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A Field Guide to British Rivers
A Field Guide to British Rivers

George Heritage
Dynamic Rivers Consultants, Birmingham, UK

Andy Large
Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

David Milan
University of Hull, Hull, UK
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data


Names: Heritage, G. L. (George Leonard), author. | Large, Andrew R. G.,
author. | Milan, David, author.
Title: A field guide to British rivers / George Heritage, Andy Large, David
Milan.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021028304 (print) | LCCN 2021028305 (ebook) | ISBN
9781118487983 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118488003 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781118488027 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Rivers–Great Britain. | Stream health–Great Britain. |
Stream conservation–Great Britain.
Classification: LCC GB1283 .H47 2021 (print) | LCC GB1283 (ebook) | DDC
551.48/30941–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021028304
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021028305

Cover Design: Wiley


Cover Image: © George Heritage (Swindale Beck)

Set in 9.5/12.5pt StixTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
In memory of Martin Charlton (1957–2021)

An unassuming academic with a brilliant mind, indubitable character and unbounded enthusiasm for his work and
students. Martin will be missed by all who knew him. His influence will live on well beyond his short life.
vii

Contents

Foreword ix

1 British Rivers: Status and Condition 1

2 River Types: A Brief Overview 9

3 River Types: Observations and Theory 19

4 “Reading” Rivers 123

5 Towards Sensitive and Appropriate Management 159

References 167
Place and River Index 187
Subject Index 189
ix

Foreword

Temperate rivers are influenced by many factors includ- ­ ottomlands were exploited for food production and
b
ing geology, climate, soils, sediment type, flow and industrialists sought to utilise the power of rivers for
human activity. The complex interactions of the non-­ energy for manufacturing activities. River channels
anthropogenic controlling factors have led to a wonder- were moved, straightened, embanked, and deepened,
ful variety of river form in the British Isles. Sadly, and the new channels had their banks protected with
however, almost all temperate rivers in the United wood and stone. While large extents of natural wooded
Kingdom have suffered significant and long-­lasting vegetation were removed as part of this activity, trees
modification and management that has all but destroyed were planted along bank margins to prevent them mov-
this variety, instead creating simplified conduits for ing from their designated route. Floodplains and later
water and sediment designed primarily to drain the uplands were drained to improve land for crops and
land and reduce flood risk. This book is intended to grazing, and urban rivers were completely channelised
illustrate this variety, highlighting the many forms that to prevent flooding. Successive generations have now
temperate river systems take in the United Kingdom. In grown up with these modified rivers, and as a result, we
this volume, we cover upland and lowland channel have now accepted that they are somehow “natural”.
types and include the full range of substrate conditions Our own limited experience of rivers has led to the
from bedrock through boulder, cobble and gravel widespread belief that rivers are liquid ribbons in the
through to silt-­dominated systems. In doing this, the landscape; static systems, immovable in the landscape
authors describe examples gathered from over 30 years and not part of the surrounding floodplain fields and
each of research and practical experience working with meadows. We talk of rivers “bursting their banks” – a
rivers and set these in the context of the current scien- negative term implying that overspilling to occupy the
tific knowledge to illustrate the natural functioning of floodplain temporarily is somehow unnatural.
temperate river types. We hope this will act as a practi- Increasingly, as management of temperate rivers
cal, context-­sensitive and more sustainable template for reduces on the part of national agencies, requests are
the restoration and re-­naturalisation of degraded chan- made to “fix” rivers by “repairing” banks, dredging sedi-
nels in the United Kingdom and as a working set of ment, and removing wood and other vegetation to rec-
guidelines for those interested in understanding more reate the “neat” channels people remember from days
about the rich variety of temperate river types. In doing gone by. Such perceptions are not aided by the current
this, we know other examples exist (e.g. the practical teaching of river science in schools. Geography and
guides from the UK River Restoration Centre), and so environmental lessons in schools perpetuate outdated
we intend this volume with its balance between science concepts; for example, textbooks concentrate on mean-
and practicalities of river management to compliment dering systems and pool-­riffle sequences and
these other approaches but essentially to act as a stand-­ decades-old river typologies that, despite rivers being
alone guide. continua, divide catchments into upper, mid-­reach and
It is interesting to reflect on the reasons behind the lowland meandering sections – ignoring the irony that
present degraded state of temperate British rivers and the latter are rarely permitted to be mobile nowadays.
the common acceptance that this current state is “how a All these modifications have not just altered the
river should be”. Significant, almost wholesale, channel ­physical form of temperate British rivers and valley
and floodplain modification occurred throughout ­bottoms they have also fundamentally impacted on the
the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions as valley flow regime and the way in which river systems erode,
x Foreword

transport and store sediment. As such, we are left with landscape change. The recent efforts to reintroduce
systems that are a neutered shadow of their former ­ecosystem engineers such as beaver also points to
selves, where both natural processes and natural form greater willingness in UK river managers to turn back
are severely impacted resulting in a highly degraded the clock and allow greater space for nature.
river channel and valley bottom. The simple single-­ The natural environment is now rising in value with
thread channel, often featureless and constrained, domi- an increasing recognition of the role that natural system
nates our riverine landscapes with many other river dynamics can play in climate change, biodiversity, as
types now all but extinct. Many rivers also now experi- well as ecosystem regulation and buffering, and there
ence more extreme flows across the year, with winter appears to be a growing political will in the United
flood extremes testing flood defences to their limits and Kingdom to instigate change, with new government
spring and summer low flows that border on drought stewardship schemes likely to place a very strong
conditions. Whilst both extremes may have their origins emphasis on environmental functionality, helping push
in wider climate change, there is no doubt that they have the river restoration agenda forward. In all cases, this
been exacerbated by inappropriate upland drainage can only be achieved successfully with the appropriate
management impacting on the flow paths and speed of river-based understanding. During the time we have
water once it has hit the ground. been writing this book, Britain has left the European
Such a situation should not be allowed to continue Union, and so it remains to be seen what trajectory
and fortunately several factors are presently operating ­environmental protection will take post departure, but
that provide encouragement that more natural river and initial statements from government indicate a willing-
floodplain systems can make a resurgence. The first is ness to legislate for more protection, not less. What is
the current reluctance amongst statutory bodies to con- key is that any range of protection methods should
tinue with the intensive management of watercourses ensure a place for enhanced dynamism, not less.
due to their routine maintenance budgets being signifi- Future sustainable management of our rivers and
cantly reduced from those of a decade or two ago. This floodplains therefore requires a fuller understanding of
is giving many rivers a chance to begin to erode and river form and function to ensure that opportunities are
deposit sediment once again; however, channel response fully exploited, and our perception of rivers is changed
is often highly localised and more extreme than would towards more naturally functioning dynamic systems.
occur naturally as failing protection creates “hotspots of We have written this book deliberately as an illustrated
change”. Alongside this, there is an increasing recogni- field guide to maximise the practical examples of river
tion that impacted flood regimes require addressing at types and to highlight the pressures they experience and
source rather than just at flooding hotspots, and Natural their often parlous condition. This book is intended to
Flood Management approaches to slow flood flows and better inform both river management approaches and
store flood water are gaining traction in terms of policy necessary to achieve this. It will hopefully stimu-
catchment-­oriented efforts to restore river and flood- late a desire to bring back the diversity and dynamism
plain connectivity and channel dynamism. More associated with naturally functioning temperate fluvial
recently, it has been recognised that degraded sediment systems in the United Kingdom. The ethos of the book
transport regimes are also influencing the potential for is to inspire the river scientist in us all, by providing a
flooding with heightened levels of gravels accumulating holistic picture of the variety of temperate river forms in
in urban areas because of disconnected storage in the Britain and linking this explicitly to functional controls
catchment and altered sediment transport efficiencies within the catchment. Fundamentally, we seek to dem-
in upstream rivers. Natural Sediment Management onstrate and evidence how the hydrological, geomor-
whereby sediment storage zones are reconnected and phological, and ecological functions of rivers integrate
channel form naturalised to a more storage friendly to generate and maintain the dynamic whole. If those
configuration can help reduce flood sediment inputs to who have read this book find themselves questioning
vulnerable areas whilst restoring natural form and pro- what they see each time they encounter a river and its
cesses to the fluvial system upstream. Finally, the trend floodplain, this volume will have served its purpose.
amongst owners of large estates to re-­wild the landscape
and reintroduce extinct species is also improving larger George Heritage
and larger areas, often with valley bottom land being Andy Large
encouraged to naturalise through light touch interven- David Milan
tions that act as the precursor for wider river-­driven July 2021
1

British Rivers: Status and Condition

1.1 ­Introduction conditions with the landscape becoming dominated by


a few dominant species best adapted to the imposed
Rivers in the Britain are an important component of the conditions (Stanford et al. 1996). Flood-­controlled dis-
natural and social environment. Humans have long influ- turbances, occurring as part of the natural flow regime,
enced valley bottom ecosystems, with impacts recorded stimulate geomorphic processes and promote vegetative
consistently across Europe since the Bronze Age (Brown succession (Amoros and Roux 1988; Junk et al. 1989).
et al. 2018). Through the historic period, there has been a As a result, natural floodplains display complex dynamic
near-­consistent alteration of system character and func- spatial vegetation mosaics controlled by the morphol-
tionality with ecosystem dynamics suppressed to facili- ogy and the associated surface and subsurface hydro-
tate human exploitation of watercourses and valley logical regime (Thoms 2003). The features and
bottoms. Landscape-­scale disturbance across regimes that vegetation present are often also a reflection of both pre-
sustain habitats and biotic communities have resulted in sent and past geomorphological activity associated with
a permanent loss of environmental heterogeneity and the fluvial system (Nanson and Croke, 1992) with fea-
biodiversity (Warren and Liss 1980). tures developing ecologically as connectivity with the
main river alters over time.
The preponderance of a near homogenous fluvial
1.2 ­The Importance of River landscape, where natural processes are almost com-
and Floodplains pletely suppressed and continue to be suppressed
through active management, offers little hope of any
Dynamic landscapes exhibit high spatial and temporal return to a more natural, dynamic, and diverse system
environmental heterogeneity and strong speciosity unless current land use practices, not just on floodplains
(Connell 1978) and naturally functioning fluvial sys- but also across the wider catchment, are fundamentally
tems represent some of the most dynamic landscapes on altered. Small-­scale restoration may partially restore
the planet. This is reflected in their very high conserva- some river and floodplain features and processes, but in
tion value (Ratcliffe 1977). They also display some of the the absence of re-­wilding will mean that ecological
highest biological productivity and ecosystem diversity gains remain highly localised and fundamentally unsus-
on Earth (Tockner and Stanford 2002), principally due tainable into the long term.
to their dynamic behaviour and their transitional nature Longitudinal and lateral fragmentation of large river
as they form an ecotone, or transitional boundary, systems, linked principally to human activities, has also
between terrestrial and aquatic environments. Mitsch contributed to severe and widespread floodplain degrada-
and Gosselink (2000) estimated that, globally, flood- tion, and this is threatening the integrity of running
plains cover approximately 1.4% of the planet’s land sur- water ecosystems (Dynesius and Nilsson 1994; Schiemer
face (0.8 × 106 km2 to 2 × 106 km2); however, they 1999). This degradation is closely linked to a rapid decline
contribute around 25% of all terrestrial ecosystem ser- in freshwater biodiversity, principally due to habitat alter-
vices (Tockner and Stanford 2002). When the natural ation through altered land use and flow patterns, flood
dynamics of river and floodplain systems are subdued control, pollution and to invasive species. Tockner and
or lost; however, the system becomes dysfunctional Stanford (2002) provide the stark statistic that in Europe
and the loss of dynamism results in environmental and North America, up to 90% of floodplains are already
homogeneity and stasis. Diversity is reduced under such “cultivated” and therefore functionally extinct.

