Professional Documents
Culture Documents
George Heritage
Dynamic Rivers Consultants, Birmingham, UK
Andy Large
Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
David Milan
University of Hull, Hull, UK
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to
reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of George Heritage, Andy Large and David Milan to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance
with law.
Registered Offices
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Office
9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print
versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
In memory of Martin Charlton (1957–2021)
An unassuming academic with a brilliant mind, indubitable character and unbounded enthusiasm for his work and
students. Martin will be missed by all who knew him. His influence will live on well beyond his short life.
vii
Contents
Foreword ix
References 167
Place and River Index 187
Subject Index 189
ix
Foreword
Temperate rivers are influenced by many factors includ- ottomlands were exploited for food production and
b
ing geology, climate, soils, sediment type, flow and industrialists sought to utilise the power of rivers for
human activity. The complex interactions of the non- energy for manufacturing activities. River channels
anthropogenic controlling factors have led to a wonder- were moved, straightened, embanked, and deepened,
ful variety of river form in the British Isles. Sadly, and the new channels had their banks protected with
however, almost all temperate rivers in the United wood and stone. While large extents of natural wooded
Kingdom have suffered significant and long-lasting vegetation were removed as part of this activity, trees
modification and management that has all but destroyed were planted along bank margins to prevent them mov-
this variety, instead creating simplified conduits for ing from their designated route. Floodplains and later
water and sediment designed primarily to drain the uplands were drained to improve land for crops and
land and reduce flood risk. This book is intended to grazing, and urban rivers were completely channelised
illustrate this variety, highlighting the many forms that to prevent flooding. Successive generations have now
temperate river systems take in the United Kingdom. In grown up with these modified rivers, and as a result, we
this volume, we cover upland and lowland channel have now accepted that they are somehow “natural”.
types and include the full range of substrate conditions Our own limited experience of rivers has led to the
from bedrock through boulder, cobble and gravel widespread belief that rivers are liquid ribbons in the
through to silt-dominated systems. In doing this, the landscape; static systems, immovable in the landscape
authors describe examples gathered from over 30 years and not part of the surrounding floodplain fields and
each of research and practical experience working with meadows. We talk of rivers “bursting their banks” – a
rivers and set these in the context of the current scien- negative term implying that overspilling to occupy the
tific knowledge to illustrate the natural functioning of floodplain temporarily is somehow unnatural.
temperate river types. We hope this will act as a practi- Increasingly, as management of temperate rivers
cal, context-sensitive and more sustainable template for reduces on the part of national agencies, requests are
the restoration and re-naturalisation of degraded chan- made to “fix” rivers by “repairing” banks, dredging sedi-
nels in the United Kingdom and as a working set of ment, and removing wood and other vegetation to rec-
guidelines for those interested in understanding more reate the “neat” channels people remember from days
about the rich variety of temperate river types. In doing gone by. Such perceptions are not aided by the current
this, we know other examples exist (e.g. the practical teaching of river science in schools. Geography and
guides from the UK River Restoration Centre), and so environmental lessons in schools perpetuate outdated
we intend this volume with its balance between science concepts; for example, textbooks concentrate on mean-
and practicalities of river management to compliment dering systems and pool-riffle sequences and
these other approaches but essentially to act as a stand- decades-old river typologies that, despite rivers being
alone guide. continua, divide catchments into upper, mid-reach and
It is interesting to reflect on the reasons behind the lowland meandering sections – ignoring the irony that
present degraded state of temperate British rivers and the latter are rarely permitted to be mobile nowadays.
the common acceptance that this current state is “how a All these modifications have not just altered the
river should be”. Significant, almost wholesale, channel physical form of temperate British rivers and valley
and floodplain modification occurred throughout bottoms they have also fundamentally impacted on the
the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions as valley flow regime and the way in which river systems erode,
x Foreword
transport and store sediment. As such, we are left with landscape change. The recent efforts to reintroduce
systems that are a neutered shadow of their former ecosystem engineers such as beaver also points to
selves, where both natural processes and natural form greater willingness in UK river managers to turn back
are severely impacted resulting in a highly degraded the clock and allow greater space for nature.
river channel and valley bottom. The simple single- The natural environment is now rising in value with
thread channel, often featureless and constrained, domi- an increasing recognition of the role that natural system
nates our riverine landscapes with many other river dynamics can play in climate change, biodiversity, as
types now all but extinct. Many rivers also now experi- well as ecosystem regulation and buffering, and there
ence more extreme flows across the year, with winter appears to be a growing political will in the United
flood extremes testing flood defences to their limits and Kingdom to instigate change, with new government
spring and summer low flows that border on drought stewardship schemes likely to place a very strong
conditions. Whilst both extremes may have their origins emphasis on environmental functionality, helping push
in wider climate change, there is no doubt that they have the river restoration agenda forward. In all cases, this
been exacerbated by inappropriate upland drainage can only be achieved successfully with the appropriate
management impacting on the flow paths and speed of river-based understanding. During the time we have
water once it has hit the ground. been writing this book, Britain has left the European
Such a situation should not be allowed to continue Union, and so it remains to be seen what trajectory
and fortunately several factors are presently operating environmental protection will take post departure, but
that provide encouragement that more natural river and initial statements from government indicate a willing-
floodplain systems can make a resurgence. The first is ness to legislate for more protection, not less. What is
the current reluctance amongst statutory bodies to con- key is that any range of protection methods should
tinue with the intensive management of watercourses ensure a place for enhanced dynamism, not less.
due to their routine maintenance budgets being signifi- Future sustainable management of our rivers and
cantly reduced from those of a decade or two ago. This floodplains therefore requires a fuller understanding of
is giving many rivers a chance to begin to erode and river form and function to ensure that opportunities are
deposit sediment once again; however, channel response fully exploited, and our perception of rivers is changed
is often highly localised and more extreme than would towards more naturally functioning dynamic systems.
occur naturally as failing protection creates “hotspots of We have written this book deliberately as an illustrated
change”. Alongside this, there is an increasing recogni- field guide to maximise the practical examples of river
tion that impacted flood regimes require addressing at types and to highlight the pressures they experience and
source rather than just at flooding hotspots, and Natural their often parlous condition. This book is intended to
Flood Management approaches to slow flood flows and better inform both river management approaches and
store flood water are gaining traction in terms of policy necessary to achieve this. It will hopefully stimu-
catchment-oriented efforts to restore river and flood- late a desire to bring back the diversity and dynamism
plain connectivity and channel dynamism. More associated with naturally functioning temperate fluvial
recently, it has been recognised that degraded sediment systems in the United Kingdom. The ethos of the book
transport regimes are also influencing the potential for is to inspire the river scientist in us all, by providing a
flooding with heightened levels of gravels accumulating holistic picture of the variety of temperate river forms in
in urban areas because of disconnected storage in the Britain and linking this explicitly to functional controls
catchment and altered sediment transport efficiencies within the catchment. Fundamentally, we seek to dem-
in upstream rivers. Natural Sediment Management onstrate and evidence how the hydrological, geomor-
whereby sediment storage zones are reconnected and phological, and ecological functions of rivers integrate
channel form naturalised to a more storage friendly to generate and maintain the dynamic whole. If those
configuration can help reduce flood sediment inputs to who have read this book find themselves questioning
vulnerable areas whilst restoring natural form and pro- what they see each time they encounter a river and its
cesses to the fluvial system upstream. Finally, the trend floodplain, this volume will have served its purpose.
