relationships,
and increasing workforce diversity. We then describe four an-
chors that guide the development of organizational behavior
knowledge. The latter part of this chapter describes the “ulti-
mate dependent variable” in organizational behavior by pre-
senting the four main perspectives of organizational
effectiveness. The chapter closes with an integrative model of
organizational behavior, which serves as a road map to guide
you through the topics in this book.
LO1-1 Define organizational behavior and organizations,
and discuss the importance of this field of inquiry.
THE FIELD OF
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR
Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of what people
think, feel, and do in and around organizations. It looks at
employee behavior, decisions, perceptions, and emotional re-
sponses. It examines how individuals and teams in organiza-
organizations. OB also encompasses the study of how organi-
zations interact with their external environments, particularly
in the context of employee behavior and decisions. OB re-
searchers systematically study these topics at multiple levels of
analysis, namely, the individual, team (including interper-
sonal), and organization.3
The definition of organizational behavior begs the question:
What are organizations? Organizations are groups of people who
work interdependently toward some purpose.4 Notice that organi-
zations are not buildings or government-registered entities. In
fact, many organizations exist with neither physical walls nor gov-
ernment documentation to confer their legal status. Organizations
have existed for as long as people have worked together. Massive
temples dating back to 3500 bc were constructed through the
CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 3
organized actions of multitudes of
people. Craftspeople and mer-
chants in ancient Rome formed
guilds, complete with elected man-
agers. More than 1,000 years ago,
Chinese factories were producing
125,000 tons of iron each year.5
One key feature of all organi-
zations throughout history is that
they are collective entities.6 They
consist of human beings—typically,
but not necessarily, employees—
who interact with each other in
an organized way. This organized
relationship requires communica-
tion, coordination, and collabora-
tion to achieve organizational
objectives. As such, all organiza-
tional members have degrees of
interdependence; they accom-
plish goals by sharing materials,
information, or expertise with
coworkers. One key feature of all organizations is that they consist of human beings who interact with each
A second key feature of orga- other in an organized way.
©Image Source
nizations is that their members
have a collective sense of pur-
pose. This collective purpose isn’t always well defined or agreed had changed the name of its MBA human relations course to
on. Most companies have vision and mission statements, but “Organizational Behavior.”
they are sometimes out of date or don’t describe what employ- Although the field of OB is recent, experts in other fields
ees actually try to achieve. Still, imagine an organization without have been studying organizations for many centuries. The Greek
a collective sense of purpose. It would be an assemblage of philosopher Plato (400 bc) wrote about the essence of

A company is one of humanity’s most amazing

inventions. . . . [It’s] this abstract construct we’ve
invented, and it’s incredibly powerful.7
—Steve Jobs, Apple and Pixar Animation cofounder

people without direction or unifying force. So, whether they are
designing and marketing the latest communication technology
at Apple or selling almost anything on the Internet at Amazon,
people working in organizations do have some sense of collec-
tive purpose.
Historical Foundations of
Organizational Behavior
Organizational behavior emerged as a distinct field sometime
around the early 1940s.8 During that decade, a few researchers
began describing their research as organizational (rather than
sociological or psychological). And by the late 1940s, Harvard
leadership, and the Chinese philosopher Confucius (500 bc)
extolled the virtues of ethics and leadership. Economist Adam
Smith (late 1700s) discussed the benefits of job specialization
and division of labor. German sociologist Max Weber (early
1900s) wrote about rational organizations, the work ethic, and
charismatic leadership. Around the same time, industrial engi-
neer Frederick Winslow Taylor proposed systematic ways to or-
ganize work processes and motivate employees through goal
setting and rewards.9
Political scientist Mary Parker Follett (1920s) offered new
ways of thinking about constructive conflict, team dynamics,
power, and leadership. Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his
colleagues (1930s and 1940s) established the “human relations”

4 PART 1 | Introduction
school of management, which pioneered re-
search on employee attitudes, formal team
dynamics, informal groups, and supervisor
leadership style. American executive and Harvard
associate Chester Barnard (1930s) wrote insight-
ful views regarding organizational communica-
tion, coordination, leadership and authority,
organizations as open systems, and team dynam-
ics.10 This brief historical tour indicates that OB
has been around for a long time; it just wasn’t
organized into a unified discipline until around
World War II.
Why Study Organizational
Behavior?
In all likelihood, you are reading this book as
part of a required course in organizational be-
havior. Apart from degree or diploma require-
ments, why should you learn the ideas and
practices discussed in this book? After all, who Frederick Winslow Taylor
©Paul Fearn/Alamy Stock Photo
ever heard of a career path leading to a “vice
president of OB” or a “chief OB officer”? Our
answer to this question begins with survey findings that stu-
dents who have been in the workforce for some time typically
point to OB as one of their most valuable courses. Why? Be-
cause they have learned through experience that OB does make
a difference to one’s career success.11 There are three main rea-
sons why OB theories and practices are personally important
to you (see Exhibit 1.1).
Exhibit 1.1 Importance of Organizational Behavior
Comprehend and
Influence
predict work events
organizational events
• Work well with others • Satisfy curiosity
• Accomplish personal • Reduce anxiety
and organizational
• Predict future events
goals
Why Study
Organizational
Behavior?
Adopt more accurate
personal theories
• Confirm and refine personal
theories
• Correct false common sense
CHAPTER 1
Comprehend and Predict Workplace Events
Everyone has an inherent drive to make sense of
what is going on around him or her.12 This need is
particularly strong in organizations because they
are highly complex and ambiguous contexts that
have a profound effect on our lives. The field of
organizational behavior uses scientific research to
discover systematic relationships, which give us a
valuable foundation for comprehending organiza-
tional life.13 This knowledge satisfies our curiosity
about why events occur and reduces our anxiety
about circumstances that would otherwise be unex-
pected and unexplained. Furthermore, OB knowl-
edge improves our ability to predict and anticipate
future events so we can get along with others,
achieve our goals, and minimize unnecessary
career risks.
Adopt More Accurate Personal Theories A
frequent misunderstanding is that OB is common
sense. Of course, some OB knowledge is very simi-
lar to the theories you have developed through per-
sonal experience. But personal theories are usually not quite as
precise as they need to be. Perhaps they explain and predict some
situations, but not others. For example, one study found that
when liberal arts students and chief executive officers were asked
to choose the preferred organizational structure in various situa-
tions, their commonsense answers were typically wrong because
they oversimplified well-known theory and evidence on that
topic.14 (We discuss organizational structures in
Chapter 12.) Throughout this book you also will
discover that OB research has debunked some
ideas that people thought were “common sense.”
Overall, we believe the OB knowledge you will
gain by reading this book will help you challenge
and refine your personal theories, and give you
more accurate and complete perspectives of
organizational events.
Influence Organizational Events Proba-
bly the greatest value of OB knowledge is that
it helps us get things done in the workplace by
influencing organizational events.15 By defini-
tion, organizations are people who work to-
gether to accomplish things, so we need a
toolkit of knowledge and skills to work suc-
cessfully with others. Studies consistently ob-
serve that the most important knowledge and
skills that employers desire in employees re-
late to the topics we discuss in this book, such
as building teams, motivating coworkers, han-
dling workplace conflicts, making decisions,
and changing employee behavior. No matter
what career path you choose, you’ll find that
| Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 5
OB concepts play an important
role in performing your job and
working more effectively within
organizations.