A Field Guide to British Rivers, First Edition. George Heritage, Andy Large and David Milan.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 British Rivers: Status and Condition

1.3 ­River and Floodplain Newbold (1998) estimated there were originally


Degradation some 2 000 000 ha of lowland floodplain in the UK; this
had been reduced by 86% to 274 000 ha by the turn of
In England and Wales, watercourse and, to a lesser the century. This degradation was aided by post–World
degree, floodplain alteration and degradation has been War II land drainage grants which saw 84 000 ha
quantified as part of the European Water Framework drained with no measurable increase in agricultural
Directive (WFD) with water bodies classified based on yield (Purseglove 1988). Further insight into wider
their degree of alteration; labelled as artificial, heavily modification to floodplain areas was reported by
modified and near natural (non-­designated). Statistics Heritage et al. (2016a) in their analysis of floodplain
provided by the UK Joint Nature Conservation connectivity and land use on eight Site of Special
Committee (Figure 1.1) illustrate the generally poor Scientific Interest (SSSI) rivers in England and Wales.
state of UK rivers, with only around 30% of water bodies They found that even these SSSI watercourses have
achieving the required good ecological status/potential been significantly impacted by current and former
and experiencing virtually no improvement in status engineering and management of the river and valley
level throughout the first cycle period of operation of bottoms. Floodplains along all eight watercourses
the EU Directive. exhibited a loss of geomorphic functionality and natu-
This generally poor state of river system form and func- ral habitat due to land use changes. Publication of the
tion was noted by Seager et al. (2012) who conducted a 2015 land cover mapping for England allowed
stratified random sample of 4849 River Habitat Survey Entwistle et al. (2019a) to further investigate flood-
sites across England and Wales in 1995–1996 and again in plain habitat change in England by analysing flood-
2007–2008 to assess the general physical character of riv- plain habitat composition over time to chart recent
ers and streams. From these data, they estimated that historic degradation. Data from 1990 showed that
only 11% of river length had a “near-­natural” channel intensive agriculture occupied around 38% of flood-
form, with a further 14% classed as predominantly plain zones, expanding to 53% by 2000 before the rate
unmodified. A single river study by Bentley et al. (2016) of expansion slowed slightly to cover 62% in 2007.
found a similar picture of hydromorphic diversity reduc- Between 2007 and 2015, this statistic remained rela-
tion along an engineered reach of the River Wharfe, sug- tively static (64%) with some suggestion that arable
gesting that engineering-­driven changes to morphology, areas were being transformed to pasture. Wetland
which are common on UK watercourses, result in areas in the form of fen, marsh, swamp, and bog are
severely degraded system form and function. Both stud- key indicators of natural floodplain functioning, and
ies paint an overly positive picture of fluvial system these have been devastated over recent historic time
health as they omitted floodplain character and its almost with data sets indicating that these fundamental flood-
ubiquitously degraded condition. plain units have been all but lost. Upland and lowland

Year
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
100
Percentage of assessed surface water bodies

80 Water body status

Bad

60 Poor

Moderate
40
Good

High
20

Figure 1.1 Status classification of UK surface water bodies from 2009 to 2019 as defined under the Water Framework
Directive, showing little improvement over a decade. Data from JNCC (2021).
1.3 ­River and Floodplain Degradatio 3

areas have both been severely impacted with a near Man, Purseglove (1988) noted the following key points
ubiquitous loss of natural floodplain functioning. about the then physical state of the 85 000 km of rivers
Such statistics relating to river and floodplain degra- and streams:
dation are repeated across other temperate areas. In
1) Very few pristine lowland channels flowing through
Europe, fifteen years after the Water Framework
semi-­natural landscapes remained;
Directive came into force, achieving its objectives
2) Only 13.6% of lowland sites in England and Wales,
remains a challenge; in 2012, the European Commission
28% in Scotland, and 10.1% in Northern Ireland had
predicted that 47% of EU surface waters would not
an entirely unaltered channel;
attain "good ecological status“ by the first cycle census
3) 3.7% of lowland sites in England and Wales, 1.7% in
date of 2015 (European Commission 2012). During the
Scotland, and 5% in Northern Ireland were classified
first WFD cycle, which operated from 2009 to 2015, the
as having severely modified channels;
number of surface water bodies in “good” state only
4) Land drainage, flood defence, intensive agriculture,
increased by 10% (van Rijswick and Backes 2015).
and urban development had significantly altered the
Interestingly, of the natural systems failing to achieve
channel shape and river landscape of many sites in
good ecological status, the primary reason in 40% of
the lowlands;
cases was hydromorphological pressure. UK govern-
5) Extensive reinforcement and re-­sectioning of river-
ment statistics associated with the assessment of hydro-
banks, and channel impoundment had caused a sig-
morphological degradation suggest that the primary
nificant reduction in habitat diversity;
reason for in-­channel issues is engineering modification
6) Only 4.2% of sites below 50 m above sea level, with
(Figure 1.2). These figures deserve further consideration
adjacent floodplain, had extensive wetlands, reflect-
as they only reflect what has been audited. Diffuse
ing historical land drainage and current land-­use
catchment pressures are also significantly impacting
pressures already affecting many river corridors.
watercourse form and function but were simply not
considered in the Water Framework Directive assess- Broad estimates are that some 80–90% of Europe’s
ment process. river floodplains are now cultivated intensively com-
These statistics, although stark, should not come as a pared to figures of 46% for North America (excluding
surprise. From a snap-­shot baseline sample of more northern Canada and Alaska) and 11% for African
than 5600 RHS reference sites across the UK and Isle of Rivers (Tockner and Stanford 2002). As such floodplain

Figure 1.2 Cause of hydromorphic UK upland UK lowland


degradation in the UK. Source: www.
riverhabitatsurvey.org/wp-content/
uploads/2012/07/RHS.pdf

England & Wales upland Scotland upland

Straightening

Embankments

Bridge

England & Wales lowland Scotland lowland Re-sectioning

Weir/sluice

Ford

Bank reinforcement

Culvert
4 1 British Rivers: Status and Condition

condition and functionality has been reported as being 1.4 ­River and Floodplain Recovery
in a critical situation across Europe (Wenger et al. 1990;
Klimo and Hager 2001). Tockner and Stanford (2002) The preceding section summarises several studies relating
note that in Europe and North America, up to 90% of to river and floodplain degradation; however, it remains
floodplains are already “cultivated” and therefore func- difficult for the reader to understand exactly what has
tionally extinct; this figure is likely an underestimate for happened to watercourses and valley bottoms in England
British rivers, given only 3.3% of the total river network due to an absence of unmodified baselines. Rivers today
of Britain is fully connected (Jones et al. 2019). Post-­war are often regarded as “natural” systems with little regard
land drainage grants ceased in the 1980s, but loss of to the actual levels of degradation they have suffered. This
wetland has continued to the present-­day and current is perfectly understandable as we have grown up with
attempts to improve watercourse form and function heavily modified and managed systems, and we have few
through restoration is having little or no measurable undisturbed analogues left against which we can judge
impact on floodplains. the degree of historical alteration. “Stability” is seen as
It is interesting to review the figures above against the desirable with neatness and uniformity favoured above
Water Framework Directive measure of river health natural functionality. Fortunately, this attitude is chang-
currently being used across Europe. Entwistle et al. ing as the economics of river and floodplain management
(2019a) used floodplain land-­use data for 2017 broken has resulted in reduced river training and a consequent
down according to current water body status generating increase in the influence of more natural fluvial processes.
2975 auditable units. Water bodies presently at good sta- Many systems are showing small but significant signs of
tus were selected (n = 375), arable and horticulture cov- recovery towards a better functioning system aligned with
ers in excess of 50% of the floodplain area on around current catchment controls. Recovery has not always been
15% of good status water bodies, this increases to around back to a previous river state before human intervention
50% for area under improved grassland and when the as conditions in the catchment have changed significantly
two are considered together between 70 and 75% of enough to cause a state change in our rivers, but their
good tatus water bodies are covered by at least 50% diversity is at least improving.
farmland. Around half of these water bodies are utilised The trend is best illustrated through examples.
over 90% by farming. Figure 1.3 illustrates a typical lowland watercourse;

Figure 1.3 Typical heavily modified lowland system with artificial flood protection embankments, channel straightening and
dredging, and removal of in-­channel and riparian vegetation. The Yorkshire Derwent at Yedingham.
1.5 ­Purpose of This Boo 5

Figure 1.4 Typical heavily modified upland system, straightened, walled, and dredged. The Upper Whit Beck at Low Lorton.

here historic engineering and current management (Figure 1.5). The recovery of such areas appears
have led to the development of a monotonous single-­ strongly influenced by vegetation which acts as the pre-
thread watercourse devoid of in-­channel morphological cursor to sediment deposition and consolidation and
units and showing no signs of any lateral movement creates high levels of local morphologic, hydrologic,
due to revetment works and a subdued flood regime. and hydraulic diversity. In Britain, such systems remain
Floodplain areas, although often extensive, display no highly restricted, but their form and functionality, even
functional morphological units with intensive land use at a local scale, offer clear indications of how many
severing hydrological and hydraulic connections, modi- lowland systems should look and behave.
fying, or destroying floodplain features and altering veg- Upland systems appear to be naturalising most
etative assemblages. Upland rivers have suffered strongly through in-­channel feature re-­development
similarly (Figure 1.4). Natural flow paths have been leading to enhanced local bank erosion and lateral
altered to maximise valley bottom land use. Lateral reworking of floodplain sediment. On many rivers this
activity has been suppressed through revetment and has created well-­connected narrow inset floodplains
tree planting, in-­channel morphological development (Figure 1.6). On more energetic systems, the loss of con-
has been suppressed by repeat dredging, and floodplain straints on channel movement has seen the develop-
functionality has been disrupted due to a combination ment of strongly active meandering systems (Figure
of bed lowering, embanking, and incision in response to 1.7), or wandering channel networks (Figure 1.8), both
human modification. of which offer considerably higher morphologic, hydro-
Examples of naturally functioning fluvial systems are logic, and hydraulic diversity as compared to their previ-
few and far between, existing only as small fragments ously managed state.
because of a lack of system management. Nevertheless,
these reaches offer valuable insights into how our riv-
ers and floodplains would function when uncon- 1.5 ­Purpose of This Book
strained, and can act as templates against which we
should be judging our present systems. On lowland riv- This book aims to highlight the true form and function
ers, the trend appears to be towards the development of of watercourses and valley bottom areas using examples
a low-­gradient stable multiple channel river network from the British Isles on which the authors have worked,
well connected to intervening areas of floodplain either individually or together, over the last three
6 1 British Rivers: Status and Condition

Figure 1.5 Semi-­natural multi-­channel network on the River Narr.

Figure 1.6 Laterally migrating active channel on the River Mallart, Syre, northern Scotland.

­ ecades and more. The intention is to encourage the


d character and complexity. In Chapter 3, we illustrate the
reader to view fluvial systems and their potential for morphological unit makeup of, and drivers and pro-
management and restoration in a new light using exam- cesses behind, each river type through a comprehen-
ples of functional river types. The book will act as a sive photographic guide, and review the current
guide to recognising these river types, and Chapter 2 research understanding of their form and function
serves to illustrate and widen understanding of their through a focussed review of published studies. Whilst
classification into different functional types based on we include examples of the science from outside the
1.5 ­Purpose of This Boo 7

Figure 1.7 Active reach of the River Glen at Kirknewton, Northumberland, showing bank erosion and bar formation.

Figure 1.8 Wandering reach of the River South Esk, Scotland, showing sediment deposition and temporary storage.

British Isles, these studies all focus on temperate rivers, and in Chapter 4, we provide a guide to “reading” rivers,
and all examples of functional river types used are from describing key watercourse indicators that help in this
the UK. Of great value to the river scientist is the ability task. Finally in Chapter 5, we provide some personal
to infer fluvial processes and probable directions of flu- thoughts regarding sensitive and appropriate manage-
vial change from the current morphology of the system, ment for British rivers going forward.
9

River Types: A Brief Overview

2.1 ­Introduction Despite these earlier research efforts, it often remains


difficult to specifically categorise a watercourse. Rosgen
The pattern and features of any watercourse are influ- (1994) noted this when matching observed characteris-
enced by the river type and its sediment load, as well as tics to those anticipated from theory and described how
by the environment through which the stream flows (its this poses significant problems when trying to under-
catchment). Furthermore, the form of a channel both stand and manage our river systems, while Kondolf and
influences and reflects the processes active in the stream Downs (1996) have criticised regional classifications as
system. As such, the classification of channel form can providing little link to, or understanding of, river pro-
help those concerned with river management to under- cesses, river condition, or potential change trajectories.
stand the hydraulic and sediment processes acting on a Increasingly, the understanding of river and floodplain
watercourse and how the physical nature of the water- systems from a morphological perspective has facilitated
course modifies local processes (Rosgen 1994). An appro- development of hierarchical classification systems (e.g.
priate river typology is thus a valuable tool when trying to Newson 1992; Montgomery and Buffington 1993;
understand and work with a watercourse and can facili- Sear 1994; Brierley 1999). In common these classifica-
tate interventions in rivers and across floodplains which tions impart heightened understanding of the interaction
work with current and restored processes to provide sus- between the physical template of a system, dominant
tainable systems for the future. This short chapter reviews processes, and the ecosystems which develop as a result
a wide variety of classifications developed for rivers. of these (Newson 1992; Maddock 1999). Incorporation of
the knowledge that river form and process both interact
and evolve simultaneously means that a functional clas-
2.2 ­Classification sification system linked to channel morphology allows
the user to predict behaviour from appearance, forecast
River and floodplain systems exist on a continuum the magnitude and directional nature of driving hydrau-
between bedrock and fully alluvial states resulting in a lic and sediment controls. It also provides a frame of ref-
myriad of channel forms across the world. Many river clas- erence against which to judge degraded systems and
sification systems have been developed to try to categorise allows development of a common framework for under-
watercourse types; initial attempts were primarily based standing rivers.
on planform pattern. Straight, sinuous (often referred to as
meandering), and braided patterns were distinguished by
Leopold and Wolman (1957), and this typology was 2.3 ­Functional Classifications
strongly linked to the slope-­discharge character identified
at the same time by Lane (1957). This tripartite division for As has already been noted, rivers display a diverse con-
alluvial rivers has since been further developed, and tinuum of channel patterns and forms. This continuum
Church and Rood (1983) provided an excellent précis of results from complex processes of flow-­induced sedi-
this research, extending it to other channel types. It was ment erosion, transport, and deposition operating within
not until the early 1990s however, that the first combined the constraints imposed by the geology and ­terrain of the
river and floodplain classification was published (Nanson catchment landscape. River channel typologies provide
and Croke 1992), recognising the interlinked functionality a basis for ordering physical features and processes into
of these two components of the wider system. groups based on common characteristics associated with