amongst owners of large estates to re-wild the landscape
and reintroduce extinct species is also improving larger George Heritage
and larger areas, often with valley bottom land being Andy Large
encouraged to naturalise through light touch interven- David Milan
tions that act as the precursor for wider river-driven July 2021
1
A Field Guide to British Rivers, First Edition. George Heritage, Andy Large and David Milan.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 British Rivers: Status and Condition
Year
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
100
Percentage of assessed surface water bodies
Bad
60 Poor
Moderate
40
Good
High
20
Figure 1.1 Status classification of UK surface water bodies from 2009 to 2019 as defined under the Water Framework
Directive, showing little improvement over a decade. Data from JNCC (2021).
1.3 River and Floodplain Degradatio 3
areas have both been severely impacted with a near Man, Purseglove (1988) noted the following key points
ubiquitous loss of natural floodplain functioning. about the then physical state of the 85 000 km of rivers
Such statistics relating to river and floodplain degra- and streams:
dation are repeated across other temperate areas. In
1) Very few pristine lowland channels flowing through
Europe, fifteen years after the Water Framework
semi-natural landscapes remained;
Directive came into force, achieving its objectives
2) Only 13.6% of lowland sites in England and Wales,
remains a challenge; in 2012, the European Commission
28% in Scotland, and 10.1% in Northern Ireland had
predicted that 47% of EU surface waters would not
an entirely unaltered channel;
attain "good ecological status“ by the first cycle census
3) 3.7% of lowland sites in England and Wales, 1.7% in
date of 2015 (European Commission 2012). During the
Scotland, and 5% in Northern Ireland were classified
first WFD cycle, which operated from 2009 to 2015, the
as having severely modified channels;
number of surface water bodies in “good” state only
4) Land drainage, flood defence, intensive agriculture,
increased by 10% (van Rijswick and Backes 2015).
and urban development had significantly altered the
Interestingly, of the natural systems failing to achieve
channel shape and river landscape of many sites in
good ecological status, the primary reason in 40% of
the lowlands;
cases was hydromorphological pressure. UK govern-
5) Extensive reinforcement and re-sectioning of river-
ment statistics associated with the assessment of hydro-
banks, and channel impoundment had caused a sig-
morphological degradation suggest that the primary
nificant reduction in habitat diversity;
reason for in-channel issues is engineering modification
6) Only 4.2% of sites below 50 m above sea level, with
(Figure 1.2). These figures deserve further consideration
adjacent floodplain, had extensive wetlands, reflect-
as they only reflect what has been audited. Diffuse
ing historical land drainage and current land-use
catchment pressures are also significantly impacting
pressures already affecting many river corridors.
watercourse form and function but were simply not
considered in the Water Framework Directive assess- Broad estimates are that some 80–90% of Europe’s
ment process. river floodplains are now cultivated intensively com-
These statistics, although stark, should not come as a pared to figures of 46% for North America (excluding
surprise. From a snap-shot baseline sample of more northern Canada and Alaska) and 11% for African
than 5600 RHS reference sites across the UK and Isle of Rivers (Tockner and Stanford 2002). As such floodplain
Straightening
Embankments
Bridge
Weir/sluice
Ford
Bank reinforcement
Culvert
4 1 British Rivers: Status and Condition
condition and functionality has been reported as being 1.4 River and Floodplain Recovery
in a critical situation across Europe (Wenger et al. 1990;
Klimo and Hager 2001). Tockner and Stanford (2002) The preceding section summarises several studies relating
note that in Europe and North America, up to 90% of to river and floodplain degradation; however, it remains
floodplains are already “cultivated” and therefore func- difficult for the reader to understand exactly what has
tionally extinct; this figure is likely an underestimate for happened to watercourses and valley bottoms in England
British rivers, given only 3.3% of the total river network due to an absence of unmodified baselines. Rivers today
of Britain is fully connected (Jones et al. 2019). Post-war are often regarded as “natural” systems with little regard
land drainage grants ceased in the 1980s, but loss of to the actual levels of degradation they have suffered. This
wetland has continued to the present-day and current is perfectly understandable as we have grown up with
attempts to improve watercourse form and function heavily modified and managed systems, and we have few
through restoration is having little or no measurable undisturbed analogues left against which we can judge
impact on floodplains. the degree of historical alteration. “Stability” is seen as
It is interesting to review the figures above against the desirable with neatness and uniformity favoured above
Water Framework Directive measure of river health natural functionality. Fortunately, this attitude is chang-
currently being used across Europe. Entwistle et al. ing as the economics of river and floodplain management
(2019a) used floodplain land-use data for 2017 broken has resulted in reduced river training and a consequent
down according to current water body status generating increase in the influence of more natural fluvial processes.
2975 auditable units. Water bodies presently at good sta- Many systems are showing small but significant signs of
tus were selected (n = 375), arable and horticulture cov- recovery towards a better functioning system aligned with
ers in excess of 50% of the floodplain area on around current catchment controls. Recovery has not always been
15% of good status water bodies, this increases to around back to a previous river state before human intervention
50% for area under improved grassland and when the as conditions in the catchment have changed significantly
two are considered together between 70 and 75% of enough to cause a state change in our rivers, but their
good tatus water bodies are covered by at least 50% diversity is at least improving.
farmland. Around half of these water bodies are utilised The trend is best illustrated through examples.
over 90% by farming. Figure 1.3 illustrates a typical lowland watercourse;
Figure 1.3 Typical heavily modified lowland system with artificial flood protection embankments, channel straightening and
dredging, and removal of in-channel and riparian vegetation. The Yorkshire Derwent at Yedingham.