Organizational Behavior Is
for Everyone Organizational
behavior is discussed by some
writers as a topic for managers.
Effective management does de-
pend on OB concepts and prac-
tices, but this book pioneered the
broader view that OB is valuable
for everyone who works in and
around organizations. Whether
you are a software engineer, cus-
tomer service representative, for-
eign exchange analyst, or chief Probably the greatest value of OB knowledge is that it helps us get things done in the workplace
executive officer, you need to by influencing organizational events.
understand and apply the many ©ColorBlind Images/Blend Images LLC
organizational behavior topics
that are discussed in this book. In fact, OB knowledge is probably
more valuable than ever before because employees increas- LO1-2 Debate the organizational opportunities and
ingly need to be proactive, self-motivated, and able to work challenges of technological change, globalization, emerging
effectively with coworkers without management intervention. employment relationships, and workforce diversity.
In the words of one forward-thinking OB writer more than four
decades ago: Everyone is a manager.16

OB and the Bottom Line Up to this point, our answer to CONTEMPORARY

the question “Why study OB?” has focused on how organiza-
tional behavior knowledge benefits you as an individual.
However, OB is also vital to the organization’s survival and
success.17 For instance, the best 100 companies to work for in
America (i.e., companies with the highest levels of employee
satisfaction) enjoy significantly higher financial performance
than other businesses within the same industry. Companies
with higher levels of employee engagement have higher sales
and profitability (see Chapter 5). OB practices also are asso-
ciated with various indicators of hospital performance, such
as lower patient mortality rates and higher patient satisfac-
tion. Other studies have consistently found a positive rela-
tionship between the quality of leadership and the company’s
financial performance.
The bottom-line value of organizational behavior is
supported by research into the best predictors of investment
portfolio performance. These investigations suggest that
leadership, performance-based rewards, employee develop-
ment, employee attitudes, and other specific OB characteris-
tics are important “positive screens” for selecting companies
with the highest and most consistent long-term investment
gains.18 Overall, the organizational behavior concepts, theo-
ries, and practices presented throughout this book make a
positive difference to you personally, to the organization, and
ultimately to society.
DEVELOPMENTS
FACING ORGANIZATIONS
Organizations are experiencing unprecedented change. Techno-
logical developments, consumer expectations, global competi-
tion, and many other factors have substantially altered business
strategy and everyday workplace activities. The field of organiza-
tional behavior plays a vital role in guiding organizations
through this continuous turbulence. As we will explain in more
detail later in this chapter, organizations are deeply affected by
the external environment. Consequently, they need to maintain
a good organization–environment fit by anticipating and adjust-
ing to changes in society. Over the next few pages, we introduce
four major environmental developments facing organizations:
technological change, globalization, emerging employment rela-
tionships, and increasing workforce diversity.
Technological Change
Technological change has always been a disruptive force in orga-
nizations, as well as in society.19 Waterwheels, cotton gins, steam
engines, microprocessors (such as in automated systems and
artificial intelligence), and many other innovations dramatically
boost productivity, but also usually displace employees and ren-
der obsolete entire occupational groups. Other technologies,

6 PART 1 | Introduction

such as the telegraph, smartphone, and the Internet, have in-
creased productivity but also altered work relationships and pat-
terns of behavior with coworkers, clients, and suppliers. Still
other technologies aim to improve health and well-being, such as
the development of better medicines and medical equipment,
new leisure apparatus, and environmentally safer materials.
Information technology is one of the most significant forms
of technological change in recent times.20 As we discuss in
Chapter 8, communication patterns and power dynamics have
substantially changed due to the introduction of email and
other forms of digital messaging. Social media and other col-
laboration technologies are slowly replacing email, and will fur-
ther reshape how people associate and coordinate with each
other. Some OB experts argue that information technology
gives employees a stronger voice through direct communica-
tion with executives and broader distribution of their opinions
to coworkers and beyond.
Information technology also has created challenges, such as
tethering people to their jobs for longer hours, reducing their
attention spans at work, and increasing techno-stress. We dis-
cuss these concerns below and in Chapter 4 (workplace stress).
At a macro-level, information technology has reconfigured en-
tire organizations by integrating suppliers and other external
entities into the transformation process. Eventually, technology
may render organizations less of a place where people work and
more of a process or network where people collaborate across
space and time (see Chapter 12).
globalization economic,
social, and cultural
connectivity with people in
globalize when they actively
other parts of the world
participate in other countries
and cultures. Although busi- work–life balance
nesses have traded goods the degree to which a person
across borders for centuries, minimizes conflict between
the degree of globalization to- work and nonwork demands
day is unprecedented because
information technology and
transportation systems allow a much more intense level of con-
nectivity and interdependence around the planet.22
Globalization offers numerous benefits to organizations in
terms of larger markets, lower costs, and greater access to
knowledge and innovation. At the same time, there is consider-
able debate about whether globalization benefits developing na-
tions and the extent to which it is responsible for increasing
work intensification, reduced job security, and poor work–life
balance in developed countries.23
The field of organizational behavior focuses on the effects of
globalization on organizations and how to lead and work effec-
tively in this emerging reality. Throughout this book, we will refer
to the effects of globalization on teamwork, diversity, cultural val-
ues, organizational structure, leadership, and other themes. Glo-
balization has brought more complexity and new ways of working
to the workplace. It also requires additional knowledge and skills
that we will discuss in this book, such as emotional intelligence, a
global mindset, nonverbal communication, and conflict handling.

Emerging Employment Relationships

Globalization Technology, globalization, and several other developments
Globalization refers to economic, social, and cultural connectiv- have substantially altered the employment relationship in most
ity with people in other parts of the world. Organizations countries. Before the digital age, most employees would finish
work after eight or nine hours and
could separate their personal time from
Social Media Technology Reshapes the Workplace21 their employment. Today, they are
more likely to be connected to work on

21% of 2,027 employed

American adults say they spend between
58% of 1,000 American
employees polled say they would
a 24/7 schedule. Globalization in-
creases competitive pressure to work
longer and creates a 24-hour schedule
1 and 6 hours using social media tools or prefer to work at a company that because coworkers, suppliers, and cli-
mobile applications to help get their job uses internal (enterprise) social
ents work in different time zones. Infor-
done. media.
mation technology enables employers

42%
and others to easily and quickly com-
46 % of 9,908 information
workers polled across 32 countries say
of 9,908
information workers polled across
municate with employees beyond their
traditional workday.
that social media tools have somewhat 32 countries say that social media
Little wonder that one of the most im-
or greatly increased their productivity. tools have resulted in more portant employment issues over the past
workplace collaboration. decade has been work–life balance.
Work–life balance occurs when people
are able to minimize conflict between

60
their work and nonwork demands.24
% of 2,186 American hiring and human resource Most employees lack this balance be-
managers say they use social media sites to research job cause they spend too many hours each
candidates (up from 52% the previous year and 11% in 2006). week performing or thinking about their
(photo): ©pictafolio/E+/Getty Images job, whether at the workplace, at home,

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 7

telecommuting an
arrangement whereby,
supported by information
or on vacation. This focus on
technology, employees work
work leaves too little time to
from home one or more work
fulfill nonwork needs and obli-
days per month rather than
commute to the office gations. Our discussion of
work-related stress (Chapter 4)
will examine work–life bal-
ance issues in more detail.
Another employment relationship trend is for employees to
work away from the organization’s traditional common work
site.25 One form of this remote work arrangement involves per-
forming most job duties at client sites throughout the day. Re-
pair technicians and management consultants regularly work at
client sites, for example. Longer-term remote work occurs
where employees are assigned to partner organizations. For in-
stance, biotechnology firm Anteo Diagnostics dispatches its
scientists for several weeks or months to partner companies
around the world, where they jointly investigate the effective-
ness of Anteo’s patented nano glue products on the partner
firm’s point-of-care technology.
Telecommuting The best-known form of remote work is
telecommuting (also called teleworking) whereby information
technology enables employees to work from home one or more
workdays per month rather than commute to the office. An esti-
mated 37 percent of U.S. workers telecommute, with almost
one-third of them working from home at least six days each
month. The U.S. government reports that 23 percent of employ-
ees perform some or all of their work at home (but that includes
taking work home after attending the office, not just
telecommuting).26
Is telecommuting good for employees and organizations?
This question continues to be debated because it produces
Most employees lack work–life balance because they spend
too many hours each week performing or thinking about their
job, whether at the workplace, at home, or on vacation.
©ALMAGAMI/Shutterstock
8 PART 1 | Introduction
Exhibit 1.2 Potential Benefits and Risks of
Telecommuting
Potential Benefits Potential Risks
• B
 etter employee work–life • More social isolation
balance • Lower team cohesion
• A
 ttractive benefit for job • Weaker organizational culture
applicants
• M
 ore stressful due to home
• Low employee turnover space and roles
• Higher employee productivity
• R
 educed greenhouse gas
emissions
• R
 educed corporate real
estate and office costs
several potential benefits and risks (see Exhibit 1.2).27 One ad-
vantage is that telecommuters usually experience better work–
life balance because they have more time and somewhat more
control to juggle work with family obligations. For example, a
study of 25,000 IBM employees found that female telecommut-
ers with children were able to work 40 hours per week, whereas
female employees with children who work solely at the office
could manage only 30 hours before feeling work–life balance
tension. Work–life balance is less likely to improve when tele-
commuters lack sufficient workspace and privacy at home and
have increased family responsibilities on telecommuting days.
Job applicants—particularly millennials—identify telecommut-
ing as an attractive job feature, and turnover is usually lower
among telecommuting employees. Research also indicates that
telecommuters have higher productivity than nontelecommuters,
likely because they experience less stress and tend to transfer
some former commuting time to work time. Telecommuting also
improves productivity by enabling employees to work at times
when the weather or natural disasters block access to the office.
Several companies report that telecommuting has reduced
greenhouse gas emissions and office expenses. For instance,
health insurer Aetna estimates that its telecommuting employ-
ees (31 percent of the workforce) annually avoid using two mil-
lion gallons of gas, thereby reducing carbon dioxide emissions
by more than 23,000 metric tons. With many employees work-
ing from home, Aetna also has been able to reduce its real estate
and related costs by between 15 and 25 percent.28
Telecommuting also has several disadvantages.29 Telecom-
muters frequently report more social isolation. They also receive
less word-of-mouth information, which may have implications
for promotional opportunities and workplace relations. Tele-
commuting also tends to weaken relationships among cowork-
ers, resulting in lower team cohesion. Organizational culture is
also potentially weaker when most employees work from home
for a significant part of their workweek.
 surface-level diversity
the observable demographic
or physiological differences in
Telecommuting success depends on several characteristics of (currently 18 percent), 14 percent
people, such as their race,
the employee, job, and organization.30 Employees who work will be of Asian descent (cur-
ethnicity, gender, age, and
effectively from home typically have higher self-motivation, self- rently 6 percent), and 13 per- physical disabilities
organization, need for autonomy, and information technology cent will be African American
skills. Those who telecommute most of the time also fulfill their (currently 14 percent).32 deep-level diversity
social needs more from sources outside the workplace. Jobs are Diversity also includes dif- differences in the
better suited to telecommuting when the tasks do not require ferences in personalities, be- psychological characteristics
resources at the workplace, the work is performed independently liefs, values, and attitudes.33 of employees, including
from coworkers, and task performance is measurable. We can’t directly see this deep- personalities, beliefs, values,
and attitudes
Organizations improve telecommuting success by rewarding level diversity, but it is evident
and promoting employees based on their performance rather in a person’s choices, words,
than their presence in the office (face time). Effective compa- and actions. Deep-level diver-
nies also help telecommuters maintain sufficient cohesion with sity is revealed when employees have different perceptions and
their team and psychological connectedness with the organiza- attitudes about the same situation (see Chapter 10) and when
tion. This occurs by limiting the number of telecommuting days, they form like-minded informal social groups (see
having special meetings or events where all employees assemble Chapter 7). Some deep-level diversity is associated with surface-
at the workplace, and regularly using video communication and level attributes. For example, studies report significant differ-
other technology that improves personal relatedness. ences between men and women regarding their preference of