A Field Guide to British Rivers, First Edition. George Heritage, Andy Large and David Milan.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
10 2 River Types: A Brief Overview

these process controls. The Scottish Environmental g­ radient (Figure 2.2). Three classic channel types were
Protection Agency’s (SEPA) 2012 morphological river recognised: meandering, wandering, and braided. The
typology (Figure 2.1) is based on Montgomery and thresholds defining shifts between these channel types
Buffington’s 1993 and 1997 typologies for montane were observed to be mainly dependent on the calibre of
streams in North America. This has been modified by the bed material present in the channel with braiding
SEPA to include lower gradient channels found in the UK. occurring at lower gradient/discharge values than
The typology is process-­based, i.e. channel sub-­types are gravel systems.
grouped together according to the similar morphological
processes present. As such, the channels in each of the
groupings have similar sensitivity to external morphologi- 2.3.2 Process-­Based Classification of
cal pressures such as channel modifications. Other key Montgomery and Buffington (1997)
features are that the types are considered “natural,” i.e.
they assume the channel is unmodified and that types The 1997 classification identifies eight functional
exist at a reach scale, with individual reaches varying con- river types based on discriminatory values of degree
siderably in length. This section briefly reviews the most of confinement, system gradient, bedform types and
common fluvial classification systems currently in use spacing, bed material, reactivity, and sediment source
and for a variety of purposes. and ­storage character (Table 2.1). It should be noted
that the channel types and control variable limits
defined in both Montgomery and Buffington and in
2.3.1 Channel Type Change with Gradient,
Leopold and Wolman (above) are by no means univer-
Sedimentology and Discharge
sal, and this is illustrated in Table 2.2 which summa-
Church (2002) differentiated alluvial channel types rises several other typologies developed for alluvial
based on the controlling variables of discharge and channels.

colluvial alluvial bedrock

colluvial braided regime pool-riffle plane bed step-pool cascade bedrock

Transport Limited Supply Limited

Figure 2.1 River types on the sediment supply continuum.

0.1 Figure 2.2 Channel type change


with river gradient, sedimentology,
and discharge. Based upon Church
(2002). © John Wiley & Sons.
0.01

Gravel Grave braided


wandering
Sand braided
Slope

0.001

Gravel
Gravel sinuous wandering &
braided
0.0001 Sand braided

Sand sinuous
0.00001
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Discharge m3s–1
Table 2.1 River types identified by Montgomery and Buffington (1997) along with their key attributes.

Channel type

Attribute Braided Regime Pool-­riffle Plane-­bed Step-­pool Cascade Bedrock Colluvial

Typical bed Variable Sand Gravel Gravel cobble Cobble boulder Boulder n/a Variable
material
Bedform pattern Lateral oscillation Multi layered Lateral oscillation None Vertical oscillation None Variable
Reach type Response Response Response Response Transport Transport Transport Source
Dominant Bedforms (bars, Sinuosity bedforms Bedforms (bars, pools) Grains, Banks Bedforms (steps, Grains Banks Boundaries Grains Large
roughness pools) (dunes, ripples, bars) Grains Large wood pools) Grains (bed, banks) wood
elements Banks Sinuosity Banks Large wood Banks
Dominant Fluvial Bank Fluvial Bank failure Fluvial Bank failure Fluvial Bank Fluvial, Hillslope Fluvial Hillslope Fluvial Hillslope
sediment sources failure Debris Inactive channel Inactive channel failure Debris Debris flows Debris flows Hillslope Debris flows
flows Debris flows flows Debris flows
Sediment storage Overbank Overbank bedforms Overbank bedforms Overbank Bedforms Lee and stoss Bed
elements bedforms inactive channel inactive channel inactive channel sides of
obstructions
Typical slope <0.03 <0.001 0.001> <0.02 0.001> <0.03 0.03> <0.08 0.08> <0.3 Variable >0.2
Typical Unconfined Unconfined Unconfined Variable Confined Confined Confined Confined
confinement
Pool spacing Variable 5–7 5–7 none 1–4 <1 Variable Variable
(channel widths)

Source: Modified from Montgomery and Buffington (1997). © John Wiley & Sons.
12 2 River Types: A Brief Overview

Table 2.2 Additional river types to those listed in Table 2.1, with channel slope as a discriminator.

Reference Pool Glide Riffle Rapid Cascade

Bisson et al. (1988) S < 0.04 S > 0.04 S > 0.04


S < 0.16
Sullivan (1986) S < 0.01 S > 0.01 S > 0.01 S > 0.04 S ~ 0.068
S < 0.02 S < 0.04
Grant et al. (1990) S ~ 0.005 S < 0.02 S ~ 0.011 S ~ 0.029 S ~ 0.055
Wood-­Smith and Buffington Closed topographic S > 0.02 S > 0.04
(1996) depression S < 0.04
Montgomery and Buffington S ~ 0.012 S > 0.0015 S > 0.02 S ~ 0.11
(1997) S < 0.04 S < 0.076

Confined valley Partially confined valley Laterally unconfined valley


occasional no floodplain occasional sinuous/spurred discontinuous no channel continuous
floodplain areas areas floodplain areas valley channel channel

bedrock, boulder, bedrock, boulder, bedrock, gravel, channel mostly mud/sand valley mud/sand valley single low
gravel, sand gravel sand along valley margin floor floor sinuosity channel

pools, riffles, glides, cascades, rapids, pools, glides, runs compound floodplain, sand splays, swamp ponds, swamp unstable channel
runs, islands boulder bars point bars, benches
gravel, boulders Sand, mud
FLOODOUT INTACT VALLEY
STEEP HEADWATER cascades, rapids, OCCASIONAL BEDROCK CONTROLLED FILL
boulder bars FLOODPLAIN POCKET DISCONTINUOUS casades, boulder Lateral bars, sand Sand sheets, inset
FLOODPLAIN bars, pools, sheets, benches, features, swampy
GORGE islands, avulsion levees, low flow channel
channels backswamps, floor
channels

LOW SINUOSITY LOW SINUOSITY CHANNELISED


BOULDER BED SAND BED FILL

Figure 2.3 The River Styles typology (Source: Based on Brierley and Fryirs (2005). © John Wiley & Sons).

2.3.3 River Styles Framework BED MATERIAL


Bedrock

Boulder

Cobble

The River Styles framework (Brierley and Fryirs 2005) Gravel

Sand

Clay
develops a more holistic view of fluvial systems, providing

Silt
a geomorphic template upon which biophysical processes
are assessed within a catchment context. The River Styles Cascade
Single Thread

methodology reflects both river character and behaviour. Step-pool


As such the framework also provides a basis for assessing
Plane bed
geomorphic river condition and recovery potential, framed
in terms of evolutionary pathways for each channel type. Riffle-pool
The River Styles typology is summarised in Figure 2.3. Meandering
PLANFORM

2.3.4 Extended River Typology


The Extended River Typology developed by Rinaldi et al. Braided
(2015) identified 22 morphological types (Figure 2.4)
classified by confinement (confined, partly confined, Island-braided
Multi Thread

and unconfined), dominant bed material calibre (bed- Anabranching


rock, boulder, cobble, gravel, sand, and silt), and plan- (high energy)

form (straight-­sinuous, meandering, pseudo-­meandering, Wandering


wandering, braided, island-­braided, and anabranching).
Pseude-meandering

2.3.5 Scottish Environment Protection Anabranching (low


energy)
Agency (SEPA) Classification
As mentioned above, SEPA (2012) proposed a river Figure 2.4 The Extended River typology. Source: Modified
from Rinaldi et al. (2015). © John Wiley & Sons.
­classification system for Scottish rivers based on and
developing the Montgomery and Buffington (1997)
2.4 ­River Classification Framework Used in This Boo 13

typology. Twelve channel systems have been distin- 2.4 ­River Classification


guished by SEPA, and these have been amalgamated Framework Used in This Book
into six functional channel types distinguished based on
their geology (bedrock or alluvial), slope, and gross sin- It is clear from the short review above that there is little
uosity (Table 2.3). The SEPA hierarchical classification consensus regarding a robust typology for fluvial sys-
provides a useful summary of the character of each river tems. This situation reflects the difficulty in classifying
type proposed (Table 2.4). across a continuum from bedrock to alluvial forms, each

Table 2.3 Functional channel types defined by SEPA (2012).

Geology Slope Sinuosity River type

Bedrock Any Any Bedrock, Cascade


Not bedrock >0.1 Any Bedrock, Cascade
0.03> <0.1 Any Step-­pool, Plane bed
0.005> <0.03 <1.1 Step-­pool, Plane bed
>1.1 Plane riffle, Braided, Wandering
0.001> <0.005 Any Plane riffle, Braided, Wandering
0.0005> <0.001 <1.4 Plane riffle, Braided, Wandering
>1.4 Active meandering
0.001> <0.005 Any Active meandering
<0.0001 Any Passive meandering

Source: Based on SEPA (2012). © John Wiley & Sons.

Table 2.4 General character of functional channel types as defined by SEPA (2012).

Channel type Description

Bedrock Most found in upland areas, though bedrock lined reaches can occur in certain lowland environments. They
channels generally have little if any bed sediment and have limited hydraulic connection with the riparian zone.
Channel gradients tend to be high, resulting in a high transport capacity but limited sediment supply. These
factors, together with the high degree of bank strength, result in quite stable channels.
Cascades Restricted to upland areas with steep slopes and are characterised by disorganised bed material typically
consisting of cobbles and boulders constrained by confining valley walls. The riparian zone is usually
extremely small in extent and interactions with the channel are limited. The large size of bed and bank
material, together with high levels of energy dissipation due to the bed roughness, dictates that the largest
bed load only becomes mobile in extreme floods (circa > 25-­year return interval). Bedrock outcrops are
common and small pools may be present among the boulders.
Step-­pool Have a steep gradient and consists of large boulder splays which form discrete sediment accumulations
channels across the channel, forming a series of “steps” which are separated by intervening pools containing finer
sediment (typical spacing 1–4 channel widths). The stepped channel morphology results in zones of
turbulence interspersed by more tranquil flows. As with cascade reaches, the high degree of channel
roughness and large sediment on the channel bed and banks results in stable channels that respond only in
very large flood events. The stream is generally confined by the valley sides, and there is limited
development of terraces or floodplains.
Plane bed Generally moderate gradient streams with relatively featureless gravel/cobble beds, but which include units
channels ranging from glides, riffles, and rapids. Sediment size and channel gradients are smaller than step-­pool
channels and deeper pool sections tend to be lacking. The riverbed is generally armoured and thus mobilized
only in larger floods. Although channels are typically stable, they are more prone to channel change than any
of the preceding channel types. With relatively more frequent bedload movement they represent transitional
channels between the more stable types listed above and the following more dynamic types of channel.
Channels are generally straight and may be confined or unconfined by the valley sides. However, the
banks – which generally comprise material resistant to lateral migration – constrain the channel from
migrating laterally and developing alternate bars or riffles.