1.5 Purpose of This Boo 5
Figure 1.4 Typical heavily modified upland system, straightened, walled, and dredged. The Upper Whit Beck at Low Lorton.
here historic engineering and current management (Figure 1.5). The recovery of such areas appears
have led to the development of a monotonous single- strongly influenced by vegetation which acts as the pre-
thread watercourse devoid of in-channel morphological cursor to sediment deposition and consolidation and
units and showing no signs of any lateral movement creates high levels of local morphologic, hydrologic,
due to revetment works and a subdued flood regime. and hydraulic diversity. In Britain, such systems remain
Floodplain areas, although often extensive, display no highly restricted, but their form and functionality, even
functional morphological units with intensive land use at a local scale, offer clear indications of how many
severing hydrological and hydraulic connections, modi- lowland systems should look and behave.
fying, or destroying floodplain features and altering veg- Upland systems appear to be naturalising most
etative assemblages. Upland rivers have suffered strongly through in-channel feature re-development
similarly (Figure 1.4). Natural flow paths have been leading to enhanced local bank erosion and lateral
altered to maximise valley bottom land use. Lateral reworking of floodplain sediment. On many rivers this
activity has been suppressed through revetment and has created well-connected narrow inset floodplains
tree planting, in-channel morphological development (Figure 1.6). On more energetic systems, the loss of con-
has been suppressed by repeat dredging, and floodplain straints on channel movement has seen the develop-
functionality has been disrupted due to a combination ment of strongly active meandering systems (Figure
of bed lowering, embanking, and incision in response to 1.7), or wandering channel networks (Figure 1.8), both
human modification. of which offer considerably higher morphologic, hydro-
Examples of naturally functioning fluvial systems are logic, and hydraulic diversity as compared to their previ-
few and far between, existing only as small fragments ously managed state.
because of a lack of system management. Nevertheless,
these reaches offer valuable insights into how our riv-
ers and floodplains would function when uncon- 1.5 Purpose of This Book
strained, and can act as templates against which we
should be judging our present systems. On lowland riv- This book aims to highlight the true form and function
ers, the trend appears to be towards the development of of watercourses and valley bottom areas using examples
a low-gradient stable multiple channel river network from the British Isles on which the authors have worked,
well connected to intervening areas of floodplain either individually or together, over the last three
6 1 British Rivers: Status and Condition
Figure 1.6 Laterally migrating active channel on the River Mallart, Syre, northern Scotland.
Figure 1.7 Active reach of the River Glen at Kirknewton, Northumberland, showing bank erosion and bar formation.
Figure 1.8 Wandering reach of the River South Esk, Scotland, showing sediment deposition and temporary storage.
British Isles, these studies all focus on temperate rivers, and in Chapter 4, we provide a guide to “reading” rivers,
and all examples of functional river types used are from describing key watercourse indicators that help in this
the UK. Of great value to the river scientist is the ability task. Finally in Chapter 5, we provide some personal
to infer fluvial processes and probable directions of flu- thoughts regarding sensitive and appropriate manage-
vial change from the current morphology of the system, ment for British rivers going forward.
9
A Field Guide to British Rivers, First Edition. George Heritage, Andy Large and David Milan.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
10 2 River Types: A Brief Overview
these process controls. The Scottish Environmental g radient (Figure 2.2). Three classic channel types were
Protection Agency’s (SEPA) 2012 morphological river recognised: meandering, wandering, and braided. The
typology (Figure 2.1) is based on Montgomery and thresholds defining shifts between these channel types
Buffington’s 1993 and 1997 typologies for montane were observed to be mainly dependent on the calibre of
streams in North America. This has been modified by the bed material present in the channel with braiding
SEPA to include lower gradient channels found in the UK. occurring at lower gradient/discharge values than
The typology is process-based, i.e. channel sub-types are gravel systems.
grouped together according to the similar morphological
processes present. As such, the channels in each of the
groupings have similar sensitivity to external morphologi- 2.3.2 Process-Based Classification of
cal pressures such as channel modifications. Other key Montgomery and Buffington (1997)
features are that the types are considered “natural,” i.e.
they assume the channel is unmodified and that types The 1997 classification identifies eight functional
exist at a reach scale, with individual reaches varying con- river types based on discriminatory values of degree
siderably in length. This section briefly reviews the most of confinement, system gradient, bedform types and
common fluvial classification systems currently in use spacing, bed material, reactivity, and sediment source
and for a variety of purposes. and storage character (Table 2.1). It should be noted
that the channel types and control variable limits
defined in both Montgomery and Buffington and in
2.3.1 Channel Type Change with Gradient,
Leopold and Wolman (above) are by no means univer-
Sedimentology and Discharge
sal, and this is illustrated in Table 2.2 which summa-
Church (2002) differentiated alluvial channel types rises several other typologies developed for alluvial
based on the controlling variables of discharge and channels.
0.001
Gravel
Gravel sinuous wandering &
braided
0.0001 Sand braided
Sand sinuous
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Discharge m3s–1
Table 2.1 River types identified by Montgomery and Buffington (1997) along with their key attributes.
Channel type
Typical bed Variable Sand Gravel Gravel cobble Cobble boulder Boulder n/a Variable
material
Bedform pattern Lateral oscillation Multi layered Lateral oscillation None Vertical oscillation None Variable
Reach type Response Response Response Response Transport Transport Transport Source
Dominant Bedforms (bars, Sinuosity bedforms Bedforms (bars, pools) Grains, Banks Bedforms (steps, Grains Banks Boundaries Grains Large
roughness pools) (dunes, ripples, bars) Grains Large wood pools) Grains (bed, banks) wood
elements Banks Sinuosity Banks Large wood Banks
Dominant Fluvial Bank Fluvial Bank failure Fluvial Bank failure Fluvial Bank Fluvial, Hillslope Fluvial Hillslope Fluvial Hillslope
sediment sources failure Debris Inactive channel Inactive channel failure Debris Debris flows Debris flows Hillslope Debris flows
flows Debris flows flows Debris flows
Sediment storage Overbank Overbank bedforms Overbank bedforms Overbank Bedforms Lee and stoss Bed
elements bedforms inactive channel inactive channel inactive channel sides of
obstructions
Typical slope <0.03 <0.001 0.001> <0.02 0.001> <0.03 0.03> <0.08 0.08> <0.3 Variable >0.2
Typical Unconfined Unconfined Unconfined Variable Confined Confined Confined Confined
confinement
Pool spacing Variable 5–7 5–7 none 1–4 <1 Variable Variable
(channel widths)
Source: Modified from Montgomery and Buffington (1997). © John Wiley & Sons.