Employees who work effectively from home typically have

higher self-motivation, self-organization, need for autonomy,
and information technology skills.

conflict-handling styles, ethical

principles, and approaches to
communicating with other
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1.1: Are You a Good Telecommuter? people in various situations.34
Telecommuting is an increasingly popular workplace relationship, and it An example of deep-level di-
potentially offers benefits for both companies and telecommuters. However, some versity is the variations in beliefs
people are better suited than others to telecommuting and other forms of remote and expectations across genera-
work. You can discover how well you adjust to telecommuting and remote work tions.35 Exhibit 1.3 illustrates the
by locating this self-assessment in Connect if it is assigned by your instructor. distribution of the American
workforce by major generational
cohorts: Baby Boomers (born
from 1946 to 1964), Generation
Increasing Workforce Diversity Xers (born from 1965 to 1980), and Millennials (also called Genera-
Immigrants to the United States and many other countries have tion Yers, born between 1981 and 1997).
much more multicultural origins than a few decades ago, result- Generational deep-level diversity does exist to some extent, but
ing in a much more diverse workforce in most organizations. In it tends to be subtler than the popular press would suggest. Also,
addition, globalization has increased the diversity of people em- some generational differences are actually due to age, not co-
ployees interact with in partner organizations (suppliers, clients, hort.37 For instance, Millennials have a stronger motivation for
etc.) located elsewhere in the world. personal development, advancement, and recognition, whereas
When discussing workforce diversity, we usually think about Baby Boomers are more motivated by interesting and meaningful
surface-level diversity—the observable demographic and other work. Research indicates that as Millennials age, their motivation
overt differences among members of a group, such as their race, for learning and advancement will wane and their motivation for
ethnicity, gender, age, and physical capabilities.31 Surface-level di- interesting and meaningful work will increase.
versity in the United States and many other countries has in-
creased substantially over the past few decades. For instance, Consequences of Diversity
people with non-Caucasian or Hispanic origin currently represent Workforce diversity offers numerous advantages to organiza-
almost 40 percent of the American population. Within the next tions.38 Teams with high informational diversity—members have
50 years, an estimated one-quarter of Americans will be Hispanic different knowledge and skills—tend to be more creative and

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 9

 Exhibit 1.3 America’s Multigenerational Workforce36
Generation Z Silents
(Linkster)
Baby Millennials
Boomers (Gen Y)
Generation X
Note: Percentage of U.S. workforce by age group, based on data
from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Silents” represent the
generation of employees born before 1946. Generation Zers (also
called Linksters) were born after 1997.
make better decisions in complex situations compared to teams
with less informational diversity. A workforce with surface- and
deep-level diversity is also more representative of most commu-
nities, so companies are better able to recognize and address
community needs. These and other benefits may explain why
companies that win diversity awards have higher financial re-
turns, at least in the short run.39
Diversity also poses challenges in the workplace.40 One prob-
lem is that employees with diverse backgrounds usually take lon-
ger to perform effectively together because they experience
numerous communication problems and create “faultlines” in
informal group dynamics (see Chapter 7). Some forms of diver-
sity also increase the risk of dysfunctional conflict, which re-
duces information sharing and satisfaction with coworkers (see
Chapter 10). Research suggests that these problems can offset
the advantages of diversity in some situations.
But even with these challenges, companies need to make diver-
sity a priority because surface-level diversity and some forms of
deep-level diversity are moral and legal imperatives. Companies
that offer an inclusive workplace are, in essence, fulfilling the ethi-
cal standard of fairness in their decisions regarding employment
and the allocation of rewards. Inclusive workplace practices im-
prove the quality of hiring and promotion, and increase employee
satisfaction and loyalty. Companies that create an inclusive work-
place also nurture a culture of respect, which, in turn, improves
cooperation and coordination among employees.
10 PART 1 | Introduction
OB THEORY TO PRACTICE
Diversity as Competitive Advantage
at MasterCard
©Pau Barrena/Bloomberg/Getty Images
Supporting workforce diversity is the right thing to do as well as a source
of competitive advantage at MasterCard Incorporated. “Our culture of
inclusion has established us as a global company of empowered em-
ployees who use their diversity of thought, experience and background
to advance innovation and MasterCard’s contributions to society,” says
MasterCard president and CEO Ajay Banga (shown in this photo).
Banga personally chairs MasterCard’s Global Diversity and Inclu-
sion Council and meets several times each year with its eight Busi-
ness Resource Groups. More than half of MasterCard’s employees
participate in these diversity-based groups, which serve as internal
business consultants to guide the company on consumer prefer-
ences, cultural insights, and access to networks. “By valuing a culture
of inclusion, we gain additional insights and perspectives that allow
us to make the best decisions for our business and customers,” ex-
plains Donna Johnson, MasterCard’s chief diversity officer.41
LO1-3 Discuss the anchors on which organizational
behavior knowledge is based.
ANCHORS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR KNOWLEDGE
Technological change, globalization, emerging employment re-
lationships, and increasing workforce diversity are just a few of
the societal changes that make organizational behavior knowl-
edge more useful than ever before. To understand these and
other topics, the field of organizational behavior relies on a set
of basic beliefs or knowledge structures (see Exhibit 1.4). These
conceptual anchors represent the principles on which OB
knowledge is developed and refined.42