(Continued)
14 2 River Types: A Brief Overview

Table 2.4 (Continued)

Channel type Description

Pool-­riffle and Meandering and unconfined channel that during low flows are characterised by lateral oscillating
Plane-­riffle sequences of bars, pools, and rifles, resulting from oscillations in hydraulic conditions from convergent
channels (erosive) to divergent (depositional) flow environments (typical spacing 5–7 channel widths). The gradient
of such channels is low to moderate, and the width-to-depth ratio high. The bed is predominantly gravel
with occasional patches of cobbles and sand. Accumulation of sediments in gravel bars indicates
increasingly transport-­limited conditions, though most large floods will produce some bedload movement
on an annual basis, thus reducing the stability of the channel. In such channels, interactions between the
stream and the riparian zone become more obvious with extensive over-­bank flood flows and wetland areas
often characterising the riparian zone. The banks are typically resistant to erosion, and lateral migration of
the channel is limited, resulting in relatively narrow and intermittently deep channels. Plane-­riffle channels
form an intermediate channel type between those of plane-­bed and pool-­riffle channels. They retain many
of the attributes of pool-­riffle channels; however, they generally have less defined pools, coarser (armoured)
substrate, and less-­extensive bar features. They are a common channel form in the UK, although it is
unclear whether their presence is natural or whether they represent a degraded form of the pool-­riffle
channel. For management purposes, it is suggested that they are treated as a pool-­riffle channel type.
Braided Braided reaches can occur in a variety of settings. They are characterised by relatively high gradients (but
channels ones that are less than upstream reaches) and/or abundant bedload. Sediment transport is usually limited
under most conditions and the channel splits into several threads around instream bars. Nevertheless, poor
bank strength renders them highly dynamic and channels will generally change even in relatively small
flood events.
Wandering These reaches exhibit characteristics of braided and meandering channels and typically switch between
channel divided and undivided channel types. Wandering channels may also be susceptible to channel avulsions
during high-­flow events, where the channel switches to a historical planform. Wandering channels typically
occur where a reduction of bed material size and channel slope is combined with a widening of the valley
floor. In sediment transport terms such reaches are bedload channels, but the number of competent
transport events in any year will vary greatly according to bed material size and the associated entrainment
function. Generally, they can be viewed as a transition channel type between braided and lowland
meandering channels.
Low-­gradient Unconfined low-­gradient meandering channels with a bedload dominated by sand and fine gravel; hence,
actively the channel bed has marked fine sediment accumulations that are mobile in most flood events. These occur
meandering in higher-­order (i.e. typically lowland) channels exhibiting more laminar flow hydraulics, with turbulent
flows being uncommon. The fine bed sediment, erodible banks, and unconfined settings means that such
channels are dynamic and prone to change. They also often have extensive riparian zones and floodplains
which are linked to the channel. Bars and pools may be present and are associated with bends and crossing
of the meander pattern.
Groundwater-­ Groundwater-­dominated rivers have low-­gradient channels and are characterised by a stable flow regime,
dominated although limestone rivers with cave systems may display hydrological characteristics like freshet rivers. This
channels stable regime is a product of the permeable catchment geology and consequent reduction in overland flow
that characterises groundwater-­dominated streams. Bed movement is infrequent, and sediments are
predominantly transported in suspension. Typically, sediments are derived from catchment sources,
although large macrophyte beds provide a source of in-­stream organic detritus. As bed disturbance is
infrequent, deposited sediments may remain in the gravel for extended periods, promoting the
accumulation of large quantities of fine sediment. Substrate generally comprises gravels, pebbles and sands,
and glides and runs are the dominant flow types. Localised areas of riffle habitat may be present particularly
where woody debris is available.
Low-­gradient These channels are typically found at lower extremities of the channel system. Generally, they flow through
passively high-­resistant materials, for instance clays and coarse deposits. They are generally sinuous; however, as the
meandering banks comprise materials that are resistant to erosion, they typically display “fixed” planform geometry.
Thus, these channels are often incised and display low width-to-depth ratios. The beds typically comprise
fine sedimentary materials (sands and silts), although pockets of gravel can be present, particularly in
poorly formed bar deposits. These channels are typically deep, and flows are dominated by glides, although
runs may be associated with meander bends. Riparian vegetation is influenced by clay soils and is often
sparser than in other channel types, comprising grasses shrubbery and smaller pockets of woody growth.
Primary production is strong in these channels and coupled with stable beds and extensive growth of
macrophyte vegetation.

Source: Based on SEPA (2012). © John Wiley & Sons.


2.4 ­River Classification Framework Used in This Boo 15

influenced by a spatially and temporally variable set of classify. Anabranching or anastomosed channels,
controlling parameters. The result is that each pub- which are often rare across temperate regions where
lished classification throws up issues when used as a the majority of the classifications have been devel-
general tool for determining a river type. The work of oped, are also under-­represented in typologies with
Leopold and Wolman (1957), for instance, concentrated only the River Styles framework (Brierley and
only on a relatively narrow range of low to moderate Fryirs 2005) explicitly considering this channel
energy alluvial systems, so failing to cover steep upland type, illustrating how geography has influenced the
channel types, whereas Montgomery and Buffington typologies.
(1997) and SEPA (2012) do extend their typology to Recognising the above and the absence of a “one size
steep channels and to channels where bedrock domi- fits all” methodology, this book follows Montgomery
nates over alluvium. and Buffington’s well-­established (1997) fluvial frame-
A key issue arises when discussing the scale over work, expanding it where necessary to include rarer,
which any classification system is applied. In but nonetheless important, river types encountered
Scotland, pool-­r iffle units appear to have been across the UK. We use this it is fundamentally based
­s ubsumed into an “active meandering channel around characteristic process controls (Table 2.5) and
type” by SEPA (2012), whilst remaining explicit in morphological assemblages which are summarised
many other classifications. Similarly, rapids and in Figure 2.5 and Tables 2.6 and 2.7 all of which are
associated morphologic units become difficult to described in greater detail in Chapter 3.

Table 2.5 Basic character and processes operating in the channel types used in this book.

Channel type Processes

Diffuse upland Channels are characteristically small with steep organic or fine sediment bank profiles. The channel
bed may be organic or fine sediment with occasional bedrock or boulder steps separating long pools
upstream. Seasonal channels may be vegetated and generally are less well defined promoting diffuse
surface flow.
Bedrock Bedrock channels are most associated with mountain areas but can occur almost anywhere along a
watercourse. They are morphologically robust and have a high flood competence. Valley bottom area
is often narrow. Bedrock and/or boulder step pool sequences dominate with the steps acting to
moderate gradient providing stable channel conditions. The pools often contain limited finer
sediments due to the low-­energy conditions created by the backwater effects of the steps.
Wandering Wandering channel types are associated with upland zones. They are often found flowing across an
extended valley floor in moderate-­to-­high gradient systems where sediment loads are high. Often,
they are associated with relict fluvio-­glacial valley bottom material with the river forming several
channels through a mix of sediment dominated by large material rarely mobilised by the
contemporary channel. They are highly responsive and dynamic rivers that can change significantly
following a flood event. Depositional features are often large and floodplain connectivity is
characteristically high.
Anabranching Anabranching channels are rare but can be found across upland, hilly, and lowland zones. They
develop a multi-­thread channel network separated by stable islands, bars, and berms. Floodplain
connectivity is often excellent and different channels are activated at different flow levels, spreading
flow energy over a wide area, creating stable channel conditions. The dominant bed material is
dependent on energy levels with gravels dominating in upland zones and fines prevalent. Wet
woodland often develops across the floodplain further enhancing overall stability.
Active single This type of channel is associated with hilly terrains and some upland zones. They generally flow over
thread a relatively low-­to-­moderate gradient. Sediment loads are moderate and has a large fine component.
Lateral movement is progressive linked to outer bank erosion and inner bank deposition. Typical bar
features include point, mid channel, and lateral bars and riffles. Occasionally, over-­supply of bedload
can lead to the development of a plane bed.
Passive single These are generally found in lowland areas flowing over low gradients. Bed material is generally
thread dominant by finer sediment (e.g. sands and silts), and gravel features are uncommon or poorly
developed if present. These channels are often heavily modified restricting lateral movement.
16 2 River Types: A Brief Overview

fine
anastomosed
passive single
thread

Diffuse upland

active single-thread plane bed

active single-thread pool-riffle

active single-thread pool-riffle


- point bar

coarse anastomosed

anabranching

step-pool
pool-rapid

bedrock

silt sand gravel cobble boulder bedrock

Figure 2.5 Temperate river typology used in this volume.

Table 2.6 Typical in-­channel morphologic assemblages by river type.

Channel type

Morphologic unit BC SPC BCPR PBR B W A PLR POR PRBR IST

Bedrock cascade U R R R
Bedrock controlled rapid U R R R
Bedrock influenced pool U R R R
Hydraulically controlled rapid C C C C
Obstruction induced rapid O O O O
Coarse sediment pool O C C C
Waterfall C O R R
Plunge pool bar O C O O
Boulder cascade C C U U
Bedrock step U R R R
Boulder step C C O O
Bedrock pool U R R R
Isolated boulder C U U U R R
Lateral bar O O R C C C
Lee bar R C O R R R
Fine sediment drape O O O C C U C C C U
Inner bend bar O O C C U O O C U
2.4 ­River Classification Framework Used in This Boo 17

Table 2.6 (Continued)

Channel type

Morphologic unit BC SPC BCPR PBR B W A PLR POR PRBR IST

Chute channel R R U U R C C C
Chute channel bar R R U U C C C
Lateral bar O O U C O C C C C
Mid-­channel bar O O U C O R R R O
Transverse bar O U C O O O
Alluvial pool R U U U O U U U
Riffle R C C U U U O
Rapid R O U U
Vertical eroding banks R R U U O O C R
(river cliffs)

U = Ubiquitous, C = Common, O = Occasional, R = Rare, BC = Bedrock cascade, SP = Step pool channel, BCPR = Boulder and cobble
pool-­rapid, PBR = Plane bed rapid, B = Braided, W = Wandering, A = Anastomosed, PLR = Plane-­riffle, POR = pool-­riffle, PRBR =
Pool-­riffle point bar, IST = Inactive single thread.

Table 2.7 Typical valley bottom morphologic assemblages by river type.

Channel type

Morphologic unit BC SPC BCPR PBR B W A PLR POR PRBR IST

Silt/Boulder berm R R R C C C C C
Boulder splay R O O O
Slumped valley side deposits O O O O R R R O O O R
Terrace R O O O O O O O O
Inactive floodplain R C C C C C C U
Active floodplain R U U O O O O
Inset berm R O O O O C C C C
Palaeo-­channel U C O O O O
Avulsion driven cut-­off U C O O O
Chute cut-­off channel U C O O O
Gravel splay R U U O O O

U = Ubiquitous, C = Common, O = Occasional, R = Rare, BC = Bedrock cascade, SP = Step pool channel, BCPR = Boulder and cobble
pool-­rapid, PBR = Plane bed rapid, B = Braided, W = Wandering, A = Anastomosed, PLR = Plane-­riffle, POR = pool-­riffle, PRBR =
Pool-­riffle point bar, IST = Inactive single thread.
19

River Types: Observations and Theory

This chapter contains succinct descriptions of the most variability suggest that wandering channel types are
common morphologic units associated with the river most sensitive to external variables and exhibit the most
types discussed earlier. These are accompanied by aerial rapid morphologic change. Higher gradient and more
and oblique imagery illustrating each unit. When using confined channel types have a greater variety of mor-
this chapter, it should be noted that the classification phologic units and often display a better-­connected
system adopted is artificial. Rivers exist across a contin- ­valley bottom/floodplain less impacted by human
uum rather than fitting neatly into discrete channel ­intervention and management.
types and shorter reaches of larger channel types may Figure 3.1 illustrates the potential routes for change
exhibit features and dynamics more characteristic of based on the principal channel types reviewed in this
other channel types in the classification. As a practical chapter. At present, most channel types are robust and
guide, the reader is advised to look at the range of fea- have not altered significantly in the historic past. There
tures present which may span several river types and to is, however, evidence of channel-­type sensitivity for the
use Tables 2.6 and 2.7 to best classify any reach under pool-­riffle, plane bed-­riffle, wandering systems. In addi-
investigation. The general sediment character of the tion, there are several wandering channel types that are
channel types is summarised throughout, together with developing into more stable well-­vegetated anastomo-
an indication of general confinement linked to flood- sed systems where valley bottom management facili-
plain development. System activity and morphologic tates natural vegetation succession.

Bedrock influenced
cascade pool-rapid
Flow through coarse lag deposits

Boulder and cobble


Step-pool
pool-rapid
Increased coarse sediment supply

Step-plane bed
Increased coarse sediment storage

Plane bed-riffle
Increased bank erodibility Reduced sediment supply

Wandering Pool-riffle-point bar

Natural vegetation development Reduced system energy

Anastomosed Pool-riffle
Reduced system energy

Inactive single thread

Figure 3.1 Continuum of potential change routes and feedback controls for river types identified in this chapter.

