Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Volume 1: Proceedings of The 2015 Annual Conference On Experimental and Applied Mechanics 1st Edition Bo Song

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Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series
Bo Song · Leslie Lamberson

Daniel Casem · Jamie Kimberley Editors
Dynamic
Behavior of
Materials, Volume 1
Experimental and Applied Mechanics
Series Editor
Kristin B. Zimmerman, Ph.D.
Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc.,
Bethel, CT, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8922

Bo Song • Leslie Lamberson • Daniel Casem • Jamie Kimberley
Editors
Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Volume 1

Proceedings of the 2015 Annual Conference
on Experimental and Applied Mechanics
Editors
Bo Song Leslie Lamberson
Department of Mechanics of Material Drexel University
Sandia National Laboratories Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
Livermore, California, USA
Jamie Kimberley
Daniel Casem New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
U.S. Army Research Laboratory Socorro, New Mexico, USA
Aberdeen Proving Ground, USA
ISSN 2191-5644 ISSN 2191-5652 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-22451-0 ISBN 978-3-319-22452-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-22452-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951226
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

# The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016
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Preface
Dynamic Behavior of Materials represents one of nine volumes of technical papers presented at the 2015 SEM Annual
Conference & Exposition on Experimental and Applied Mechanics organized by the Society for Experimental Mechanics
and held in Costa Mesa, CA, June 8–11, 2015. The complete Proceedings also includes volumes on the following: Dynamic
Behavior of Materials; Challenges in Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials; Advancement of Optical Methods in
Experimental Mechanics; Experimental and Applied Mechanics; MEMS and Nanotechnology; Mechanics of Biological
Systems and Materials; Fracture, Fatigue, Failure and Damage Evolution; and Residual Stress, Thermomechanics and
Infrared Imaging, Hybrid Techniques and Inverse Problems.
Each collection presents early findings from experimental and computational investigations on an important area within
Experimental Mechanics. Dynamic Behavior of Materials is one of these areas.
The Dynamic Behavior of Materials track was initiated in 2005 and reflects our efforts to bring together researchers
interested in the dynamic behavior of materials and structures, and provide a forum to facilitate technical interaction and
exchange. In the past years, this track has represented an ever growing area of broad interest to the SEM community, as
evidenced by the increased number of papers and attendance.
The contributed papers span numerous technical divisions within SEM, which may be of interest not only to the dynamic
behavior of materials community but also to the traditional mechanics of materials community.
The track organizers thank the authors, presenters, organizers, and session chairs for their participation, support, and
contribution to this track. We are grateful to the SEM TD chairs for co-sponsoring and/or co-organizing the sessions in this
track. They would also like to acknowledge the SEM support staff for their devoted efforts in accommodating the large
number of paper submissions this year, making the 2015 Dynamic Behavior of Materials Track successful.
Livermore, California, USA Bo Song

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA Leslie Lamberson
Aberdeen Proving Ground, USA Daniel Casem
Socorro, New Mexico, USA Jamie Kimberley
v
Contents
1 Impact Response of Coquina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