The Systematic Research Anchor
A key feature of OB knowledge is that it should be
based on systematic research, which typically in-
volves forming research questions, systematically
collecting data, and testing hypotheses against those
data.43 Systematic research investigation is the ba-
sis for evidence-based management, which
involves making decisions and taking ac-
tions guided by research evidence. It
makes perfect sense that management
practice should be founded on the best
available systematic knowledge. Yet many
of us who study organizations using sys-
tematic methods are amazed at how often
corporate leaders and other staff embrace
fads, untested consulting models, and
their own pet beliefs without bothering
to find out if they actually work!44
Why don’t decision makers consis-
tently apply evidence-based management?
One reason is that they are bombarded with
ideas from consultant reports, popular business
books, newspaper articles, and other sources,
which makes it difficult to figure out which
ones are based on good evidence. A second
reason is that good OB research is necessarily
generic; it is rarely described in the context of
a specific problem in a specific organi-
zation. Decision makers therefore A key feature of OB knowledge is that it should
have the difficult task of figuring out be based on systematic research, which
which theories are relevant to their becomes the foundation for evidence-based
unique situation. management.
©Wavebreakmedia Ltd PH26L/Alamy Stock Photo
A third reason why organizational
leaders follow popular management
fads that lack research evidence is because the sources of these
fads are rewarded for marketing their ideas, not for testing to
evidence-based
management the practice
of making decisions and
see if they actually work. In- taking actions based on
deed, some management research evidence
concepts have become pop-
ular (some have even found their way into OB textbooks!)
because of heavy marketing, not because of any evidence that
they are valid. A fourth reason is that human beings are
affected by several perceptual errors and decision-
making biases, as we will learn in Chapter 3 and
Chapter 6. For instance, decision makers have a
natural tendency to look for evidence
that supports their pet beliefs and ig-
nore evidence that opposes those
beliefs.
OB experts have identified several ways to
create a more evidence-based organization.45
First, be skeptical of hype, which is apparent
when so-called experts say the idea is “new,”
“revolutionary,” and “proven.” In reality, most
management ideas are adaptations, evolutionary,
and never proven (science can disprove but never
prove; it can only find evidence to support a prac-
tice). Second, the company should embrace collec-
tive expertise rather than rely on charismatic stars
and management gurus. Third, stories provide
useful illustrations and possibly preliminary evi-
dence of a useful practice, but they should never
become the main foundation to support manage-
ment action. Instead, rely on more sys-
tematic investigation with a larger
sample. Finally, take a neutral stance
toward popular trends and ideologies.
Executives tend to get caught up in
what their counterparts at other com-
panies are doing without determining
the validity of those trendy practices or their relevance to their
own organizations.

Exhibit 1.4 Anchors of Organizational Behavior Knowledge The Multidisciplinary

Systematic research Study organizations using systematic research
Anchor
anchor methods Another organizational behavior anchor is
that the field should welcome theories and
knowledge from other disciplines, not just
Multidisciplinary Import knowledge from other disciplines, not just from its own isolated research base. For in-
anchor create its own knowledge stance, psychological research has aided our
understanding of individual and interper-
sonal behavior. Sociologists have contrib-
Contingency Recognize that the effectiveness of an action may uted to our knowledge of team dynamics,
anchor depend on the situation organizational socialization, organizational
power, and other aspects of the social sys-
tem. OB knowledge also has benefited from
Multiple levels of Understand OB events from three levels of
knowledge in emerging fields such as com-
analysis anchor analysis: individual, team, organization
munications, marketing, and information
systems.

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 11


OB THEORY TO PRACTICE
Creating an Evidence-Based
Management Organization
1. Be skeptical of hyped management practices (“new,” “revolu-
tionary,” “proven”).
2. Embrace collective expertise, not charismatic stars or manage-
ment gurus.
3. Use stories as examples and ideas, not conclusive evidence.
4. Take a neutral stance to popular trends and ideologies.
This practice of borrowing theory from other disciplines is
inevitable. Organizations have central roles in society, so they
are studied in many social sciences. Furthermore, organizations
consist of people who interact with each other, so there is an
inherent intersection between OB and most disciplines that
study human beings. However, by relying too much on theories
developed in other fields, OB faces the risk of lagging rather
than leading in knowledge production. In contrast, OB-bred
theories allow researchers to concentrate on the quality and use-
fulness of the theory, and be the first to understand and apply
that knowledge.46
The Contingency Anchor
People and their work environments are complex, and the field
of organizational behavior recognizes this by stating that the ef-
fect of one variable on another variable often depends on the
characteristics of the situation or people involved. In practice,
this means that we can’t count on having the same result in ev-
ery situation when we apply an intervention. Instead, a particu-
lar action may have different consequences under different
conditions.47 For example, earlier in this chapter we said that
the success of telecommuting depends on specific characteris-
tics of the employee, job, and organization. Contingencies are
identified in many OB theories, such as the best leadership style,
the best conflict-handling style, and the best organizational
structure. Of course, it would be so much simpler if we could
rely on “one best way” theories, in which a particular concept or
practice has the same results in every situation. OB experts do
try to keep theories as simple as possible, but the contingency
anchor is always on their mind.48
The Multiple Levels of Analysis Anchor
Organizational behavior recognizes that what goes on in organi-
zations can be placed into three levels of analysis: individual,
team (including interpersonal), and organization. In fact, ad-
vanced empirical research currently being conducted carefully
identifies the appropriate level of analysis for each variable in
the study and then measures at that level of analysis. For exam-
ple, team norms and cohesion are measured as team variables,
not as characteristics of individuals within each team.
12 PART 1 | Introduction
Although OB research and writing peg each variable within
one of these levels of analysis, most variables are understood
best by thinking of them from all three levels of analysis.49 Com-
munication is located in this book as a team (interpersonal) pro-
cess, for instance, but it also includes individual and
organizational processes. Therefore, you should try to think
about each OB topic at the individual, team, and organizational
levels, not just at one of these levels.
LO1-4 Compare and contrast the four perspectives of
organizational effectiveness.
PERSPECTIVES OF
ORGANIZATIONAL
EFFECTIVENESS
Almost all organizational behavior theories have the implicit or
explicit objective of making organizations more effective.50 In
fact, organizational effectiveness is considered the “ultimate
dependent variable” in organizational behavior.51 This means
that organizational effectiveness is the outcome that most OB
theories are ultimately trying to achieve. Many theories use dif-
ferent labels—organizational performance, success, goodness,
health, competitiveness, excellence—but they are basically pre-
senting models and recommendations that help organizations to
be more effective.
Many years ago, OB experts thought the best indicator of a
company’s effectiveness was how well it achieved its stated ob-
jectives. According to this definition, Delta Air Lines would be
an effective organization if it met or exceeded its annual sales
and profit targets. Today, we know that this goal perspective
might not indicate organizational effectiveness at all. Any lead-
ership team could set corporate goals that are easy to achieve,
yet the company would be left in the dust by competitors’ more
aggressive objectives. Worse still, some goals might ultimately
put the company out of business. For example, they may focus
employees on reducing costs whereas success may require more
focus on product or service quality.
The best yardstick of organizational effectiveness is a compos-
ite of four perspectives: open systems, organizational learning,
high-performance work practices, and stakeholders.52 Organiza-
tions are effective when they have a good fit with their external
environment, are learning organizations, have efficient and adap-
tive internal subsystems (i.e., high-performance work practices),
and satisfy the needs of key stakeholders. Over the next few
pages, we examine each of these perspectives in more detail.
Open Systems Perspective
The open systems perspective of organizational effectiveness is
one of the earliest and most-entrenched ways of thinking about
 organizational
effectiveness a broad
concept represented by
organizations.53 Indeed, the other major organizational effec- availability of future inputs,
several perspectives,
tiveness perspectives mainly provide more detail to specific sec- and the appropriateness of the including the organization’s fit
tions of the open systems model. This perspective views transformation process. with the external environment,
organizations as complex organisms that “live” within an exter- internal subsystems’
nal environment, as Exhibit 1.5 illustrates. The word open de- Organization–Environment configuration for high
scribes this permeable relationship, whereas closed systems Fit The open systems perspec- performance, emphasis on
operate without dependence on or interaction with an external tive states that organizations are organizational learning, and
environment. effective when they maintain a ability to satisfy the needs of
As open systems, organizations depend on the external envi- good “fit” with their external en- key stakeholders
ronment for resources, including raw materials, job applicants, vironment.55 Good fit exists
open systems a
financial resources, information, and equipment. The external when the organization’s inputs, perspective that holds that
environment also consists of rules and expectations, such as processes, and outputs are organizations depend on the
laws and cultural norms, that place demands on how organiza- aligned with the external envi- external environment for
tions should operate. Some resources (e.g., raw materials) are ronment’s needs, expectations, resources, affect that
imported from the external environment, are transformed into and resources. Organizations environment through their
product or services, and then become outputs exported to the maintain a good environmental output, and consist of internal
external environment. Other resources (e.g., job applicants, fit in three ways: subsystems that transform
equipment) become subsystems in the transformation process. inputs to outputs
• Adapt to the environment: Effec-
Inside the organization are numerous subsystems, such as tive organizations closely and
departments, teams, informal groups, information systems, continuously monitor the environ-
work processes, and technological processes.54 These subsys- ment for emerging conditions that pose a threat or opportunity. Then
tems are dependent on each other as they transform inputs they reconfigure their internal subsystems to align more closely with that
into outputs. Some outputs (e.g., products and services) may shifting environment. There are many ways that companies are adaptive
be valued by the external environment, whereas other outputs (called their dynamic capability), such as by changing the type or
(e.g., employee layoffs, pollution) are undesirable by-products volume of products produced, shifting to different input resources
that may have adverse effects on the environment and the or- that are more plentiful or reliable, and designing better production
ganization’s relationship with that environment. Throughout (transformation) processes.
this process, organizations receive feedback from the external • Influence the environment: Effective organizations don’t merely re-
environment regarding the value of their outputs, the spond to emerging conditions; they actively try to influence their