A Field Guide to British Rivers, First Edition. George Heritage, Andy Large and David Milan.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
20 3 River Types: Observations and Theory

Figure 3.1 and the following sections in Chapter 3 gradient less-­confined wandering, plane-­bed and
illustrate that channel type information is broadly riffle-­pool channels exhibiting in-­channel and flood-
organised in the downstream direction, beginning plain morphologic units strongly associated with the
with poorly differentiated diffuse upland channels degree of sinuosity of the channel. Upland and low-
before amalgamating and steepening to form bedrock land anastomosing channels are also reviewed together
channels and bedrock influenced step-­pool channels. with passive systems. For simplicity, each channel is
As the bedrock influence declines, pool-­rapid channels introduced with a brief bullet-­point summary of its
begin to dominate before they too give way to lower-­ key characteristics.

3.1 ­Diffuse Upland Channels

Key Characteristics

●● Low-­gradient, low-­energy stable environment


●● Common across moorland
●● Flow often diffuse
●● Pools and glides common where flows coalesce and channel is better defined
●● Small bedrock/boulder outcrops control local gradient
●● Bed material most often relict glacial sediment
●● Capacity for adjustment is low

3.1.1 Background Research on Diffuse Montgomery and Dietrich 1994). The channel head
Upland Channels does not always coincide with the stream head
(Figure 3.2), which is the furthest upstream-­most
Channel head morphological units are the farthest
extent of perennial flow within a river (Jaeger et al.
upstream-­most element for water flow and sediment
2007; Shaw 2016). Channel heads typically occur within
transport in the fluvial system. Channel heads are ini-
hillslope concavities that facilitate water and sediment
tiated in locations where surface or subsurface flow
accumulation, delivered via sheetwash, although they
concentrates and persists long enough to create a
can also occur on planar slopes (Wohl 2018). The chan-
channel head. The loci of channel heads may vary
nel downstream from the head may contain bedforms,
through time in response to changes in water and
armoured bed surface sediment, and show evidence of
­sediment supply. They exhibit definable banks
high-­water marks (Dietrich and Dunne 1993).
(Montgomery and Dietrich 1988, 1989) and represent
Channel heads are important as follows:
the transition from diffusive hillslope to channel pro-
cesses (Dietrich and Dunne 1993). The identification 1) They are the formal start of the channel network
of some channel heads can be subjective due to their and represent the location of process thresholds
diffuse nature, whilst others are easily identifiable as a between hillslope and fluvial process domains
head-­cut erosion feature (Dietrich and Dunne 1993; (Montgomery 1999);
3.1 ­Diffuse Upland Channels 21

as the position of the water table, the location of topo-


graphic breaks, permeability contrasts, geologic struc-
tures, and the presence of frozen soil at depth. Saturation
overland flow initially tends to occur towards the bottom
of a hillslope and then expands upslope (Dunne 1978;
Holden and Burt 2003b).
Water may also flow through the sub-­surface, through
soil pores downslope in the unsaturated zone, or as
groundwater in the saturated zone beneath. Water may
also flow through macropores (Holden 2009) and larger
pipes (Figure 3.3). In the UK, pipes have been reported
to measure between a few centimetres to hundreds of
metres in length, and from a few centimetres to
0.7 metres in diameter (Anderson and Burt 1982; Jones
1982). Pipes have been reported at depths of between 5
and 80 cm from the surface (Jones 1982), and often form
at the interface between the soil and a less-­permeable
layer beneath, e.g. till (Figure 3.3a). Pipes are known to
be responsible for contributing up to nearly half of the
discharge during a flood event (Jones 2010).
Rain-­splash is an important process in the detach-
ment of sediment particles from the slope surface,
which may subsequently be mobilised by overland flow.
However, mass movements (slides and flows) play a
Figure 3.2 Stream head, Thinhope Burn, South Tyne, UK. more important role in the transfer of the majority of
sediment to or along low-­order streams and can occur
2) The location and character of channel heads reflect frequently in many high relief settings (Jacobson et al.
the interacting processes occurring in the drainage 1993; Guthrie and Evans 2007), and can influence chan-
area upstream of their locations (Wohl 2018); nel head position and morphology. Movement of indi-
3) Stream ordering systems (e.g. Strahler 1952) rely on vidual clasts through colluvial processes and
the correct identification of channel heads to deline- accumulation in the channel head zone at the foot of a
ate first-­order streams. Stream ordering is important slope occurs through a process known as “dry ravel”
for a variety of reasons, including habitat mapping, (Rice 1982). In moderate-­to-­steep topography, both col-
and nutrient modelling; luvial and fluvial channels may co-­exist. The sediment
4) Channel heads are important in a regulatory context, transport processes in colluvial channels may include
ephemeral erosional features that may have a defined non-­Newtonian flow whereby sediment is mobilised as
channel bank, are not always included as forming a debris flow (Coussot and Meunier 1994).
part of the drainage network in the United States, for
example (Wohl 2018). 3.1.1.2 Predicting and Mapping Channel Head
Locations
3.1.1.1 Processes: Water and Sediment Much of the research into channel heads has been
Wohl (2018) highlights overland flow to be a key process devoted to the mapping and prediction of channel head
that delivers water into channel heads. This can take two locations (see Wohl 2018 for a review). The location of
forms -­ either infiltration excess overland flow (Horton channel heads is of significance for hydrological model-
1945) or saturation excess overland flow. The former ling of river networks, hillslopes, and landscape evolu-
tends to occur when the rainfall intensity is greater than tion. Identifying channel head loci is also important for
the infiltration rate of the soil and is often enhanced by catchment management purposes, for water resources
compaction of the surface and is more common in semi-­ and for river network jurisdiction (Wohl 2018). For work
arid catchments (Abrahams et al. 1986). In the UK, satu- conducted in western Colorado, significant differences
ration excess overland flow is more common in the were found in the relationship between channel gradient
uplands (e.g. Holden and Burt 2003a, b). Emergence of and contributing catchment area upstream for surface
water at the slope surface is dependent upon factors such and subsurface sites (Figure 3.4a) and no significant
22 3 River Types: Observations and Theory

Figure 3.3 Subsurface hydrology in the headwaters of Thinhope Burn catchment, UK. (a) Collapsed soil pipe showing peat
overlaying the lighter coloured till beneath, (b) recently collapsed roof of soil pipe, following an extreme event in summer 2007
reported in Milan (2012).

­differences in area-­slope relationships for a wider 3.1.2 Valley Bottom Morphology


range of sites (Figure 3.4b). Where surface run off
3.1.2.1 Moorland Seepage Zone
dominates, channel head locations may be predicted
This zone typically occurs as wide, shallow-­sloped flow
with some accuracy. However, locations are much less
convergence areas across upland moorland character-
predictable where subsurface drainage dominates
ised by a variety of Sphagnum species, sedge, and grass
head formation.
communities mildly dissected by numerous seepage

(a) (b)
5000000

Subsurface W Colorado subsurface


surface W Colorado surface
All
200000

N Carolina
Central Colorado
500000
20000 50000
Contributing area (m2)

Contributing area (m2)

W Colorado all
50000

W Colorado subsurface
W Colorado surface
5000

5000
500 1000

500

0.02 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.50 1.00 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.01 0.50 1.00 2.00
Gradient (m/m) Gradient (m/m)

Figure 3.4 (a) Relationships between catchment areas and local channel head slope with surface (black circles) or subsurface
(white triangles) initiation. The solid line is the regression for the whole data set (r2 = 0.525) (b) relationship between
catchment area and channel head slope for multiple sites, with the relationships for Western Colorado surface (black circles),
subsurface (white triangles), and for all Western Colorado sites are indicated by the solid regression lines (Source: Adapted from
Wohl (2018). © John Wiley & Sons).
3.1 ­Diffuse Upland Channels 23

channels (Figure 3.5). Sediments are typically organic organic or fine sediment bank profiles. The channel bed
or fine inorganic, including peat. The flow network con- may be organic or fine sediment with occasional bed-
verges and steepens, often flowing abruptly into an rock or boulder steps with long pools upstream. Seasonal
upland confined headwater channel type at a head-­cut channels may be vegetated and generally are less well-­
waterfall. defined promoting diffuse surface flow.

3.1.3.1 Bedrock Step


3.1.3 In-­channel Morphology
Exposed area of bedrock in the bed of the channel creat-
Channels are formed through peat or across areas of ing a vertical or near vertical drop in the flow profile
glacial and fluvio-­glacial infill and are characteristically (Figure 3.6). They occur randomly linked to the local
small (<0.5 m wide, <0.5 m to bank top) with steep geological variability.

Figure 3.5 Moorland seepage zone on the Lagrae Burn, a tributary of the River Nith near Kirkconnell, Scotland.

Figure 3.6 Bedrock step on the


upper River Wharfe, Buckden, North
Yorkshire.
24 3 River Types: Observations and Theory

3.1.3.2 Boulder Step 3.1.3.3 Pool


Most commonly a single boulder extending across the The step structure impounds water in the upstream
channel and/or, less frequently, multiple smaller clasts channel reach to form a uniform glide/pool area
that often become interlocked to form a coherent struc- largely free of sediment due to a limited local supply
ture (Figure 3.7). (Figure 3.8).

Figure 3.7 Boulder step reach of the Church Beck, above Coniston, Lake District, England.

Figure 3.8 Bedrock pool reach on the Brockle Beck, which flows into Derwentwater, Lake District, England.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
demandai, à brûle-pourpoint, en quoi consistait la difficulté, et qui, en
définitive, la provoquait.
— C’est le Travail, me dit-il. Vous feriez mieux de ne pas vous en
occuper.
LE TRAVAIL

Il est difficile de ne pas s’occuper d’une question qu’on vous met


sous le nez à tout propos. Il n’y avait pas trois minutes que j’avais
quitté le vapeur de Québec lorsqu’on me demanda à brûle-
pourpoint : — Que pensez-vous de l’Exclusion des Asiatiques Qui
Agite Notre Communauté ?
Le Second Poteau Indicateur sur la Grande Route Principale dit :
« Au cas où une communauté serait agitée par une Question, prenez
poliment des nouvelles de la santé de l’Agitateur. » Je le fis, mais
sans succès — et dus temporiser tout le long de ma traversée du
Continent jusqu’à ce qu’il me fût possible de rencontrer quelqu’un à
même de fournir des réponses acceptables. Cette Question semble
être confinée à la Colombie Britannique. Là, au bout d’un certain
temps, les hommes qui avaient de bonnes raisons pour ne pas
vouloir causer m’en référèrent à d’autres qui me fournirent des
explications, et lorsqu’il eut été bien bien entendu qu’aucun nom ne
serait prononcé (il est doux de voir des ingénieurs épouvantés à la
pensée de sauter grâce à leurs propres explosifs) il fut possible d’en
arriver à des faits à peu près précis.
Le Chinois a de tout temps eu l’habitude de venir dans la
Colombie Britannique où, comme domestique, il n’a pas son pareil.
Personne, m’assura-t-on partout, ne trouve à redire au Chinois qu’on
achète aux enchères. Il accepte de faire un travail qu’aucun blanc
dans un pays neuf ne consent à prendre et, lorsque le blanc
mesquin le mène à coups de pied, il ne riposte pas. Il a toujours
consenti à payer le privilège qu’on lui octroie de faire fortune sur
cette côte merveilleuse, mais, il y a quelques années, la Volonté
populaire, avec une prévoyance et une science de gouvernement
rares, a décidé de doubler la taxe d’entrée qu’on lui impose.
Quelque étrange que cela puisse paraître, le Chinois demande,
actuellement, deux fois plus de gages et, même à ce prix, se fait
rare. C’est, dit-on, une des raisons pour lesquelles la femme blanche
trop surmenée meurt ou devient folle ; c’est également pourquoi l’on
voit construire des pâtés de maisons louées en appartements en vue
d’amoindrir les embarras des ménages dépourvus de domestiques.
Plus tard la natalité décroîtra en raison directe du nombre de ces
appartements.
Depuis la Guerre Russo-Japonaise, les Japonais se sont mis à
venir dans la Colombie Britannique. Eux aussi font un travail que
n’accepte aucun blanc, par exemple celui qui consiste à tirer de l’eau
glacée des bûches toutes mouillées pour les scieries, aux gages de
huit à dix shillings par jour. Ils sont domestiques dans les hôtels et
dans les restaurants et ils tiennent aussi de petites boutiques.
L’ennui avec eux c’est qu’ils sont un peu trop débrouillards, et
lorsqu’on les attaque ils se défendent âprement.
Bon nombre de Punjabis — autrefois soldats, Sikhs, Muzbis et
Jats — débarquent en ce moment des bateaux. La peste qui sévit
chez eux semble les avoir poussés à s’en aller, mais je ne pus savoir
pourquoi tant d’entre eux arrivent par la route de Shahpour, Phillour
et Jollundur. Ces gens-là ne viennent pas s’offrir comme
domestiques, ils iront travailler dans les scieries ; pourtant, avec un
peu de soin et d’attention, on pourrait les rendre hors de pair. On
devrait leur dire de ne pas amener leurs vieillards avec eux, et
d’autre part on devrait s’y prendre mieux pour leur faciliter l’envoi
d’argent dans leurs villages. On ne les comprend pas, bien entendu ;
en tous cas ils ne sont pas détestés.
Ce sont les Japonais auxquels on trouve toujours à redire.
Jusqu’à présent — sauf en ce qui concerne la pêche à Vancouver,
dont on les accuse de s’être emparés, tout comme les Malais l’ont
fait au Cap — ils n’ont pas encore concurrencé les blancs. Pourtant
bien des personnes m’ont assuré d’un air sérieux qu’ils risquaient
d’abaisser le niveau de la vie et des gages.
Le vœu formel de certains est donc que — absolument, sans
conditions — ils s’en aillent. (Vous avez pu remarquer que les
Démocraties insistent toujours sur l’impératif catégorique). Avant
mon arrivée à Vancouver on venait d’essayer de les transporter
ailleurs, mais sans grand succès, parce que les Japonais
barricadèrent leur quartier, sortirent en foule, un tesson de bouteille
dans chaque main qu’ils mirent énergiquement en contact avec les
figures des Agitateurs. Sans doute il est plus facile d’embrouiller et
d’abasourdir des Hindous et des Tamils ébahis, ainsi qu’on le fait de
l’autre côté de la frontière, que de semer la terreur dans les rangs
des soldats de Yalu et Liaoyang [4] .
[4] Batailles livrées pendant la guerre Russo-
Japonaise.