12 2 River Types: A Brief Overview
Table 2.2 Additional river types to those listed in Table 2.1, with channel slope as a discriminator.
bedrock, boulder, bedrock, boulder, bedrock, gravel, channel mostly mud/sand valley mud/sand valley single low
gravel, sand gravel sand along valley margin floor floor sinuosity channel
pools, riffles, glides, cascades, rapids, pools, glides, runs compound floodplain, sand splays, swamp ponds, swamp unstable channel
runs, islands boulder bars point bars, benches
gravel, boulders Sand, mud
FLOODOUT INTACT VALLEY
STEEP HEADWATER cascades, rapids, OCCASIONAL BEDROCK CONTROLLED FILL
boulder bars FLOODPLAIN POCKET DISCONTINUOUS casades, boulder Lateral bars, sand Sand sheets, inset
FLOODPLAIN bars, pools, sheets, benches, features, swampy
GORGE islands, avulsion levees, low flow channel
channels backswamps, floor
channels
Figure 2.3 The River Styles typology (Source: Based on Brierley and Fryirs (2005). © John Wiley & Sons).
Boulder
Cobble
Sand
Clay
develops a more holistic view of fluvial systems, providing
Silt
a geomorphic template upon which biophysical processes
are assessed within a catchment context. The River Styles Cascade
Single Thread
Table 2.4 General character of functional channel types as defined by SEPA (2012).
Bedrock Most found in upland areas, though bedrock lined reaches can occur in certain lowland environments. They
channels generally have little if any bed sediment and have limited hydraulic connection with the riparian zone.
Channel gradients tend to be high, resulting in a high transport capacity but limited sediment supply. These
factors, together with the high degree of bank strength, result in quite stable channels.
Cascades Restricted to upland areas with steep slopes and are characterised by disorganised bed material typically
consisting of cobbles and boulders constrained by confining valley walls. The riparian zone is usually
extremely small in extent and interactions with the channel are limited. The large size of bed and bank
material, together with high levels of energy dissipation due to the bed roughness, dictates that the largest
bed load only becomes mobile in extreme floods (circa > 25-year return interval). Bedrock outcrops are
common and small pools may be present among the boulders.
Step-pool Have a steep gradient and consists of large boulder splays which form discrete sediment accumulations
channels across the channel, forming a series of “steps” which are separated by intervening pools containing finer
sediment (typical spacing 1–4 channel widths). The stepped channel morphology results in zones of
turbulence interspersed by more tranquil flows. As with cascade reaches, the high degree of channel
roughness and large sediment on the channel bed and banks results in stable channels that respond only in
very large flood events. The stream is generally confined by the valley sides, and there is limited
development of terraces or floodplains.
Plane bed Generally moderate gradient streams with relatively featureless gravel/cobble beds, but which include units
channels ranging from glides, riffles, and rapids. Sediment size and channel gradients are smaller than step-pool
channels and deeper pool sections tend to be lacking. The riverbed is generally armoured and thus mobilized
only in larger floods. Although channels are typically stable, they are more prone to channel change than any
of the preceding channel types. With relatively more frequent bedload movement they represent transitional
channels between the more stable types listed above and the following more dynamic types of channel.
Channels are generally straight and may be confined or unconfined by the valley sides. However, the
banks – which generally comprise material resistant to lateral migration – constrain the channel from
migrating laterally and developing alternate bars or riffles.
(Continued)
14 2 River Types: A Brief Overview
Pool-riffle and Meandering and unconfined channel that during low flows are characterised by lateral oscillating
Plane-riffle sequences of bars, pools, and rifles, resulting from oscillations in hydraulic conditions from convergent
channels (erosive) to divergent (depositional) flow environments (typical spacing 5–7 channel widths). The gradient
of such channels is low to moderate, and the width-to-depth ratio high. The bed is predominantly gravel
with occasional patches of cobbles and sand. Accumulation of sediments in gravel bars indicates
increasingly transport-limited conditions, though most large floods will produce some bedload movement
on an annual basis, thus reducing the stability of the channel. In such channels, interactions between the
stream and the riparian zone become more obvious with extensive over-bank flood flows and wetland areas
often characterising the riparian zone. The banks are typically resistant to erosion, and lateral migration of
the channel is limited, resulting in relatively narrow and intermittently deep channels. Plane-riffle channels
form an intermediate channel type between those of plane-bed and pool-riffle channels. They retain many
of the attributes of pool-riffle channels; however, they generally have less defined pools, coarser (armoured)
substrate, and less-extensive bar features. They are a common channel form in the UK, although it is
unclear whether their presence is natural or whether they represent a degraded form of the pool-riffle
channel. For management purposes, it is suggested that they are treated as a pool-riffle channel type.
Braided Braided reaches can occur in a variety of settings. They are characterised by relatively high gradients (but
channels ones that are less than upstream reaches) and/or abundant bedload. Sediment transport is usually limited
under most conditions and the channel splits into several threads around instream bars. Nevertheless, poor
bank strength renders them highly dynamic and channels will generally change even in relatively small
flood events.
Wandering These reaches exhibit characteristics of braided and meandering channels and typically switch between
channel divided and undivided channel types. Wandering channels may also be susceptible to channel avulsions
during high-flow events, where the channel switches to a historical planform. Wandering channels typically
occur where a reduction of bed material size and channel slope is combined with a widening of the valley
floor. In sediment transport terms such reaches are bedload channels, but the number of competent
transport events in any year will vary greatly according to bed material size and the associated entrainment
function. Generally, they can be viewed as a transition channel type between braided and lowland
meandering channels.
Low-gradient Unconfined low-gradient meandering channels with a bedload dominated by sand and fine gravel; hence,
actively the channel bed has marked fine sediment accumulations that are mobile in most flood events. These occur
meandering in higher-order (i.e. typically lowland) channels exhibiting more laminar flow hydraulics, with turbulent
flows being uncommon. The fine bed sediment, erodible banks, and unconfined settings means that such
channels are dynamic and prone to change. They also often have extensive riparian zones and floodplains
which are linked to the channel. Bars and pools may be present and are associated with bends and crossing
of the meander pattern.
Groundwater- Groundwater-dominated rivers have low-gradient channels and are characterised by a stable flow regime,
dominated although limestone rivers with cave systems may display hydrological characteristics like freshet rivers. This
channels stable regime is a product of the permeable catchment geology and consequent reduction in overland flow
that characterises groundwater-dominated streams. Bed movement is infrequent, and sediments are
predominantly transported in suspension. Typically, sediments are derived from catchment sources,
although large macrophyte beds provide a source of in-stream organic detritus. As bed disturbance is
infrequent, deposited sediments may remain in the gravel for extended periods, promoting the
accumulation of large quantities of fine sediment. Substrate generally comprises gravels, pebbles and sands,
and glides and runs are the dominant flow types. Localised areas of riffle habitat may be present particularly
where woody debris is available.
Low-gradient These channels are typically found at lower extremities of the channel system. Generally, they flow through
passively high-resistant materials, for instance clays and coarse deposits. They are generally sinuous; however, as the
meandering banks comprise materials that are resistant to erosion, they typically display “fixed” planform geometry.