Exhibit 1.5 Open Systems Perspective of Organizations

External Environment External Environment

Subsystem

Accounting
Technological subsystem
tem

subsystem
sys

Sub
b

• Raw materials m
Su

yste
syst

Subs • Products/services
e

• Human resources Organization

m

Engineering
Su

subsystem • Shareholder dividends

Transforming inputs to outputs
bs

• Information
ys
te

• Community support
m

• Financial resources Managerial Marketing/Sales

Pu bsys

Subsystem subsystem subsystem • Waste/pollution

su
rch te

• Equipment
as m
ing

em
yst
bs ural
Production Su Cult tem
subsystem ys
subs
Socia
liza
subsy tion
stem

Feedback Feedback

CHAPTER 1 | Introduction to the Field of Organizational Behavior 13


The open systems perspective states that organizations are
effective when they maintain a good “fit” with their external
environment.
©Palto/Getty Images
An important feature of an effective transformation
process is how well the internal subsystems
coordinate with each other.
environment. For instance, businesses rely on marketing to increase de-
mand for their products or services. Some firms gain exclusive rights to
particular resources (e.g., sole provider of a popular brand) or restrict
competitor access to valued resources. Still others lobby for legislation
that strengthens their position in the marketplace or try to delay legisla-
tion that would disrupt their business activities.
• Move to a more favorable environment: Sometimes the current envi-
ronment becomes so challenging that organizations cannot adapt or in-
fluence it enough to survive. For instance, the current environment might
have extreme resource scarcity, too many competitors, too little demand
for the firm’s products, or onerous rules that make the transformation
process too expensive. Under these circumstances, organizations often
move to a more benevolent environment that can support their future.
For example, Target closed its Canadian business after a few years be-
cause it underestimated the competition, stumbled on the transforma-
tion process (distribution and inventory challenges), and mismatched
consumer expectations (location, pricing).56
Effective Transformation Process In addition to maintain-
ing a good fit with the external environment, effective organiza-
tions have a transformation process that does well at converting
inputs to outputs.57 The most common indicator of effective in-
ternal subsystems is their efficiency. Efficient organizations pro-
duce more goods or services with less labor, materials, and
14 PART 1 | Introduction
energy. Another indicator is their adaptability. Organizations
need to adapt to their external environment, and this usually in-
cludes a transformation process that adapts to new products
and sometimes new ways of making those products. A third in-
dicator of an effective transformation process is innovativeness.
Innovation involves the discovery, design, and creation of prod-
ucts and work processes that are superior to what competitors
can offer.
An important feature of an effective transformation process is
how well the internal subsystems coordinate with each
other.58 Coordination is one of the most important OB concepts
because organizations consist of people working together to
achieve collective goals. As companies grow, they develop in-
creasingly complex subsystems, which makes coordination more
and more difficult. Complexity increases the risk that informa-
tion gets lost, ideas and resources are hoarded, messages are mis-
interpreted, and rewards are distributed unfairly. Subsystems are
interconnected, so small work practice changes in one subsystem
may ripple through the organization and undermine the effective-
ness of other subsystems. Consequently, organizations rely on
coordinating mechanisms to maintain an efficient, adaptive, and
innovative transformation process (see Chapter 12).
Organizational Learning Perspective
The open systems perspective has traditionally focused on physi-
cal resources that enter the organization and are processed into
physical goods (outputs). But whether their outputs are physical
or cognitive, successful companies rely on knowledge as a key
ingredient to success. This second perspective of organizational
effectiveness, called organizational learning, states that the best
organizations find ways to acquire, share, use, and store knowl-
edge. Knowledge is a resource or asset, called intellectual capital,
that exists in three forms: human capital, structural capital, and
relationship capital.59
• Human capital: Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and
abilities that employees carry around in their heads. It is a competitive
advantage because employees are essential for the organization’s sur-
vival and success, and their talents are difficult to find, to copy, and to
replace with technology.61 Human capital is also a huge risk for most or-
ganizations because it literally leaves the organization every day when
employees go home!62
• Structural capital: Even if every employee left the organization, some
intellectual capital remains as structural capital. It includes the
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
doubtless instructed by the cook, that he received unceremonious
dismissal. The road could not be hard to find in any case, so we set
out, leaving the knight of the toasting-fork to follow at his leisure.
Soon he thought better of it, and took his place again at the head of
the procession. In the lower reaches of the valley we saw further
evidence of Circassian industry, in the rich crops that waved by the
wayside. A short distance east of our route lies a small village, which
takes its name from the saint whose tomb stands there—Neby Hûd,
renowned in ancient Arab story.
We took the more easterly of two possible roads—the longer, but
also the easier for the animals. The greater variety and beauty of the
scenery repay the extra travel. The descent into the Jabbok valley
winds down a narrow ravine, turning sharply round jutting crags, and,
in parts, almost precipitous. Oaks and thorns clung to the steeps;
luxuriant vegetation covered the ground. The fertile soil of the valley
supported a fine crop of wheat. The line of the river could be traced
by a winding glory of oleander bloom, overtopped by tall, gracefully-
bending papyrus reeds, whose heavy heads swayed in the breeze.
Reaching the “brook,” we found the bed more than half dry, but even
thus the water took the horses above the saddle-girths. With a short
struggle, we all landed safely on the other side. During the winter
months this must be a perfectly impassable torrent.
On the farther bank we sat to rest and lunch. The horses too
refreshed themselves before facing the steep mountain in front. We
gathered bunches of papyrus heads—an operation requiring both
care and skill, as we found the undergrowth bound together with
trailing brambles, furnished with the sharpest of prickles. Two square
towers stand one at each end of the meadow in which we halted.
They have not the appearance of great antiquity. There is no
entrance to their interior, and their use we were unable to discover.
Climbing the mountains south of the Jabbok, or Zerka—“the blue”
river, as it is now called—was the hardest work our horses had to
face. The track was narrow, and the foothold often extremely
precarious, especially over rocky parts where a slip would have
meant a fall of hundreds of feet. What a tremendous gorge that
Jabbok is! It literally cleaves the country in twain.
 GORGE OF THE JABBOK
Now we were within the borders of the modern province of el-Belkâ,
of which es-Salt is the principal—indeed, the only—city. This lies in
the land of the ancient Ammonites. These cool, breezy uplands,
beautifully diversified with wooded knoll and pleasant vale, in which
may be heard the murmur of flowing water most of the year, offer a
rich return to the hand of the enterprising and diligent cultivator. But
whence is he to come? Numerous are the flocks and herds that
browse on the grassy slopes, find shelter in the shady woods, and
drink from the oleander-fringed streams in the vales. But no one who
sees it can for a moment suppose that this rich soil is designed
simply for the support of sheep and oxen. Those who hope for the
return of Israel to the land of their fathers should turn their eyes
rather to this rich and empty land than to the more populous and less
kindly country west of Jordan.
 CHAPTER XII
“Time is money”—Rumamain—Priestly hospitality—Fair
mountain groves—Es-Salt—The springs—Relation to
Arabs—Raisins—Descent to the Jordan—Distant view of
Jerusalem—View of the river, the plains of Jordan, the
Dead Sea, and the mountains beyond—The bridge—The
“publican’s” shed—The men from Kerâk.
Causes for delay are never far to seek among Orientals. “Time is
money” is a phrase void of meaning in Arab ears. Money is precisely
the thing he lacks most, while of time he has more than abundance.