Mais dès que l’on se mettait à poser des questions l’on se perdait
dans un labyrinthe d’allusions, de réserves, de discours, pour la
plupart faits avec contrainte, comme si les interlocuteurs récitaient
quelque chose appris par cœur. En voici quelques exemples : Un
homme m’accula dans un coin au moyen d’une phrase — une seule
— où tout, à peu près, était lettre majuscule : — Le Sentiment
Général chez notre Peuple est qu’il FAUT QUE LES JAPONAIS
S’EN AILLENT !
— Fort bien, répliquai-je. Comment pensez-vous vous y
prendre ?
— Cela ne nous regarde pas. Le Sentiment Général, etc.
— Sans doute. Le Sentiment est une belle chose, mais que
comptez-vous faire ? Il ne condescendait pas à s’abaisser jusqu’à
fournir des détails, mais ne cessait de répéter le Sentiment, que, me
conformant à ma promesse, je ne manque pas de rapporter ici.
Un autre fut un peu plus explicite. — Le Chinois, dit-il, nous
désirons le garder, mais le Japonais doit partir !
— Mais alors qui prendra sa place ? Ce pays-ci n’est-il pas un
peu trop neuf pour qu’on en chasse les gens à coups de pied ?
— Nous devons développer nos Ressources lentement,
Monsieur, sans perdre de vue les Intérêts de nos Enfants. Nous
devons conserver le Continent pour les Races qui s’assimileront
avec les Nôtres. Nous ne devons pas nous laisser submerger par
des Étrangers.
— Alors amenez votre propre race, et amenez-la vite, osai-je
répondre. Voilà cependant la seule observation qu’il ne faut pas faire
dans certaines régions de l’Ouest. Je perdis de mon prestige
furieusement pendant qu’il expliquait (tout comme les Hollandais
l’avaient fait au Cap, il y a de ça des années) comme quoi la
Colombie Britannique n’était pas du tout aussi riche qu’elle en avait
l’air ; qu’elle était étouffée par des capitalistes et monopoleurs de
toute sorte ; la main-d’œuvre des blancs devait être interrompue,
nourrie et chauffée pendant l’hiver ; que les frais d’existence étaient
énormes ; qu’on touchait à la fin d’une ère de prospérité, que les
années maigres arrivaient enfin, que même si des mesures étaient
devenues nécessaires pour faire venir d’autres blancs elles devaient
être prises avec beaucoup de précaution. Puis il ajouta que les tarifs
des chemins de fer de la Colombie Britannique étaient si élevés
qu’ils empêchaient les émigrants de s’y rendre.
— Mais est-ce que les tarifs n’ont pas été diminués ? demandai-
je.
— Si, — si, je crois, mais on a tellement besoin d’immigrants
qu’ils sont raflés avant d’arriver aussi loin du côté Ouest. Il ne faut
pas oublier non plus que la main-d’œuvre d’ouvriers de métier est
bien différente de la main-d’œuvre agricole. Elle dépend de tant de
choses. Et puis, il faut que le Japonais parte.
— C’est ce que l’on m’a dit. Mais on m’a raconté aussi qu’il y
avait des laiteries et des vergers dans la Colombie Britannique qu’on
a dû abandonner parce qu’on ne trouvait personne ni pour traire ni
pour cueillir les fruits. Pensez-vous que ce soit vrai ?
— Voyons, vous ne voudriez pas qu’un homme, avec tous les
débouchés possibles que notre pays lui prodigue, aille traire des
vaches dans un pré ? Un Chinois suffit pour cela. Il nous faut des
races qui puissent s’assimiler, etc., etc.
— Mais l’Armée du Salut n’a-t-elle pas offert, il y a peu de temps,
d’amener ici trois ou quatre mille Anglais ? Qu’est devenue cette
idée ?
— On n’y a pas, — comment dirai-je ? — donné suite.
— Pourquoi pas ?
— Pour des raisons politiques, je crois. Il ne nous faut pas des
Gens susceptibles d’abaisser le Niveau de la Vie. Voilà pourquoi les
Japonais devront s’en aller.
— Alors pourquoi garder les Chinois ?
— Avec les Chinois on s’entend ; on ne peut pas se passer d’eux.
Mais il nous faut une Émigration d’un Type tel qu’il lui soit possible
de s’assimiler avec Notre Peuple. Je pense être clair.
J’espérais qu’il l’avait été.
Et maintenant écoutez ce qu’ont à dire une mère et une
ménagère.
— Ce joli état de choses nous coûte notre santé et celle de nos
enfants. Avez-vous entendu dire couramment « la Frontière fait
souffrir les femmes et le bétail ? » Nous ne sommes pas sur la
Frontière ici, mais à certains égards c’est pis parce que nous avons
tous les luxes et toutes les apparences — du joli cristal et de
l’argenterie, à étaler sur la table. Il faut les épousseter, les polir, les
arranger une fois que notre travail de ménage est fini. Sûrement que
cela ne vous dit pas grand’chose, à vous, mais essayez-en pendant
un mois ! Nous n’avons pas de domestiques. En ce moment un
Chinois coûte cinquante ou soixante dollars par mois. Nos maris
n’ont pas toujours le moyen de payer ça. Quel âge me donnez-
vous ? Je n’ai pas encore trente ans. Dieu soit loué en tous cas que
j’aie empêché ma sœur de venir dans l’Ouest. Ah ! oui, c’est un beau
pays — pour les hommes !
— Ne pourriez-vous pas faire venir des domestiques
d’Angleterre ?
— Je n’ai pas le moyen de payer le transport d’une fille pour
qu’elle se marie au bout de trois mois. Et puis elle ne voudrait pas
travailler. Une fois qu’elles ont vu le Chinois à l’œuvre elles refusent.
— Et vous, vous ne refusez pas le Japonais ?
— Certainement pas. Personne ne le refuse. Tout ça c’est de la
politique. Les femmes des hommes qui gagnent six à sept dollars
par jour — les ouvriers spécialistes — ont des domestiques chinois
et japonais. Nous ne pouvons pas faire comme eux, nous autres.
Nous avons à penser à l’avenir, à épargner, mais ceux-là dépensent
jusqu’à leur dernier centime. Ils savent, eux, qu’ils n’ont rien à
craindre. Ils sont Le Travail. On s’occupera d’eux quoiqu’il arrive.
Vous pouvez juger, vous-même, si l’État s’occupe de moi.
Un peu plus tard, j’eus l’occasion de traverser une grande et
belle ville entre six et sept heures par une matinée fraîche. Des
Chinois et des Japonais livraient aux maisons silencieuses le lait, le
poisson, les légumes, etc. Pour cette corvée glaciale pas un seul
blanc n’était visible.
Plus tard encore un homme vint me voir sans trop afficher son
nom. Il faisait d’assez importantes affaires et il me fit comprendre
(d’autres avaient parlé à peu près de même) que si je répétais ses
paroles ses affaires en souffriraient. Il parla sans discontinuer
pendant une demi-heure.
— Dois-je donc en conclure, lui dis-je, que ce que vous appelez
« Le Travail » domine absolument cette partie-ci du monde ?
Il fit signe que oui.
— Qu’il est difficile d’amener ici l’ouvrier de métier ?
— Difficile ? Seigneur Dieu ! s’il me faut un ouvrier
supplémentaire pour mon travail (je paie, bien entendu, les gages
fixés par l’Union) il faut que je le fasse venir en cachette ; il faut que
j’aille le rencontrer comme par accident, plus bas sur la ligne, et si
l’Union vient à le savoir, très probablement elle lui intimera l’ordre de
s’en retourner vers l’Est, ou le congédiera et l’enverra de l’autre côté
de la Frontière.
— Même s’il appartient à l’Union ? Pourquoi ?
— On lui dira que les conditions de Travail ne sont pas bonnes
ici. Il sait fort bien ce qu’il faut entendre par là. Il fera demi-tour assez
vite. Je fais pas mal d’affaires, et je ne puis m’exposer à entrer en
lutte ouverte avec les Unions.
— Qu’arriverait-il au cas où vous le feriez ?
— Savez-vous ce qui se passe de l’autre côté de la Frontière ?
On fait sauter les gens à coups de dynamite.
— Mais ici on n’est pas de l’autre côté de la Frontière.
— C’est bigrement trop près pour être agréable. Et puis, aux
témoins, tout autant qu’aux autres, il arrive d’être dynamités. Voyez-
vous, la situation créée par le Travail ne résulte pas de ce que l’on
fait ou ne fait pas de notre côté, tout est géré là-bas. Vous avez pu
vous rendre compte qu’en général on en parle avec précaution.
— Oui, je l’ai remarqué.
— Eh bien, tout cela n’est pas bien. Je ne dis pas que les Unions
d’ici feraient quelque chose contre vous, — et, retenez-le bien, je
suis partisan moi-même des droits du Travail, le Travail n’a pas de
meilleur défenseur que moi-même ; j’ai été, moi aussi, ouvrier, bien
que je sois patron aujourd’hui. N’allez pas croire, n’est-ce pas, que je
sois contre le Travail.
— Pas le moins du monde. Je comprends fort bien. Vous trouvez
seulement que le Travail agit, parfois, — comment dire —
inconsidérément ?
— Voyez ce qui se passe de l’autre côté de la Frontière ! On a dû
vous expliquer que cette petite affaire avec les Japonais à
Vancouver a été manigancée en-dessous, n’est-ce pas ? Il m’est
avis que les nôtres ne l’auraient pas fait tout seuls.
— On me l’a souvent répété. Est-ce jouer tout-à-fait beau jeu que
d’incriminer un autre pays ?
— On voit que vous ne demeurez pas ici, vous. Mais, pour
reprendre, si nous nous défaisons des Japonais actuellement, l’on
viendra nous demander bientôt de nous défaire de quelqu’un
d’autre. Il n’y a aucune limite, Monsieur, aux exigences du Travail,
aucune !
— Je croyais que tout ce qu’ils demandaient c’était de bons
gages pour du bon travail ?
— En Angleterre peut-être, mais ici ils ont l’intention de diriger le
pays, ah, oui alors !
— Et le pays ? comment cela lui plaît-il ?
— Nous ne sommes pas loin d’en avoir assez. Ça n’importe pas
beaucoup dans les moments de plein rendement, les patrons feront
tout plutôt que d’arrêter le travail — mais lorsque les temps seront
mauvais, vous en aurez des nouvelles. Notre pays est un pays riche,
— malgré tout ce qu’on raconte — mais nous sommes arrêtés à tout
propos par la main-d’œuvre. Voyez-vous, il y a des quantités et des
quantités de petites affaires que des amis à moi désireraient lancer.
Des affaires partout, si seulement on les laissait tranquilles — mais
non !
— Ça, c’est dommage. A propos, que pensez-vous de la
question Japonaise ?
— Je ne pense pas. Je sais. Les deux partis politiques jouent le
jeu du vote du Travail, mais comprenez-vous ce que cela veut dire ?
Je m’efforçais de comprendre.
— Et pas un ne dira la vérité, à savoir que si l’Asiatique s’en va,
ce côté-ci du Continent disparaîtra complètement, à moins que nous
n’obtenions une immigration blanche libre. Pourtant tout parti qui
proposerait l’immigration blanche sur une large échelle serait
blackboulé aux prochaines élections. Je ne vous dis là que ce que
pensent les Politiciens. Mon avis personnel est que si un homme
osait résister au Travail — pas que j’en veuille le moins du monde au
Travail — et parlait raison, bien des gens se rangeraient à son avis
— sans bruit, bien entendu. Je crois qu’il obtiendrait, au bout d’un
certain temps, même l’immigration blanche. Il serait blackboulé aux
premières élections, ça va sans dire, mais en fin de compte… Nous
en avons assez du Travail. Je tenais à vous dire la vérité.
— Merci bien. Et vous ne pensez pas qu’une tentative pour
introduire l’immigration blanche réussisse ?
— Non, si elle ne convenait pas au Travail. Essayez, si vous
voulez, mais vous verrez ce qui arrivera.
En tenant compte de cette indication j’ai fait une expérience dans
une autre ville. Il y avait là trois hommes haut placés, riches, tous les
trois vivement préoccupés du développement de leur terre, tous trois
affirmaient que ce qui manquait à la terre c’était l’immigration
blanche. Et tous les quatre nous en avons parlé, dans tous les sens,
de toutes les manières possibles et imaginables. La seule chose sur
laquelle leur avis ne variait pas c’était, qu’au cas où l’on importerait
de quelque façon que ce fût des blancs en Colombie Britannique, le
recrutement pouvant être confié à des particuliers ou à d’autres, les
mesures nécessaires devaient être prises secrètement, sans quoi
les affaires des intéressés en souffriraient.
A cet endroit, j’abandonnai la conversation touchant la Grande
Question qui Agite Toute Notre Communauté ; je vous laisse, à vous
plus spécialement, Australiens et Habitants du Cap, le soin d’en tirer
vos conclusions.
Extérieurement, la Colombie Britannique paraît être la région la
plus riche et la plus séduisante de tout le Continent. En plus de ses
ressources propres elle a de bonnes chances d’acquérir un
immense commerce avec l’Asie, qu’elle désire ardemment. Sa terre,
en bien des endroits sur de vastes étendues, convient
admirablement au petit fermier et à l’arboriculteur, qui peut envoyer
son camion aux villes. De tous les côtés j’entendis réclamer de la
main-d’œuvre de toute espèce. Et d’autre part, dans nul autre lieu
sur le Continent je ne rencontrai tant d’hommes qui décriaient la
valeur et les possibilités de leur pays, ni qui s’appesantissaient plus
volontiers sur les souffrances et les privations que l’immigrant blanc
avait à endurer. Je crois que deux ou trois messieurs se sont rendus
en Angleterre pour expliquer les inconvénients de vive voix. Il est
possible qu’ils encourent une très grande responsabilité
actuellement, et une plus terrible encore dans l’avenir.
LES VILLES FORTUNÉES