Thus, these channels are often incised and display low width-to-depth ratios. The beds typically comprise
fine sedimentary materials (sands and silts), although pockets of gravel can be present, particularly in
poorly formed bar deposits. These channels are typically deep, and flows are dominated by glides, although
runs may be associated with meander bends. Riparian vegetation is influenced by clay soils and is often
sparser than in other channel types, comprising grasses shrubbery and smaller pockets of woody growth.
Primary production is strong in these channels and coupled with stable beds and extensive growth of
macrophyte vegetation.
influenced by a spatially and temporally variable set of classify. Anabranching or anastomosed channels,
controlling parameters. The result is that each pub- which are often rare across temperate regions where
lished classification throws up issues when used as a the majority of the classifications have been devel-
general tool for determining a river type. The work of oped, are also under-represented in typologies with
Leopold and Wolman (1957), for instance, concentrated only the River Styles framework (Brierley and
only on a relatively narrow range of low to moderate Fryirs 2005) explicitly considering this channel
energy alluvial systems, so failing to cover steep upland type, illustrating how geography has influenced the
channel types, whereas Montgomery and Buffington typologies.
(1997) and SEPA (2012) do extend their typology to Recognising the above and the absence of a “one size
steep channels and to channels where bedrock domi- fits all” methodology, this book follows Montgomery
nates over alluvium. and Buffington’s well-established (1997) fluvial frame-
A key issue arises when discussing the scale over work, expanding it where necessary to include rarer,
which any classification system is applied. In but nonetheless important, river types encountered
Scotland, pool-r iffle units appear to have been across the UK. We use this it is fundamentally based
s ubsumed into an “active meandering channel around characteristic process controls (Table 2.5) and
type” by SEPA (2012), whilst remaining explicit in morphological assemblages which are summarised
many other classifications. Similarly, rapids and in Figure 2.5 and Tables 2.6 and 2.7 all of which are
associated morphologic units become difficult to described in greater detail in Chapter 3.
Table 2.5 Basic character and processes operating in the channel types used in this book.
Diffuse upland Channels are characteristically small with steep organic or fine sediment bank profiles. The channel
bed may be organic or fine sediment with occasional bedrock or boulder steps separating long pools
upstream. Seasonal channels may be vegetated and generally are less well defined promoting diffuse
surface flow.
Bedrock Bedrock channels are most associated with mountain areas but can occur almost anywhere along a
watercourse. They are morphologically robust and have a high flood competence. Valley bottom area
is often narrow. Bedrock and/or boulder step pool sequences dominate with the steps acting to
moderate gradient providing stable channel conditions. The pools often contain limited finer
sediments due to the low-energy conditions created by the backwater effects of the steps.
Wandering Wandering channel types are associated with upland zones. They are often found flowing across an
extended valley floor in moderate-to-high gradient systems where sediment loads are high. Often,
they are associated with relict fluvio-glacial valley bottom material with the river forming several
channels through a mix of sediment dominated by large material rarely mobilised by the
contemporary channel. They are highly responsive and dynamic rivers that can change significantly
following a flood event. Depositional features are often large and floodplain connectivity is
characteristically high.
Anabranching Anabranching channels are rare but can be found across upland, hilly, and lowland zones. They
develop a multi-thread channel network separated by stable islands, bars, and berms. Floodplain
connectivity is often excellent and different channels are activated at different flow levels, spreading
flow energy over a wide area, creating stable channel conditions. The dominant bed material is
dependent on energy levels with gravels dominating in upland zones and fines prevalent. Wet
woodland often develops across the floodplain further enhancing overall stability.
Active single This type of channel is associated with hilly terrains and some upland zones. They generally flow over
thread a relatively low-to-moderate gradient. Sediment loads are moderate and has a large fine component.
Lateral movement is progressive linked to outer bank erosion and inner bank deposition. Typical bar
features include point, mid channel, and lateral bars and riffles. Occasionally, over-supply of bedload
can lead to the development of a plane bed.
Passive single These are generally found in lowland areas flowing over low gradients. Bed material is generally
thread dominant by finer sediment (e.g. sands and silts), and gravel features are uncommon or poorly
developed if present. These channels are often heavily modified restricting lateral movement.
16 2 River Types: A Brief Overview
fine
anastomosed
passive single
thread
Diffuse upland
coarse anastomosed
anabranching
step-pool
pool-rapid
bedrock
Channel type
Bedrock cascade U R R R
Bedrock controlled rapid U R R R
Bedrock influenced pool U R R R
Hydraulically controlled rapid C C C C
Obstruction induced rapid O O O O
Coarse sediment pool O C C C
Waterfall C O R R
Plunge pool bar O C O O
Boulder cascade C C U U
Bedrock step U R R R
Boulder step C C O O
Bedrock pool U R R R
Isolated boulder C U U U R R
Lateral bar O O R C C C
Lee bar R C O R R R
Fine sediment drape O O O C C U C C C U
Inner bend bar O O C C U O O C U
2.4 River Classification Framework Used in This Boo 17
Channel type
Chute channel R R U U R C C C
Chute channel bar R R U U C C C
Lateral bar O O U C O C C C C
Mid-channel bar O O U C O R R R O
Transverse bar O U C O O O
Alluvial pool R U U U O U U U
Riffle R C C U U U O
Rapid R O U U
Vertical eroding banks R R U U O O C R
(river cliffs)
U = Ubiquitous, C = Common, O = Occasional, R = Rare, BC = Bedrock cascade, SP = Step pool channel, BCPR = Boulder and cobble
pool-rapid, PBR = Plane bed rapid, B = Braided, W = Wandering, A = Anastomosed, PLR = Plane-riffle, POR = pool-riffle, PRBR =
Pool-riffle point bar, IST = Inactive single thread.
Channel type
Silt/Boulder berm R R R C C C C C
Boulder splay R O O O
Slumped valley side deposits O O O O R R R O O O R
Terrace R O O O O O O O O
Inactive floodplain R C C C C C C U
Active floodplain R U U O O O O
Inset berm R O O O O C C C C
Palaeo-channel U C O O O O
Avulsion driven cut-off U C O O O
Chute cut-off channel U C O O O
Gravel splay R U U O O O
U = Ubiquitous, C = Common, O = Occasional, R = Rare, BC = Bedrock cascade, SP = Step pool channel, BCPR = Boulder and cobble
pool-rapid, PBR = Plane bed rapid, B = Braided, W = Wandering, A = Anastomosed, PLR = Plane-riffle, POR = pool-riffle, PRBR =
Pool-riffle point bar, IST = Inactive single thread.