An Eastern in a hurry is one of the rarest sights. We were still on the
uplands, far from our destination, when the sun began to throw his
evening glories over the western hills. Our cook thought fit to profess
that he had lost the way—this doubtless to pay us out for our refusal
of a guide. His manner, however, was much too cool and collected,
so we were not deceived. But it was annoying, as the whole caravan
drew up, to see him comfortably seated among the bushes, on the
top of a huge precipice, enjoying a cigarette. We moved rapidly
forward, and fortunately found a wandering Bedawy who, for a
consideration, agreed to conduct us to es-Salt. He led us by a steep
pathway to the bottom of a sweet valley. Then suddenly we plunged
into a romantic ravine, down which dashed a brawling stream,
sprinkling rock and bush with sparkling diamonds. A stiff climb up the
farther bank brought us to the little village of Rumamain, just as the
light departed. Our tents were pitched by candle-light. The villagers,
who are Christians, were most cordial in their welcome, and
hastened to furnish whatever we required, as far as it was in their
power. The priest invited our party to take refreshments with him,
and those who could be spared from the camp gladly accepted his
hospitality. He well maintained the eastern traditions in the
entertainment of strangers, although some of his beverages were
stronger than the desert law prescribes!
 RUMAMAIN
The village stands on the edge of the gorge through which we had
passed. The mountains tower aloft on either side. The valley narrows
southward, but to the north it opens out into a broad, fertile expanse,
bounded by the mountains, torn with water-courses, which form the
southern bank of the gorge of the Jabbok.
Before daybreak we were all astir. Waiting only for a supply of
beautiful milk, which was brought us by the Arabs in the mountains,
we got to horse again. Our guide shouldered his club and marched
off towards the thickets that hung, shaggy and dark, on the sides of
the valley. Our path wound among these delightful groves almost to
the confines of es-Salt. About three hours sufficed to bring us to the
city, but the ride was one not soon to be forgotten. It was one of the
most enjoyable parts of our whole journey. Thick oaks and thorns
gathered in the bottom of the hollows; honeysuckle, entwining their
gnarled limbs, shed perfume on the air; the hillsides were clad with
trees of richly varied foliage, while tall pines swayed gracefully high
over all. The morning was fresh and beautiful. Even the horses
seemed to feel the inspiration of surroundings, and footed it merrily
along. It seemed all too soon when we reached the edge of the
forest, and looked forth on the treeless hills beyond. Many of these
are, however, covered with vineyards, whose sprouting green
relieved the dull monotony. Tree-clad they too once were, as we can
see from the numerous stumps in the fields. A few of the forest
patriarchs, left here and there in the cultivated ground, would have
done much to beautify the land, and would have yielded grateful
shade to the labourers. But it is difficult to restrain the axe when it is
once set in motion. Here we found evidences of genuine industry.
Wherever it is possible, vines are planted and carefully tended, so
that the face of the country assumes quite a cheerful and prosperous
aspect.
The city of es-Salt, lying as it does on the steep slope of a valley, is
not seen until one is fairly upon it. The name es-Salt is evidently
derived from salton hieraticon—“the sacred forest.” The inhabitants
may number in all some seven thousand, of whom the great majority
are Moslems. With the Christians, however, they continue to dwell
together in harmony. There may be about two thousand Christians,
taking Greeks, Latins, and Protestants all together. The last belong
to the church founded by the Church Missionary Society. It was our
good fortune to meet with the Syrian clergyman of this congregation,
Kassîs Khalîl Jamal—a gentleman whose praise is in all the
churches. With his counsel, we were persuaded to stay here for the
day, instead of pushing straight on to Jordan, as we had originally
intended. In the valley under the city are olive groves, where the
company, dismounting, sat down for lunch, under shadow of the
trees, with the sound of running water in their ears. Our tents we
pitched on the top of the hill overlooking the town, separated by a
narrow valley from that on which the ruins of the old castle stand.
Having seen all right about the camp, some of us set out, gun in
hand, tempted by the numerous partridges, and enjoyed an excellent
opportunity to see the surroundings of es-Salt. There are few
remains of antiquity, and these not of great interest. Traces of old
graves, found along the hill-faces, and the bare ruins of the old
castle are the chief. The springs, to which the town owes so much of
its life, are, of course, highly prized. The town itself is interesting as
being the chief mercantile centre in all the district east of Jordan
through which we travelled. The market is frequented by the Beduw
from far and near, and everything necessary for their poor life is
found exposed for sale in the streets. Hither the “housewives” bring
their samn, jibn (clarified butter and cheese), skins, and other
products of the wilds, and carry off in return the cloth of which their
scanty clothing is made, coffee, tobacco, etc. Es-Salt thus forms an
excellent basis from which to reach the Arab tribes in these parts.
The advantages it offers are utilised, as far as possible, by the
missionaries there, and, with the help of the medical department of
the mission, they have found considerable entrance; but, in order to
overtake the work in a manner at all satisfactory, men would have to
be set apart to devote all their time to evangelising the Arabs. With a
well-manned station here and another at Bozrah, nearly all, if indeed
not all, the tribes that touch the eastern borders of Palestine might
be reached; and in due time evangelists from among themselves
would go forth with the glad tidings into the inhospitable wastes
beyond.
We were assured that the grapes grown in the district are unsuitable
for the making of wine. However that may be, wine is not made, but
a great business is carried on in raisins, those of es-Salt being
famed throughout the whole country. The Jewish merchants of
Tiberias buy large quantities of them and use them to produce ’arak
—a distilled spirit which is working havoc among the youth of
western Palestine, Moslems as well as others falling a prey to its
seductive influences, although all use of intoxicants is for them under
religious ban.
 ES-SALT, THE FOUNTAIN
Our stores were replenished from the market, two days’ provision
only being required, as in that time we hoped to reach Jerusalem.
Early next morning all was packed up and ready for the descent to
Jericho. Several of our party were already in the saddle, when the
horse of one who had been assisting the ladies to mount thought fit
to bolt, and, in their wild efforts to catch him, the European horsemen
may have given the Arabs some new ideas in horsemanship. In any
case, we gained a more intimate acquaintance with the nearer
surroundings of the city than would have been possible otherwise.
When at last the runaway was captured, the main part of our
caravan had already disappeared some distance in front; and it may
give some idea of the crookedness and irregularity of the road to say
that we did not catch a glimpse of them again until we were almost
upon them, on reaching the plain to the north of the Dead Sea. It is a
descent of over four thousand feet in about fifteen miles. The road
turns abruptly now to one hand, now to the other, adapting itself to
the possibilities of the rough, rocky surface, plunging into ravines,
and anon emerging on grassy tracts; but downward, ever downward,
is its course. The wild birds here are evidently little used to be
disturbed by man. Even the timid partridge sat quite close, or nimbly
ran along the rocks on either side of the path. We had not left es-Salt
half-an-hour when, from an eminence commanding a wide prospect,
we saw the high tower that crowns the Mount of Olives in the far
distance, and thus caught the first glimpse of the environs of
Jerusalem. This is one of the most tantalising sights. It seems so
near, and yet hours of toil in the hot sun seem to bring the traveller
no nearer. And when, as the sun sinks, he descends into the valley,
and it is lost to view, it seems as if he had been following some
strange kind of “Will o’ the wisp.” Ere long, too, we obtained a view of
the Dead Sea, lying under a blue haze away below us to the left; and
soon we could trace the course of Jordan through the sandy plain by
the winding breadth of deep green that fills the valley within the
valley in which the river is confined.