Après la Politique, revenons à la Prairie qui est le Grand Veldt, et,


en plus, l’Espoir, l’Activité, et la Récompense. Winnipeg en est la
porte d’entrée, grande cité dans une grande plaine, et qui se
compare elle-même, très innocemment du reste, à d’autres villes de
sa connaissance, mais elle en diffère totalement.
Lorsqu’on vient à rencontrer, dans sa propre maison à elle, une
femme que l’on n’a pas vue depuis son enfance, elle vous est tout à
fait inconnue jusqu’au moment où quelque geste, quelque intonation
vous rappelle le passé, et alors on s’écrie : — Mais, tout de même,
c’est bien vous ! Cependant l’enfant s’est évanouie, la femme et ses
influences ont pris sa place. Je m’efforçais vainement de retrouver la
ville gauche et laide que j’avais connue, elle si peu formée, et qui
insistait tant sur sa modestie. J’osai même rappeler le fait à un de
ses habitants : — Je m’en souviens, dit-il en souriant, mais nous
étions jeunes à ce moment-là. Tout ceci, — il indiquait du doigt une
avenue, immense étendue qui plongeait sous trente voies de chemin
de fer, — est né dans les dix dernières années — pratiquement dans
les cinq dernières années. Il nous a fallu agrandir tous ces dépôts là-
bas en y ajoutant deux ou trois étages ; malgré cela c’est à peine si
nous commençons à progresser. Nous ne faisons que commencer.
Dépôts, voies de garage, et choses analogues, ne sont que des
jetons dans le Jeu du Blanc, et que l’on peut ramasser et resservir
de nouveau selon les variations de la partie. Ce qui me réjouissait
surtout là-dedans, c’était l’esprit répandu partout dans l’air léger et
palpitant — ce nouvel esprit de la ville nouvelle. Winnipeg possède
des « Choses » en abondance, mais elle a appris à ne pas se laisser
aveugler par elles, et par là elle est plus âgée que bien d’autres
villes. Nonobstant il importait de les faire valoir — car faire valoir sa
ville c’est, pour l’homme de jugement, ce qu’est pour une femme
faire des emplettes. D’abord venaient les faubourgs, kilomètre sur
kilomètre de maisons de bois, aux contours précis, chaudes maisons
coquettes, chacune d’elles séparée sans jalousie de sa voisine par
la plus légère des bornes. On pouvait, grâce à leur architecture, en
fixer la date, en remontant décade par décade jusqu’autour de 1890,
c’est-à-dire à l’époque où commença la civilisation ; deviner, à
quelques dollars près, leur prix de revient, les revenus de leurs
propriétaires, et poser des questions au sujet des nouvelles
inventions ménagères.
— Les rues d’asphalte et les contre-allées en béton sont à la
mode depuis quelques années, dit notre hôte, pendant que nous en
traversions au trot kilomètre sur kilomètre. Nous avons trouvé que
c’était le seul moyen d’avoir raison de la boue de la prairie.
Regardez ! Là même où se terminait la route audacieuse, s’étendait,
invaincue, au même niveau que le pâle asphalte, la tenace prairie,
par-dessus laquelle la civilisation se frayait un chemin vers l’Ouest.
Et au moyen de l’asphalte et du béton on refoule la prairie à
chaque saison de construction. Puis venaient les maisons de
parade, construites par des hommes riches, eu égard pour l’honneur
et la gloire de leur ville, ce qui est le premier devoir de l’opulence
dans un pays neuf.
Nous avons passé, serpenté, au milieu de boulevards et
d’avenues, larges, propres, bordés d’arbres, inondés de soleil et
balayés d’air si pur qu’il interdisait toute idée de fatigue, avons
bavardé d’affaires municipales, impôts municipaux jusqu’au moment
où, dans un certain silence, on nous fit voir un faubourg de maisons,
de boutiques, de banques négligées, dont les flancs et les côtés
étaient devenus graisseux à force d’être frottés par des épaules de
cagnards. La saleté et des boîtes en fer-blanc envahissaient toute la
rue. On y sentait moins la hideur de la pauvreté que le manque du
sens de la propreté. Certaine race préfère vivre dans cette
atmosphère.
Puis rapide aperçu d’une cathédrale froide, blanche, d’écoles en
briques rouges, presqu’aussi grandes (Dieu soit loué !) que certains
couvents, d’hôpitaux, d’instituts, un kilomètre environ de magasins,
et, enfin, un lunch tout à fait intime dans un Club, qui aurait fort
étonné mon Anglais de Montréal, et où des hommes, jeunes encore,
parlaient de Fort Garry, tel qu’ils se le rappelaient, pendant que des
histoires touchant la fondation de la ville, et celles d’expédients
administratifs et d’accidents administratifs se mêlaient aux
prophéties ou frivolités des hommes plus jeunes.
Il reste encore quelques endroits où les hommes savent
s’occuper de grosses affaires avec doigté et légèreté, et qui
prennent pour avérées plus de choses qu’un Anglais en Angleterre
ne pourrait tirer au clair en une année. Mais on ne rencontrerait pas
beaucoup d’Anglais à un lunch dans un Club de Londres qui
auraient pu s’engager à construire Le Mur de Londres ou qui
auraient aidé à contraindre le roi Jean à signer la Grande Charte.
J’eus deux visions de la ville. La première par une journée grise,
du toit d’un bâtiment monstre d’où elle semblait déborder et remplir
de bruits toute la vaste coupe de l’horizon, et pourtant, tout autour de
ses bords des jets de vapeur et les cris impatients de machines
prouvaient qu’elle minait la Prairie comme un feu qui couve.
La seconde fut une silhouette du flanc de la ville, mystérieuse
comme une ligne de falaises non explorées, sous un ciel barré de
rouge incarnat depuis le zénith jusqu’au sol où elle s’étendait,
couleur d’émeraude pâle, derrière les remparts inégaux. Lorsque
notre train s’arrêta dans le crépuscule final et que les rails brillèrent
rouge-sombre, j’aperçus la profonde soulevée de cette houle et, à
travers les sept milles de ses plaines empourprées, je vis en bas le
papillotement doré de ses lumières. C’est une chose assez effarante
que d’écouter quelque avant-garde de la civilisation se parlant à elle-
même dans la nuit sur le même ton qu’une ville vieille de mille
années.
Tout le pays à l’entour est criblé de voies ferrées, trains de
marchandises ou de plaisir inconnus il y a quinze ans ; et il fallut pas
mal de temps avant que nous n’atteignîmes la prairie nette avec l’air,
l’espace, et la terre découverte. L’air ici est différent de tout air qui ait
jamais soufflé, l’espace est plus étendu que tout autre espace, parce
qu’il retourne vers un libre Pôle, sans rien rencontrer sur sa route, et
la terre découverte garde le secret de sa magie aussi étroitement
que la mer ou le désert.
Ici les gens ne se heurtent pas les uns contre les autres en
tournant le coin, mais voient avec ampleur et tranquillité, de très loin,
ce qu’ils désirent, ou ce qu’ils veulent éviter, et ils tracent leur
chemin en conséquence à travers les ondulations, les creux, les
langues, les défoncements et les élargissements du terrain.
Lorsque l’horizon sans bornes et la voûte du ciel élevé
commencent à accabler, la terre ménage de petits étangs et de
petits lacs, blottis dans des creux aux flancs paisibles où l’on peut
descendre et sortir des flots d’air et se délecter à des distances
petites et familières. La plupart des femmes que je rencontrai près
des demeures étaient, en bas, dans les creux, et la plupart des
hommes étaient sur les crêtes et sur la plaine. Une seule fois,
comme nous nous arrêtions, une femme dans une voiture fondit,
pour ainsi dire du ciel, en ligne droite sur nous, par une route dorée
qui dévalait entre des terres noires et labourées. Lorsque le cheval,
qui avait la direction des affaires, se fut arrêté devant les wagons,
elle secoua la tête d’un air mystérieux et nous montra un très petit
bébé blotti sur son bras. Elle était, à n’en point douter, quelque
Reine exilée fuyant vers le Nord pour y fonder une dynastie et créer
un pays. La Prairie revêt toute chose d’un air féerique.
Des deux côtés de la voie, à perte de vue, on battait le blé. La
fumée des machines montait, en perspective ordonnée, à côté des
amoncellements de menue paille : d’abord une machine, puis une
maison, puis un tas de menue paille, puis du blé en moyettes —
après cela, répétez ce même dessin sur toute l’étendue d’un certain
nombre de degrés de longitude se suivant sur l’hémisphère.
Nous avons passé à travers une véritable chaîne de petites villes
se touchant presque, où je me souviens d’avoir vu de temps à autre
un pâturage, et à travers de grandes villes jadis représentées
seulement par une pancarte, un garage, et deux agents de la police
du Nord-Ouest. En ces temps-là, les gens démontraient que le blé
ne pousserait pas au delà de telle ou telle ligne fixée par le premier
idiot venu, ou bien que s’il y poussait personne ne s’en occuperait.
Et voici que le Blé s’avançait, marchant avec nous à perte de vue ;
les chemins de fer s’étaient portés à trois ou quatre cents kilomètres
au nord, peuplant un nouveau pays à blé ; et plus au nord encore, le
Grand Tronçon était en train de continuer la ligne suburbaine longue
de quelques milliers de kilomètres, avec des embranchements qui
iraient peut-être jusqu’à Dawson City, en tous cas jusqu’à la baie de
Hudson.
« Venez au Nord et regardez ! s’écriaient les Lutins du Chemin de
fer, ici vous n’en êtes qu’à la lisière. » Je préférai suivre la vieille
route et regarder, ébahi, les miracles accomplis depuis mon temps.
L’Hôtel d’autrefois, à la façade en toc, à l’intérieur creux, et qui était
seul connu dans l’Ouest, avait cédé la place à des bâtiments en
pierre ou en brique hauts de cinq étages, à des Bureaux de Poste
faisant pendants. De temps à autre quelque fragment du passé
oublié par mégarde demeurait accroché à une ville, et permettait de
reconnaître en elle une vieille connaissance, mais le plus souvent il
fallait s’éloigner d’un kilomètre et regarder de loin — tout comme on
tient un palimpseste contre la lumière, — pour pouvoir identifier les
lignes tracées au début maintenant recouvertes depuis longtemps.
Chaque ville pourvoyait à la vaste région fermière derrière elle et
chaque école arborait le drapeau national anglais au bout d’un mât
dans la cour de récréation. Il paraîtrait qu’on n’apprend aux écoliers
ni à détester ni à mépriser leur propre pays, ni à en solliciter des
secours.
Je dis à voix basse à un des voyageurs que j’étais un peu las de
la tyrannie du Blé qui avait duré trois jours, en même temps que
choqué de voir les fermiers brûler de la paille si propre et faire des
feux de joie avec leur menue paille. — Vous retardez beaucoup, me
dit-il. Il y a des vergers et des laiteries et d’autres exploitations
agricoles, autant que vous en voudrez, qui marchent dans tous ces
pays-ci, — sans parler de l’irrigation plus à l’Ouest. Le Blé n’est pas
notre unique roi, de beaucoup. Attendez que vous soyez à tel ou tel