19
This chapter contains succinct descriptions of the most variability suggest that wandering channel types are
common morphologic units associated with the river most sensitive to external variables and exhibit the most
types discussed earlier. These are accompanied by aerial rapid morphologic change. Higher gradient and more
and oblique imagery illustrating each unit. When using confined channel types have a greater variety of mor-
this chapter, it should be noted that the classification phologic units and often display a better-connected
system adopted is artificial. Rivers exist across a contin- valley bottom/floodplain less impacted by human
uum rather than fitting neatly into discrete channel intervention and management.
types and shorter reaches of larger channel types may Figure 3.1 illustrates the potential routes for change
exhibit features and dynamics more characteristic of based on the principal channel types reviewed in this
other channel types in the classification. As a practical chapter. At present, most channel types are robust and
guide, the reader is advised to look at the range of fea- have not altered significantly in the historic past. There
tures present which may span several river types and to is, however, evidence of channel-type sensitivity for the
use Tables 2.6 and 2.7 to best classify any reach under pool-riffle, plane bed-riffle, wandering systems. In addi-
investigation. The general sediment character of the tion, there are several wandering channel types that are
channel types is summarised throughout, together with developing into more stable well-vegetated anastomo-
an indication of general confinement linked to flood- sed systems where valley bottom management facili-
plain development. System activity and morphologic tates natural vegetation succession.
Bedrock influenced
cascade pool-rapid
Flow through coarse lag deposits
Step-plane bed
Increased coarse sediment storage
Plane bed-riffle
Increased bank erodibility Reduced sediment supply
Anastomosed Pool-riffle
Reduced system energy
Figure 3.1 Continuum of potential change routes and feedback controls for river types identified in this chapter.
A Field Guide to British Rivers, First Edition. George Heritage, Andy Large and David Milan.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
20 3 River Types: Observations and Theory
Figure 3.1 and the following sections in Chapter 3 gradient less-confined wandering, plane-bed and
illustrate that channel type information is broadly riffle-pool channels exhibiting in-channel and flood-
organised in the downstream direction, beginning plain morphologic units strongly associated with the
with poorly differentiated diffuse upland channels degree of sinuosity of the channel. Upland and low-
before amalgamating and steepening to form bedrock land anastomosing channels are also reviewed together
channels and bedrock influenced step-pool channels. with passive systems. For simplicity, each channel is
As the bedrock influence declines, pool-rapid channels introduced with a brief bullet-point summary of its
begin to dominate before they too give way to lower- key characteristics.
Key Characteristics
3.1.1 Background Research on Diffuse Montgomery and Dietrich 1994). The channel head
Upland Channels does not always coincide with the stream head
(Figure 3.2), which is the furthest upstream-most
Channel head morphological units are the farthest
extent of perennial flow within a river (Jaeger et al.
upstream-most element for water flow and sediment
2007; Shaw 2016). Channel heads typically occur within
transport in the fluvial system. Channel heads are ini-
hillslope concavities that facilitate water and sediment
tiated in locations where surface or subsurface flow
accumulation, delivered via sheetwash, although they
concentrates and persists long enough to create a
can also occur on planar slopes (Wohl 2018). The chan-
channel head. The loci of channel heads may vary
nel downstream from the head may contain bedforms,
through time in response to changes in water and
armoured bed surface sediment, and show evidence of
sediment supply. They exhibit definable banks
high-water marks (Dietrich and Dunne 1993).
(Montgomery and Dietrich 1988, 1989) and represent
Channel heads are important as follows:
the transition from diffusive hillslope to channel pro-
cesses (Dietrich and Dunne 1993). The identification 1) They are the formal start of the channel network
of some channel heads can be subjective due to their and represent the location of process thresholds
diffuse nature, whilst others are easily identifiable as a between hillslope and fluvial process domains
head-cut erosion feature (Dietrich and Dunne 1993; (Montgomery 1999);
3.1 Diffuse Upland Channels 21
Figure 3.3 Subsurface hydrology in the headwaters of Thinhope Burn catchment, UK. (a) Collapsed soil pipe showing peat
overlaying the lighter coloured till beneath, (b) recently collapsed roof of soil pipe, following an extreme event in summer 2007
reported in Milan (2012).
(a) (b)
5000000
N Carolina
Central Colorado
500000
20000 50000
Contributing area (m2)
W Colorado all
50000
W Colorado subsurface
W Colorado surface
5000
5000
500 1000
500
0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.00 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.01 0.50 1.00 2.00
Gradient (m/m) Gradient (m/m)
Figure 3.4 (a) Relationships between catchment areas and local channel head slope with surface (black circles) or subsurface
(white triangles) initiation. The solid line is the regression for the whole data set (r2 = 0.525) (b) relationship between
catchment area and channel head slope for multiple sites, with the relationships for Western Colorado surface (black circles),
subsurface (white triangles), and for all Western Colorado sites are indicated by the solid regression lines (Source: Adapted from
Wohl (2018). © John Wiley & Sons).
3.1 Diffuse Upland Channels 23
channels (Figure 3.5). Sediments are typically organic organic or fine sediment bank profiles. The channel bed
or fine inorganic, including peat. The flow network con- may be organic or fine sediment with occasional bed-
verges and steepens, often flowing abruptly into an rock or boulder steps with long pools upstream. Seasonal
upland confined headwater channel type at a head-cut channels may be vegetated and generally are less well-
waterfall. defined promoting diffuse surface flow.
Figure 3.5 Moorland seepage zone on the Lagrae Burn, a tributary of the River Nith near Kirkconnell, Scotland.
Figure 3.7 Boulder step reach of the Church Beck, above Coniston, Lake District, England.
Figure 3.8 Bedrock pool reach on the Brockle Beck, which flows into Derwentwater, Lake District, England.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
demandai, à brûle-pourpoint, en quoi consistait la difficulté, et qui, en
définitive, la provoquait.
— C’est le Travail, me dit-il. Vous feriez mieux de ne pas vous en
occuper.
LE TRAVAIL
Mais dès que l’on se mettait à poser des questions l’on se perdait
dans un labyrinthe d’allusions, de réserves, de discours, pour la
plupart faits avec contrainte, comme si les interlocuteurs récitaient
quelque chose appris par cœur. En voici quelques exemples : Un
homme m’accula dans un coin au moyen d’une phrase — une seule
— où tout, à peu près, était lettre majuscule : — Le Sentiment
Général chez notre Peuple est qu’il FAUT QUE LES JAPONAIS
S’EN AILLENT !
— Fort bien, répliquai-je. Comment pensez-vous vous y
prendre ?
— Cela ne nous regarde pas. Le Sentiment Général, etc.