JORDAN, SHOWING TERRACES

In that clear, dry atmosphere distances are most deceptive. Seen
through the openings in the hills, one would think that on touching
the plain we should immediately reach the river, but there are miles
of flat, sandy ground to cover ere we pass under the shadow of the
embowering foliage and hear the rush of the waters of Jordan.
Leaving behind us the mountains of Ammon, which form the eastern
boundary of these deep plains, their scarred sides stretching away
into the beetling heights that rise darkly over the Salt Sea, the
prospect before us was one of enchanting interest. We were already
on the borders of the “circle” of Sodom, which charmed the worldly
eye and heart of Abraham’s nephew, when viewed from yonder
mountains to the west, and which was so generously given up by the
aged uncle to the youthful Lot. How strikingly these barren plains
enforce the lessons of that old-world history! How vain the choice of
beauteous pastures, one day ere long to be o’erwhelmed in desert
sand! How infinitely wise the choice of Abraham, the portion of
whose inheritance was the unchanging God Himself! There,
stretching away southward until lost in a blue haze between her
guardian mountains, are the waters of the great sea, which still, in
name, is associated with the unhappy Lot; for the natives call it only
Bahr Lût—“the sea of Lot.” Before us flowed the river whose tide
rolled backward, and over which, while the ark of the covenant stood
in the midst, the great “congregation” of Israel crossed dry-shod.
Yonder lies the site of Gilgal, whence the conquering hosts went
forth under the gallant Joshua. Towards the western border of the
plain we saw great patches of green, over which rose a curl of blue
smoke, marking the position of Erîha, the village which now
represents the city of Jericho, whose walls fell down at the shout of
the armies of Israel. Beyond rose the dark, frowning crags of
Karantal, by tradition identified with the wild scenes of our Lord’s
Temptation.
The Jordan Valley stretched away northward between its mountain
walls almost as far as the eye could reach; the high cone of Karn
Sartabeh rising full two thousand feet above the plain. This last has
been by some identified with the great altar raised by the Eastern
tribes on their return from the conquest of the West. It is in reality an
“altar” of Nature’s raising, and is interesting as one of the signal
stations from which, by means of great fires, intelligence was flashed
over the land when the new moon had been seen in Jerusalem. The
wooden bridge by which we crossed the Jordan was entirely
concealed by the groves around until we were almost upon it. A
substantial structure it looked, made of strong beams, supported by
great posts, all securely fastened together; it seemed as if it would
outlive any ordinary flood, and so, doubtless, it would. But the floods
of the winter 1890-91 were not ordinary. For some months the rains
were excessive. The river rose far above its usual level, submerging
large tracts, and carrying off much that was valuable—among the
rest the bridge, which had done us and others such good service.
The river here is deep and strong, sweeping with great rapidity round
its swift curves. The water is of a thick, brown colour, charged with
the soil over which it passes. Care must be taken in approaching the
treacherous banks of sand and clay. Toll was collected by an
enterprising Syrian, who had erected a wooden shed at the Jericho
end of the bridge. One or two native huts also stood on the little
level, almost surrounded by a bend of the river, and protected to
westward by high sand bluffs.
It was already past mid-day when we arrived, and, as the heat was
terrible, we were thankful to take refuge in the “publican’s” shed. We
were received with every token of welcome by the owner, who at
once busied himself to provide for our refreshment. We found it an
excellent plan to carry with us a supply of tea. It is often easy to get
boiling water when it is hard to get other things. Tea is swiftly made,
and, on a hot journey, is most refreshing. Leban, also, there was in
plenty. After our meal, the more weary of the party, stretched in the
shade, enjoyed a delightful nap,—only for a little, however; for this
being the chief thoroughfare between east and west of Jordan, quiet
could not be secured for long at a time. Shepherds passed over with
their flocks, and guided them down to the water’s edge to drink.
Negotiating with some of the more tractable of these half-wild men,
we secured draughts of delicious milk. Then came Arabs from the
uplands of Moab; strong, stalwart, sallow-featured men; some armed
with the spear, others carrying rifles, with belts stuck full of battered
cartridges. They sat down sociably around the shed, and conversed
freely. They were greatly impressed with the strength of the men of
Kerâk, the ancient Kir Moab. The district was not even nominally
subject to the Ottoman Government. The spirit of wild independence
was abroad among them. While yielding ready obedience to their
own sheyûkh, they resent and battle to the death against any
interference with their tribal liberty. Holding themselves absolute
masters of the soil, they consider themselves entitled to levy
blackmail on all who pass through their territory. This varies in
amount, according to the prudence or the want of it displayed by the
traveller. One who goes with tents, a large retinue of servants, and
luxurious appointments may have to pay some hundreds of pounds
before he escapes their hands; another may shoulder his camera,
ride in on a mule, and with a few rotls of coffee and a judicious
distribution of a few pounds of tobacco and snuff, may march about
with freedom, photograph all of interest in the district, and carry off
his work in safety. In these regions one must avoid every
appearance of wealth. The Turkish Government claims a supremacy
which for long it was unable to assert. Often we heard that the Hajj
guard, returning from Mecca, was to attack and subdue the
Kerâkers. The report that there were four thousand trained men,
armed with repeating rifles and no lack of ammunition, no doubt
restrained the valour of the gallant guard. At length the Turk has
established a certain shadowy authority in the town of Kerâk itself;
but over the Arabs, who occupy the town only a few months in the
year, it is difficult, if not impossible, to exercise any effective control.
The stronghold, the thought of attacking which gave cold shivers to
the Turkish soldiery, could not daunt the high-hearted soldiers of the
Cross. With admirable courage, in the true spirit of Christian
heroism, a missionary and his wife braved all the dangers in the way,
and made for themselves a home in the midst of these people. That
they had dangers not a few to face, and many privations to endure,
needs hardly to be said. But these “things did not move them”; and
the bold warrior Arab learned to love the man of peace, and prize
him as a friend. Who knows whether the Cross may not soon
triumph where the crescent so long struggled for supremacy in vain!
 CHAPTER XIII
The banks and thickets of the Jordan—Bathing-place—The
Greek convent—A night of adventures in the plains of
Jericho—The modern village—Ancient fertility—Possible
restoration—Elisha’s fountain—Wady Kelt—The Mountain
of Temptation—The path to Zion.
The Jordan, in the lower reaches, is shaded by overhanging willows,
and the path along the bank is lined with tall oleanders. In the
brushwood, which grows thickly over the little peninsulas formed by
the circlings of the river, we were assured that the nimr (small
leopard) found a lurking-place; and, further, that he and his grim
neighbour, the hyena, haunted the bushy hollows between the sand-
dunes which stretch away towards the sea.
We shouldered our guns, and, armed with ball cartridge, set out to
beat the brushwood in the hope of starting game of this class.
Perhaps it was as well for ourselves that we were disappointed; but
a gun in a man’s hand adds marvellously to his powers of endurance
in walking, so we were able to explore the shady banks of the river,
and attain a fuller knowledge of its windings. The bridge was
photographed with a group in front as a souvenir of our visit; then,
sending the muleteers straight to Jericho with tents and baggage, we
prepared to ride towards the sea, with the intention of returning to
Jericho for the night. Our road wound among the sand-dunes for
some distance. Here we were charged to keep close together. The
advice was necessary. Had one lingered behind, and by any
mischance lost the way, he might have wandered long enough in the
labyrinth formed by these little sand-hills, which resemble each other
so closely as to be distinguished only by the trained eye. They are
the haunts of robbers too, who, in the multitudinous winding hollows,
may easily escape pursuit.
We did not go so far down as the fords and famous bathing-place;
but on a subsequent occasion I saw something of the extraordinary
scenes enacted there—a great company of Russian pilgrims, men,
women, and children, plunging promiscuously into the sacred river.
Most wore a thin linen garment as they went down into the water.
This is afterwards carefully preserved, and is worn again only as a
shroud. Certain men standing in the stream saw that each one went
at least three times over the head.