endroit. C’est là que je fis la rencontre d’un prophète et d’un
prédicateur, sous la forme d’un commissionnaire du Commerce de
l’endroit (toutes les villes en ont), qui me montra d’un air résolu les
légumes que produisait sa région. Et c’en étaient des légumes ! tous
rangés avec soin dans un petit kiosque près de la gare.
Je crois que le pieux Thomas Tusser aurait chéri cet homme. —
La Providence, disait-il, répandant à chaque geste des brochures,
n’a pas voulu le Blé éternel dans cette région. Non, Monsieur ! Notre
affaire à nous c’est de devancer la Providence, d’aller au-devant
d’elle avec la culture mixte. Vous intéressez-vous à la culture mixte ?
Ah ! dommage alors que vous ayez manqué notre exposition de
Fruits et Légumes. Ce genre de culture, ça vous réunit les gens. Je
ne prétends pas que le Blé vous rétrécit, mais j’ose affirmer que la
première rend plus sociable et rapporte davantage. Nous nous
sommes laissé hypnotiser par le Blé et le Bétail. Eh bien — mais
non, le train ne part pas encore, — je vais vous dire quelles sont
mes idées là-dessus.
Pendant quinze minutes superbes il me livra la quintessence de
la culture mixte accompagnée d’incursions sur le terrain de la
betterave (saviez-vous qu’on est en train de faire du sucre à
Alberta ?) et il se mit à discourir, avec la dévotion qui convenait, sur
la sombre poussière des cours de fermes qui est la mère de toutes
choses.
— Ce qu’il nous faut maintenant, s’écria-t-il en prenant congé de
moi, ce sont des hommes, encore des hommes. Oui, et des femmes.
Ils ont un bien grand besoin de femmes pour aider dans les
travaux domestiques, et faire face à la terrible poussée qui les
accable à la moisson — des filles qui puissent aider dans la maison,
la laiterie, le poulailler, jusqu’à ce qu’elles se marient.
Déjà se manifeste en ce sens un véritable afflux : tel colon,
satisfait des conditions qu’il y trouve en amène d’autres de
l’Angleterre. Mais si un dixième de l’énergie que l’on gaspille en
« Réformes sociales » pouvait être consacré à organiser et à
surveiller convenablement l’émigration (le « Travail » ne s’oppose
pas encore à ce que les gens travaillent le sol), nous pourrions faire
quelque chose qui vaille la peine qu’on en parle. Les races qui
travaillent et qui ne forment pas des Comités se mettent à travailler
la terre au moins aussi vite que les nôtres. Cela rend jaloux et
inquiet de voir des étrangers en train de puiser, quoique
honnêtement, dans ces trésors de bonne chance et de vie saine.
Il se trouvait, sur la voie, une ville au sujet de laquelle j’avais
entendu une discussion, pour la première fois, presque vingt ans
auparavant, entamée par une loque de chercheur d’or qui voyageait
dans un fourgon : — Jeune homme, me dit-il après une prophétie
toute professionnelle, vous entendrez parler de cette ville si Dieu
vous prête vie. Elle est née heureuse.
Plus tard, j’eus l’occasion de la revoir, c’était une voie de garage
à côté d’un pont où les Indiens vendaient des ornements en perles
tressées. Et à mesure que s’écoulaient les années, j’apprenais que
la prophétie du vieux chemineau s’était réalisée et qu’une chance —
je ne savais laquelle — était échue à la petite ville auprès du grand
fleuve. C’est pourquoi, cette fois-ci, je m’arrêtai pour m’en assurer.
C’était une belle ville de six mille habitants, un embranchement à
côté d’un immense pont en fer ; à la gare il y avait un jardin public
plein d’arbres. Une joyeuse compagnie d’hommes et de femmes,
que cet air, cette lumière et leur propre amabilité rendaient frères et
sœurs avec nous-mêmes arrivèrent en automobiles et occupèrent
notre journée de la façon la plus agréable qui soit.
— Eh bien ! et votre Chance ? dis-je.
— Comment ! répondit l’un d’eux, vous n’avez pas entendu parler
de notre gaz naturel — le plus grand gaz naturel qui soit au monde ?
Ah ! venez donc voir.
On m’emporta en tourbillon jusqu’à un dépôt rempli de machines
et d’ateliers à mécaniques actionnés par du gaz naturel, sentant
légèrement l’oignon frit, qui sort de terre, à une pression de trois
cents kilogs qui, grâce à des valves et des robinets, est réduit à deux
kilogs. Il y avait là en fait de Chance de quoi créer une métropole.
Représentez-vous le chauffage et l’éclairage de toute une ville, sans
parler de force motrice, installés avec la seule dépense des tuyaux.
— Y a-t-il des limites aux possibilités que cela suppose ?
demandai-je.
— Qui sait ? Nous ne faisons que commencer. Nous vous
montrerons une fabrique de briques, là-bas dans la prairie, et que le
gaz fait marcher. Mais pour le moment nous voulons vous faire voir
une de nos fermes favorites.
Et les automobiles repartent, filant comme des hirondelles sur
des routes de toutes les dimensions et grimpant pour arriver jusque
sur ce qui paraissait être le Haut Veldt lui-même. Un commandant de
la Police montée, qui avait fait une année de la Guerre (du
Transvaal), nous expliqua comment les grilles entourant les fermes à
autruches et les petits « meercats » tantôt assis et tantôt galopant
dans l’Afrique du Sud lui avaient donné la nostalgie des « gophers »
au bord de la route et des kilomètres interminables de grillages en fil
de fer le long desquels nous courions. (La Prairie n’a rien à
apprendre du Veldt en ce qui concerne les grillages ou les portes
habilement combinées.)
— Après tout, dit le Commandant, il n’y a pas de pays qui puisse
rivaliser avec celui-ci. J’y suis depuis trente ans et je le connais d’un
bout à l’autre.
Alors ils désignèrent du doigt les quatre coins de l’horizon,
mettons à quatre-vingts kilomètres, dans quelque direction que l’on
se tournât — et en donnèrent les noms.
Le fermier amateur d’expositions était parti avec sa famille pour
le culte mais nous, en tant qu’amis, avons pu nous glisser chez lui et
arriver devant la maison silencieuse, toute neuve, avec sa grange
bien ordonnée, et un immense monticule de blé cuivré entassé au
soleil entre deux amoncellements de balle dorée. Chacun en prit un
peu entre les doigts et dit ce qu’il en pensa, — il devait valoir, tel
quel, sur le Veldt, quelques centaines de louis d’or. Et pendant que
nous nous mettions, assis en cercle, sur les machines agricoles, il
nous semblait entendre, au milieu du calme émanant de la maison
fermée, la terre prodigue qui se préparait en vue de nouvelles
moissons. Il n’y avait pas à vrai dire de vent, mais plutôt aurait-on dit
comme une poussée de toute l’atmosphère de cristal.
— Et maintenant allons voir la briqueterie, s’écrièrent-ils. Elle se
trouvait à plusieurs kilomètres. Le chemin qui y menait passait, par
une descente inoubliable à jamais, jusqu’à une rivière aussi large
qu’est l’Orange au pont de Norval, bruissant entre des collines de
boue. Un vieil Écossais ressemblant à s’y méprendre à Charon,
avec des bottes montant jusqu’à la hanche, dirigeait un ponton qui,
maintenu par un fil de fer, faisait la navette. Les automobiles
intrépides grimpèrent avec force cahots sur ce bac à travers un pied
d’eau et Charon, sans relâche, nous mena majestueusement à
travers la sombre et large rivière jusqu’à l’autre bord. Une fois là
nous fîmes volte-face pour contempler l’heureuse petite ville, et
échanger nos impressions au sujet de son avenir.
— Je crois que c’est d’ici que vous pourrez le mieux la voir, dit
l’un.
— Non, c’est plutôt d’ici, dit l’autre, et leurs voix prenaient une
intonation plus douce en la nommant.
Puis, pendant une heure, nous avons dévoré à toute vitesse la
vraie prairie, de grandes plaines vert-jaune traversées par
d’anciennes pistes de buffles, ce qui ne rend pas les ressorts
d’automobiles meilleurs, jusqu’au moment où se dressa, isolée, à
l’horizon, une cheminée, tel un mât en pleine mer, et, tout autour, se
trouvaient encore des hommes et des femmes au cœur réjoui, un
appentis, une ou deux tentes pour des ouvriers, le squelette du
mécanisme à fabriquer des briques, un puits de quinze pieds carrés
s’enfonçant à soixante pieds jusqu’à la terre glaise, et, noir et raide,
le tuyau d’une mine de gaz naturel. Tout le reste c’était la Prairie,
rien d’autre que la courbe de l’écorce terrestre — avec de petits
oiseaux solitaires s’appelant les uns les autres. J’avais cru qu’il était
impossible que cela fût plus simple, plus audacieux, plus
impressionnant jusqu’au moment où je vis des femmes en jolies
robes s’approcher et regarder avec précaution les valves à gaz d’où
s’échappait la vapeur.
— Nous avons pensé que cela vous intéresserait, me dirent tous
ces gens joyeux ; et tout en riant et en devisant ils discutèrent leurs
projets pour construire, d’abord leurs villes puis celles des autres, en
briques de toutes sortes ; indiquant des chiffres de production et les
frais d’installation qui vous coupaient la respiration. A l’œil nu l’affaire
n’était rien de plus qu’un pique-nique inédit, charmant. Ce qu’elle
voulait dire en réalité c’était la création d’un Comité qui modifierait le
fond même de la civilisation sur un rayon de cent soixante kilomètres
à la ronde. Il me semblait que j’assistais aux plans de construction
de Ninive, et quoi qu’il arrive de bon à cette petite ville qui est née
heureuse, j’en veux toujours réclamer une part.
Mais la place me manque pour raconter comment nous avons
mangé avec l’appétit que donne la Prairie, dans les quartiers des
hommes, un repas préparé par un artiste ; comment nous sommes
revenus à la maison à des vitesses dont même un enfant n’a jamais
entendu parler, et auxquelles aucun adulte ne devrait se livrer ;
comment les autos s’enlisèrent au gué, et tirèrent des bordées sur le
ponton jusqu’à ce que même Charon sourit ; comment d’énormes
chevaux arrivèrent et firent gravir aux autos les pentes caillouteuses
jusque dans la ville, comment, en rencontrant des gens
endimanchés en voiture et à pied, nous avons pris des airs recueillis
et vertueux, et comment la compagnie joyeuse subitement et
doucement s’éclipsa pensant que ses invités devaient être fatigués.
Je ne saurais vous donner une idée de la folâtrerie pure,
irresponsable, qui caractérisa le tout, de la bonté affectueuse, de
l’hospitalité gaie et ingénieuse qui régnait si délicatement dans toute
l’affaire, pas plus que je ne saurais décrire une certaine demi-heure
passée dans le calme du crépuscule juste avant de partir, lorsque la
compagnie se réunit de nouveau pour les adieux, cependant que de
jeunes couples se promenaient par les rues et que la réverbération
des lampes à gaz naturel, qu’on n’éteignait jamais, donnait aux
feuilles des arbres une coloration pareille à celle des décors de
théâtre.
Ce fut une femme, dont la voix sortait de l’ombre, qui exprima ce
que nous sentions tous : — Voyez-vous, nous sommes tout

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