— Sans doute. Le Sentiment est une belle chose, mais que
comptez-vous faire ? Il ne condescendait pas à s’abaisser jusqu’à
fournir des détails, mais ne cessait de répéter le Sentiment, que, me
conformant à ma promesse, je ne manque pas de rapporter ici.
Un autre fut un peu plus explicite. — Le Chinois, dit-il, nous
désirons le garder, mais le Japonais doit partir !
— Mais alors qui prendra sa place ? Ce pays-ci n’est-il pas un
peu trop neuf pour qu’on en chasse les gens à coups de pied ?
— Nous devons développer nos Ressources lentement,
Monsieur, sans perdre de vue les Intérêts de nos Enfants. Nous
devons conserver le Continent pour les Races qui s’assimileront
avec les Nôtres. Nous ne devons pas nous laisser submerger par
des Étrangers.
— Alors amenez votre propre race, et amenez-la vite, osai-je
répondre. Voilà cependant la seule observation qu’il ne faut pas faire
dans certaines régions de l’Ouest. Je perdis de mon prestige
furieusement pendant qu’il expliquait (tout comme les Hollandais
l’avaient fait au Cap, il y a de ça des années) comme quoi la
Colombie Britannique n’était pas du tout aussi riche qu’elle en avait
l’air ; qu’elle était étouffée par des capitalistes et monopoleurs de
toute sorte ; la main-d’œuvre des blancs devait être interrompue,
nourrie et chauffée pendant l’hiver ; que les frais d’existence étaient
énormes ; qu’on touchait à la fin d’une ère de prospérité, que les
années maigres arrivaient enfin, que même si des mesures étaient
devenues nécessaires pour faire venir d’autres blancs elles devaient
être prises avec beaucoup de précaution. Puis il ajouta que les tarifs
des chemins de fer de la Colombie Britannique étaient si élevés
qu’ils empêchaient les émigrants de s’y rendre.
— Mais est-ce que les tarifs n’ont pas été diminués ? demandai-
je.
— Si, — si, je crois, mais on a tellement besoin d’immigrants
qu’ils sont raflés avant d’arriver aussi loin du côté Ouest. Il ne faut
pas oublier non plus que la main-d’œuvre d’ouvriers de métier est
bien différente de la main-d’œuvre agricole. Elle dépend de tant de
choses. Et puis, il faut que le Japonais parte.
— C’est ce que l’on m’a dit. Mais on m’a raconté aussi qu’il y
avait des laiteries et des vergers dans la Colombie Britannique qu’on
a dû abandonner parce qu’on ne trouvait personne ni pour traire ni
pour cueillir les fruits. Pensez-vous que ce soit vrai ?
— Voyons, vous ne voudriez pas qu’un homme, avec tous les
débouchés possibles que notre pays lui prodigue, aille traire des
vaches dans un pré ? Un Chinois suffit pour cela. Il nous faut des
races qui puissent s’assimiler, etc., etc.
— Mais l’Armée du Salut n’a-t-elle pas offert, il y a peu de temps,
d’amener ici trois ou quatre mille Anglais ? Qu’est devenue cette
idée ?
— On n’y a pas, — comment dirai-je ? — donné suite.
— Pourquoi pas ?
— Pour des raisons politiques, je crois. Il ne nous faut pas des
Gens susceptibles d’abaisser le Niveau de la Vie. Voilà pourquoi les
Japonais devront s’en aller.
— Alors pourquoi garder les Chinois ?
— Avec les Chinois on s’entend ; on ne peut pas se passer d’eux.
Mais il nous faut une Émigration d’un Type tel qu’il lui soit possible
de s’assimiler avec Notre Peuple. Je pense être clair.
J’espérais qu’il l’avait été.
Et maintenant écoutez ce qu’ont à dire une mère et une
ménagère.
— Ce joli état de choses nous coûte notre santé et celle de nos
enfants. Avez-vous entendu dire couramment « la Frontière fait
souffrir les femmes et le bétail ? » Nous ne sommes pas sur la
Frontière ici, mais à certains égards c’est pis parce que nous avons
tous les luxes et toutes les apparences — du joli cristal et de
l’argenterie, à étaler sur la table. Il faut les épousseter, les polir, les
arranger une fois que notre travail de ménage est fini. Sûrement que
cela ne vous dit pas grand’chose, à vous, mais essayez-en pendant
un mois ! Nous n’avons pas de domestiques. En ce moment un
Chinois coûte cinquante ou soixante dollars par mois. Nos maris
n’ont pas toujours le moyen de payer ça. Quel âge me donnez-
vous ? Je n’ai pas encore trente ans. Dieu soit loué en tous cas que
j’aie empêché ma sœur de venir dans l’Ouest. Ah ! oui, c’est un beau
pays — pour les hommes !
— Ne pourriez-vous pas faire venir des domestiques
d’Angleterre ?
— Je n’ai pas le moyen de payer le transport d’une fille pour
qu’elle se marie au bout de trois mois. Et puis elle ne voudrait pas
travailler. Une fois qu’elles ont vu le Chinois à l’œuvre elles refusent.
— Et vous, vous ne refusez pas le Japonais ?
— Certainement pas. Personne ne le refuse. Tout ça c’est de la
politique. Les femmes des hommes qui gagnent six à sept dollars
par jour — les ouvriers spécialistes — ont des domestiques chinois
et japonais. Nous ne pouvons pas faire comme eux, nous autres.
Nous avons à penser à l’avenir, à épargner, mais ceux-là dépensent
jusqu’à leur dernier centime. Ils savent, eux, qu’ils n’ont rien à
craindre. Ils sont Le Travail. On s’occupera d’eux quoiqu’il arrive.
Vous pouvez juger, vous-même, si l’État s’occupe de moi.
Un peu plus tard, j’eus l’occasion de traverser une grande et
belle ville entre six et sept heures par une matinée fraîche. Des
Chinois et des Japonais livraient aux maisons silencieuses le lait, le
poisson, les légumes, etc. Pour cette corvée glaciale pas un seul
blanc n’était visible.
Plus tard encore un homme vint me voir sans trop afficher son
nom. Il faisait d’assez importantes affaires et il me fit comprendre
(d’autres avaient parlé à peu près de même) que si je répétais ses
paroles ses affaires en souffriraient. Il parla sans discontinuer
pendant une demi-heure.
— Dois-je donc en conclure, lui dis-je, que ce que vous appelez
« Le Travail » domine absolument cette partie-ci du monde ?
Il fit signe que oui.
— Qu’il est difficile d’amener ici l’ouvrier de métier ?