FORDS OF JORDAN. PILGRIMS BATHING

Leaving the labyrinth, we emerged on a wide sterile plain, over which
grew only a few stunted desert bushes. Here and there we could see
the shimmer of the sunlight on a thin crust of salt. The Greek
convent, standing in the midst of the waste, served as a landmark,
and thither we directed our course, leaving the winding road. This
cross-country riding in these parts has its dangers. The horses are
apt to sink through the soft surface, into holes burrowed by the
rodents; and deep ruts, worn by winter torrents, are often difficult to
pass. At length we stood before the gate of the convent, and the
hospitable monks regaled us with refreshing draughts of pure, cool
well-water. It seemed only a short distance farther to the sea; but
some of our company were growing fatigued, and, at our rate of
riding, it would take almost till sunset to reach our camp by the “City
of Palms”; so, reluctantly, we turned our horses’ heads northward,
comforting ourselves with the hope that in a more convenient season
we should stand on the shores of the Dead Sea and plunge in its
sullen waters.
On arriving, we found the mukaries busy with the tents, which soon
were ready for our reception. But we were disturbed somewhat to
hear that one of our attendants was missing. He ought to have come
with us toward the sea; but when we found he had not come, we
concluded that he had accompanied the muleteers to Jericho. Now,
however, he was nowhere to be found, and the mukaries assured us
he had started immediately behind us. The evil reputation of the
district made us rather anxious; but the reckless character of the
man, and his habit of starting off on the wildest projects without a
moment’s warning, led us to believe that Saʿid would turn up again,
as he had often done before. We set up lights, however, on the most
conspicuous points, when darkness fell, so as to guide him, if
possible, over the plain. As the night advanced, and we still had no
news of him, our anxiety increased, our main hope being that, as he
followed us, he had arrived late at the convent and taken shelter for
the night, or that haply he had found his way back to the bridge.
Even with fifty men it would have been futile to search that
wilderness in the dark. A hunt after a number of wild swine that came
to the neighbourhood of the camp served only as a temporary
diversion from the graver subject occupying our thoughts. The
“garrison” of the town consisted of one soldier, whose services we
secured without much difficulty. He was despatched, with the
breaking light, to go towards Jordan bridge, and southwards to the
convent, while some of our party prepared to scour the plain, the rest
getting in order for the ascent to Jerusalem.
All were very early astir. Just before mounting, the plain was swept
with the telescope, and in the distance a coming horseman was
descried, who seemed to resemble the lost man. His appearance
caused no little excitement in camp; for, on a nearer view, there was
no doubt of his identity. Both man and horse were utterly wearied,
and Saʿid’s garments were covered with blood. The tale he told of
his experiences was terrible enough. On our departure, he lingered a
moment to see the muleteers ready and on the road; then, as he
thought, he followed us, but missing the way, he pushed straight
southward, guided in part by the river, arriving on the Dead Sea
shore just as the sun set. As he had ridden rapidly, he thought he
might have passed us on the way; but, after waiting and careful
search along the lonely beach, he despaired of finding us. He turned
away in the twilight, hoping by instinct to hit upon some way leading
to Jericho. Soon the night was filled with the horrid howlings of the
jackals, all over that weary waste, and here and there the shrill laugh
of the hyena fell on his ear. Pushing forward, he was speedily
entangled among the sand-dunes. Climbing one after another, he
sought to hit upon some landmark to guide him; but ever, on
descending, his bearings were lost, and he wandered almost
hopelessly. As the night closed in, he could see shadowy forms
moving around, and the howlings came nearer and nearer.
Suddenly, in the track before him, he saw a hyena glaring upon him.
The natives believe that the hyena will not attack a man save when
famishing or grievously provoked. But in such moments one does
not reflect much on these things.
Fortunately, Saʿid had my gun and ball cartridge with him. With
nerves steadied by something like despair, he aimed at the brute’s
head, and, the ball crashing through the brain, he rolled over with a
groan. A momentary silence followed the report, and then the dismal
noises broke out again. Riding onward he saw, and not a moment
too soon, a leopard crouching for a spring. Aiming swiftly, he fired,
and the ball took effect in the leopard’s neck; but, withal, the brute
was able to spring, and almost to reach his mark. “Then,” said Saʿid,
his lip quivering and an unaccustomed tear trembling in his eye
—“then I must have had strength given me from heaven; for, as the
brute sprang, I reached forward, caught him by the neck, and hurled
him back violently to the ground, where he lay stunned, and a
second ball finished him.” He attempted to carry the leopard on the
pommel of his saddle, and this accounted for the blood-stains on his
garments. But weariness and anxiety soon overcame his purpose,
and the leopard was left to decay among its native wilds.
Finally, baffled by the darkness and the intricacies of the labyrinthine
windings, he climbed a little knoll, and tying the horse’s halter to his
arm, stretched himself on the ground to sleep; but ever and anon, as
the denizens of the desert drew near, the trembling creature tugged
at the halter to awaken his master, and seemed to long for waking
fellowship. At last he was overcome with sleep, and was only
aroused when the horse had apparently come close up and whinnied
in his ear. Then, rising bolt upright, it seemed to him as if the gloomy
waste were all alive with moving shades, and vocal with dismal
howlings. How he came out of that pandemonium he never could
say; but ere long the dawn stole into the sky, and the wild beasts
crept away into their dens. He found a poor shepherd, walking out
with his flocks, who, seeing his forlorn condition, sustained the best
traditions of desert hospitality by offering what he had for his day’s
food to the weary traveller. Then he was able to make out the
direction of Jericho, and, before the morning was well born, he was
again with his companions, uttering perhaps the most sincere
hamdulillahs of his life. After hearing this tale from the lips of that
worn-out man, on the borders of the desert plain of Jericho, one
could better realise what it meant for the Son of Man when, driven of
the Spirit into the neighbouring wilderness, through the long nights
He was “with the wild beasts.”
 JERICHO. ELISHA’S FOUNTAIN
Poor Saʿid has now “joined the majority.” He escaped the beasts of
the Dead Sea plains to fall a victim to a more subtle and deadly foe.
While at work on the new railway near the Hummeh, the hot springs
in Wady Yarmuk, he and many others were mortally stricken with
typhoid. A heavy toll in human lives these valleys have exacted on
the passage of that road of iron. Saʿid was a typical light-hearted
Syrian, prone to err, who yet through years of service proved faithful
according to his light, with a larger infusion of courage in him than is
common among his countrymen. In steadfast loyalty at his master’s
side, neither fatigue nor peril daunted him.
A burden was lifted from all our minds, and, moving forward that
morning, even higher spirits than usual prevailed. We rode into the
village, and stopped a little at the hotel, where souvenirs of the Dead
Sea plain, staffs made from the oaks of Bashan, Bedawy clubs, and
such-like articles, are exposed for sale to travellers. Then we rode
along lanes bounded by hedges of prickly pear and thorns towards
the spring of Elisha, called now ʿAin es-Sultan—“Fountain of the
Sultan,” where man and beast drank from the cool stream and were
refreshed.
The modern Erîha is a miserable representative of the famous cities
that rose one after another in the neighbourhood of this copious
spring. The land immediately around is a marvel of fertility, bearing,
when under cultivation, with tropical luxuriance. Near by the spring
stood the ancient city which was attacked and overthrown by the
Israelites—the first stronghold gained on this side of the Jordan.
Near the same spot rose the city of Heil, who dared the curse and
endured it—the curse pronounced by Joshua—in order to restore the
crown of splendour which his ancestors had crushed so ruthlessly.
This latter was the city known to Elijah and Elisha, not yet ancient in
their time, for the inhabitants of which the waters of this lovely spring
were miraculously healed. One of the “schools of the prophets”
existed here; and here Elijah had his last interview with the youth,
the hope of Israel, ere he went forth to yonder lonely tracts eastward,
to be parted from the faithful Elisha by the chariot of fire, and caught
away to heaven in the whirlwind. The fertility of the plains of Jericho
was almost proverbial in later days, when its rich revenues were
farmed by Herod from Cleopatra.
Then the magnificent balsam gardens and the groves of stately
palms lent added beauty to a scene in the midst of which the luxury-
loving Herod had his winter quarters. In the days of our Saviour the
sycamore tree was not wanting, as we learn from the story of
Zaccheus. The remains of old sugar-mills testify to the ancient
culture of the sugar-cane; and the ruins of ancient aqueducts, dating
from high antiquity, which brought the contributions of distant springs
to the grounds around the city, show with what care the paradise of
Jericho was watered. The balsam has now utterly disappeared; and
the stranger, coming unprepared upon the scene, might well-
exclaim, “How could Jericho ever be called ‘the city of palm trees’?”
But great fruitful vines may yet be seen, in the badly-kept gardens,
yielding with prodigality in spite of indifferent husbandry; and heavily-
laden bananas, bending over the hedges, offer of their sweetness to
the hand of the passer-by. The modern village boasts a hotel, a
Greek hospice for the accommodation of Russian pilgrims, and the
ruins of an old castle, which frown out upon the wilderness to
eastward. Those who are willing to be pleasantly deceived by
monkish tradition may also have the house of Zaccheus pointed out
to them. There are some three hundred inhabitants in the village,
creatures of a miserable physique, and with a most undesirable
reputation for laziness and thievishness.
That the plains of Jericho might be once again what they were of old
—a very garden of delights, wherein is enough and to spare for all—
needs hardly to be said. Were proof required, it would be found in
the surroundings of Elisha’s fountain. Wherever the waters of the
fountain come, the desert sands are transformed into fruitful fields,
and all its banks are clothed with emerald. No small supply of water
would serve to waken life over all the plains; but is not the vast
volume of the Jordan only waiting to be caught in the higher reaches,
and taught to run in fertilising streams all over the broad lands? For
long generations it has flowed idly past, only a few yards on either
side of the rushing flood tasting its refreshing power. What untold
wealth is rolling there, in these rich brown waves! What hand shall
arrest the flow, and turn its powers to noblest uses, so that all the
valley may be filled with the music of rustling grain and with the
beauty of ripening fruit?—that the wilderness may rejoice and
blossom as the rose. Ere this is possible, the reins of government
must be held by stronger and more righteous hands, the
husbandman must be secured in the enjoyment of the fruit of his toil.
But surely now the appointed season for favour cannot be long
delayed. Happy the eyes that shall behold the awaking of all the land
to fresh life after its death-like slumber! In those sweet days of
reviving, no fairer scenes will greet the eye than these broad
stretches, proudly in the midst of which will rise once more the
beautiful palm-girt city.

MOUTH OF WADY KELT

We could have lingered long beside that delightful spring, pouring its
sparkling waters forth in blessing over the plain; but the sun rose
higher in the heavens, and we had a hard ascent before us. We rode