— Difficile ? Seigneur Dieu ! s’il me faut un ouvrier
supplémentaire pour mon travail (je paie, bien entendu, les gages
fixés par l’Union) il faut que je le fasse venir en cachette ; il faut que
j’aille le rencontrer comme par accident, plus bas sur la ligne, et si
l’Union vient à le savoir, très probablement elle lui intimera l’ordre de
s’en retourner vers l’Est, ou le congédiera et l’enverra de l’autre côté
de la Frontière.
— Même s’il appartient à l’Union ? Pourquoi ?
— On lui dira que les conditions de Travail ne sont pas bonnes
ici. Il sait fort bien ce qu’il faut entendre par là. Il fera demi-tour assez
vite. Je fais pas mal d’affaires, et je ne puis m’exposer à entrer en
lutte ouverte avec les Unions.
— Qu’arriverait-il au cas où vous le feriez ?
— Savez-vous ce qui se passe de l’autre côté de la Frontière ?
On fait sauter les gens à coups de dynamite.
— Mais ici on n’est pas de l’autre côté de la Frontière.
— C’est bigrement trop près pour être agréable. Et puis, aux
témoins, tout autant qu’aux autres, il arrive d’être dynamités. Voyez-
vous, la situation créée par le Travail ne résulte pas de ce que l’on
fait ou ne fait pas de notre côté, tout est géré là-bas. Vous avez pu
vous rendre compte qu’en général on en parle avec précaution.
— Oui, je l’ai remarqué.
— Eh bien, tout cela n’est pas bien. Je ne dis pas que les Unions
d’ici feraient quelque chose contre vous, — et, retenez-le bien, je
suis partisan moi-même des droits du Travail, le Travail n’a pas de
meilleur défenseur que moi-même ; j’ai été, moi aussi, ouvrier, bien
que je sois patron aujourd’hui. N’allez pas croire, n’est-ce pas, que je
sois contre le Travail.
— Pas le moins du monde. Je comprends fort bien. Vous trouvez
seulement que le Travail agit, parfois, — comment dire —
inconsidérément ?
— Voyez ce qui se passe de l’autre côté de la Frontière ! On a dû
vous expliquer que cette petite affaire avec les Japonais à
Vancouver a été manigancée en-dessous, n’est-ce pas ? Il m’est
avis que les nôtres ne l’auraient pas fait tout seuls.
— On me l’a souvent répété. Est-ce jouer tout-à-fait beau jeu que
d’incriminer un autre pays ?
— On voit que vous ne demeurez pas ici, vous. Mais, pour
reprendre, si nous nous défaisons des Japonais actuellement, l’on
viendra nous demander bientôt de nous défaire de quelqu’un
d’autre. Il n’y a aucune limite, Monsieur, aux exigences du Travail,
aucune !
— Je croyais que tout ce qu’ils demandaient c’était de bons
gages pour du bon travail ?
— En Angleterre peut-être, mais ici ils ont l’intention de diriger le
pays, ah, oui alors !
— Et le pays ? comment cela lui plaît-il ?
— Nous ne sommes pas loin d’en avoir assez. Ça n’importe pas
beaucoup dans les moments de plein rendement, les patrons feront
tout plutôt que d’arrêter le travail — mais lorsque les temps seront
mauvais, vous en aurez des nouvelles. Notre pays est un pays riche,
— malgré tout ce qu’on raconte — mais nous sommes arrêtés à tout
propos par la main-d’œuvre. Voyez-vous, il y a des quantités et des
quantités de petites affaires que des amis à moi désireraient lancer.
Des affaires partout, si seulement on les laissait tranquilles — mais
non !
— Ça, c’est dommage. A propos, que pensez-vous de la
question Japonaise ?
— Je ne pense pas. Je sais. Les deux partis politiques jouent le
jeu du vote du Travail, mais comprenez-vous ce que cela veut dire ?
Je m’efforçais de comprendre.
— Et pas un ne dira la vérité, à savoir que si l’Asiatique s’en va,
ce côté-ci du Continent disparaîtra complètement, à moins que nous
n’obtenions une immigration blanche libre. Pourtant tout parti qui
proposerait l’immigration blanche sur une large échelle serait
blackboulé aux prochaines élections. Je ne vous dis là que ce que
pensent les Politiciens. Mon avis personnel est que si un homme
osait résister au Travail — pas que j’en veuille le moins du monde au
Travail — et parlait raison, bien des gens se rangeraient à son avis
— sans bruit, bien entendu. Je crois qu’il obtiendrait, au bout d’un
certain temps, même l’immigration blanche. Il serait blackboulé aux
premières élections, ça va sans dire, mais en fin de compte… Nous
en avons assez du Travail. Je tenais à vous dire la vérité.
— Merci bien. Et vous ne pensez pas qu’une tentative pour
introduire l’immigration blanche réussisse ?
— Non, si elle ne convenait pas au Travail. Essayez, si vous
voulez, mais vous verrez ce qui arrivera.
En tenant compte de cette indication j’ai fait une expérience dans
une autre ville. Il y avait là trois hommes haut placés, riches, tous les
trois vivement préoccupés du développement de leur terre, tous trois
affirmaient que ce qui manquait à la terre c’était l’immigration
blanche. Et tous les quatre nous en avons parlé, dans tous les sens,
de toutes les manières possibles et imaginables. La seule chose sur
laquelle leur avis ne variait pas c’était, qu’au cas où l’on importerait
de quelque façon que ce fût des blancs en Colombie Britannique, le
recrutement pouvant être confié à des particuliers ou à d’autres, les
mesures nécessaires devaient être prises secrètement, sans quoi
les affaires des intéressés en souffriraient.
A cet endroit, j’abandonnai la conversation touchant la Grande
Question qui Agite Toute Notre Communauté ; je vous laisse, à vous
plus spécialement, Australiens et Habitants du Cap, le soin d’en tirer
vos conclusions.
Extérieurement, la Colombie Britannique paraît être la région la
plus riche et la plus séduisante de tout le Continent. En plus de ses
ressources propres elle a de bonnes chances d’acquérir un
immense commerce avec l’Asie, qu’elle désire ardemment. Sa terre,
en bien des endroits sur de vastes étendues, convient
admirablement au petit fermier et à l’arboriculteur, qui peut envoyer
son camion aux villes. De tous les côtés j’entendis réclamer de la
main-d’œuvre de toute espèce. Et d’autre part, dans nul autre lieu
sur le Continent je ne rencontrai tant d’hommes qui décriaient la
valeur et les possibilités de leur pays, ni qui s’appesantissaient plus
volontiers sur les souffrances et les privations que l’immigrant blanc
avait à endurer. Je crois que deux ou trois messieurs se sont rendus
en Angleterre pour expliquer les inconvénients de vive voix. Il est
possible qu’ils encourent une très grande responsabilité
actuellement, et une plus terrible encore dans l’avenir.
LES VILLES FORTUNÉES