S.G. Subhash, P. Jannotti, and G. Subhash
2 Experimental Investigation of the Dynamic Fragmentation Process in a Transparent
Ceramic Under Impact Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
P. Forquin
3 Effects of Chain Extender on Dynamic Properties of PLLA/PBSL Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Masahiro Nishida, Yuma Takeuchi, Shun Furuya, Tetsuo Takayama, and Mitsugu Todo
4 Observation and Modeling of Cone Cracks in Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Brady Aydelotte and Brian Schuster
5 Dynamic Crack Propagation in Layered Transparent Materials Studied Using
Digital Gradient Sensing Method: Part-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Balamurugan M. Sundaram and Hareesh V. Tippur
6 Measurement of the Dynamic Fracture Toughness of Alumina Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Pengwan Chen, Jingjing Chen, Baoqiao Guo, and Haibo Liu
7 Shock and High Strain Rate Characterization of HTPB with Varying Plasticizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Jennifer Jordan, Didier Montaigne, Christopher Neel, George Sunny, and Christopher Molek
8 Modified Hopkinson Apparatus to Investigate Fluid Cavitation
as a Potential Source of Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Michael Bustamante, Dilaver Singh, and Duane S. Cronin
9 Dynamic Energy Absorption of Eco-Core and Other Commercial Core Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Rafid M. Kully
10 Harmonic Vibration Test for the Analysis of the Dynamic Behaviour
of Polyurethane Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
O. Duboeuf, R. Dupuis, E. Aubry, and M. Lauth
11 Statistical Characterizations for Tensile Properties of Co-polymer Aramid Fibers:
Loading Rate Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
J.H. Kim, N.A. Heckert, Kai-Li Kang, W.G. McDonough, K. D. Rice, and G.A. Holmes
12 Longitudinal Wave Propagation Including High Frequency Component
in Viscoelastic Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
T. Tamaogi and Y. Sogabe
vii
viii Contents
13 Quasistatic to Dynamic Behavior of Particulate Composites for Different Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Nadia Bahlouli, Kui Wang, Rodrigue Matadi Boumbimba,
Christiane Wagner-Kocher, and Saı̈d Ahzi
14 A Kolsky Bar for High-Rate Micro-compression: Preliminary Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Daniel Casem, Emily Huskins, Jonathan Ligda, and Brian Schuster
15 Multi-Scale Mechanical Performance of High Strength-High Ductility Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Ravi Ranade, William F. Heard, and Brett A. Williams
16 PZT Experimental Detection of Natural Frequencies for Compressed
Thin-Walled Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
E. Lofrano, A. Carpinteri, R. Malvano, A. Manuello, G. Piana, and G. Ruta
17 On the Use of Piezoelectric Sensors for Experimental Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
G. Piana, M. Brunetti, A. Carpinteri, R. Malvano, A. Manuello, and A. Paolone
18 Characterization of Vibrational Mechanical Properties of Polyurethane Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Raphaël Dupuis, Olivier Duboeuf, Bertrand Kirtz, and Evelyne Aubry
19 High Strain-Rate Ductile to Brittle Transition in Nanoporous Zeolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Phillip Miller and Junlan Wang
20 Dynamic High-Temperature Tensile Characterization of an Iridium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Bo Song, Kevin Nelson, Ronald Lipinski, John Bignell, G.B. Ulrich, and E.P. George
21 Dynamic Friction Properties of Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
P.H. Hsu, Sheng-Yu Huang, C.C. Chiang, L. Tsai, S.H. Wang, and N.S. Liou
22 Dynamic Tensile Behavior of a Quenched and Partitioned High Strength
Steel Using a Kolsky Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Steven Mates and Fadi Abu-Farha
23 Dynamic Flow Response of Rigid Polymer Foam Subjected to Direct Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Behrad Koohbor, Addis Kidane, and Wei-Yang Lu
24 Differences in the Hydrostatic Implosion of Metallic and Composite Tubes
Studied Using Digital Image Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Michael Pinto, Sachin Gupta, and Arun Shukla
25 Novel Protection Mechanism of Blast and Impact Waves by Using Nanoporous Materials . . . . . . . . . . 177
Weiyi Lu
26 Response of Material Under Blast Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Dan Schleh, Guojing Li, and Dahsin Liu
27 Using Richtmyer–Meshkov Instabilities to Estimate Metal Strength
at Very High Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Michael B. Prime, William T. Buttler, Sky K. Sjue, Brian J. Jensen, Fesseha G. Mariam,
David M. Oró, Cora L. Pack, Joseph B. Stone, Dale Tupa, and Wendy Vogan-McNeil
28 Study of Energy Contributions in Granular Materials During Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Nikhil Karanjgaokar and Guruswami Ravichandran
29 Ballistic Perforation of Double Reinforced Concrete as a Function of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Christopher S. Meyer
30 Identification of the Dynamic Tensile Behavior of Geomaterials Based on the Virtual Fields
Method and a New Generation-Ultra-High-Speed Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
D. Saletti and P. Forquin
31 Particle Size Reduction in Granular Materials During Rapid Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Eduardo Suescun-Florez, Ivan L. Guzman, Stephan Bless, and Magued Iskander
Contents ix
32 Experimental Techniques to Characterize the Mechanical Behaviour

of Ultra-High-Strength-Concrete Under Extreme Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
P. Forquin and B. Lukic
33 Highly Stretchable Miniature Strain Sensor for Large Strain Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Shurong Yao, Xu Nie, Xun Yu, Bo Song, and Jill Blecke
34 Clamping-Force Application for Kolsky Bar Tension Grips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Richard L. Rhorer
35 An Improved Technique for Reducing the Load Ringing Phenomenon
in Tensile Tests at High Strain Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
J.B. Kwon, H. Huh, and C.N. Ahn
36 Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Pressure Waves Propagation
in a Viscoelastic Hopkinson Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
M. Sasso, M.G. Antonelli, E. Mancini, M. Radoni, and D. Amodio
37 An Innovative Instrumented Projectile for Dynamic Testing and Material Characterization . . . . . . . . 269
Guojing Li, Dahsin Liu, and Dan Schleh
Chapter 1
Impact Response of Coquina
S.G. Subhash, P. Jannotti, and G. Subhash
Abstract The Castillo de San Marcos Fort in St. Augustine, FL was built over 330 years ago and has endured numerous
wars between the Spanish and the British. During these wars, cannonballs were fired at the fort walls and became embedded
in the walls. The walls did not shatter, nor did large cracks form. The fort was constructed from a native rock called coquina,
found on the east coast of Florida and the west coast of Australia. Coquina is a highly porous sedimentary rock, consisting of
crushed shells, fossils, limestone, sand, minerals, and clay. There are no scientific studies illustrating coquina’s ability to
withstand cannonball impacts. This research focused on testing coquina and a similar material (a commercial cellular foam)
in uniaxial compression. The compression experiments revealed that coquina had two times the specific energy compared to
a structural foam. The research revealed that the microstructure of coquina allows impact to be absorbed by progressive
failure and hence possesses a high energy absorption capability.
Keywords Coquina • Rock • Energy absorption • Impact • Castillo de San Marcos
1.1 Introduction
The Castillo de San Marcos fort in St. Augustine, Florida, has been standing for 330 years [1–3]. It has endured numerous
wars between the Spanish and British, and several hurricane. During the wars, cannon balls were fired and the impact
impressions can still be seen in the fort walls. The fort is built from the native rock called coquina which is was quarried
along the east coast of Florida. Coquina rock is mainly formed of crushed shell, fragmented fossils and coral, limestone,
sand, minerals and clay [4, 5]. It contains many pores and is relatively soft when quarried and it hardens over the years from
surface exposure [6].
Currently, little scientific information is available which details the mechanical response of coquina which can be used to
rationalize its historical significance as a structural material. To the authors’ knowledge, only one study by Knab and Clifton
[7] has been conducted to examine the physical properties of coquina such as static compressive and flexural strength, dry
density, and water absorption; however, beyond determining these properties there is a lack of experimental investigation of
the energy absorbing capacity of the coquina. The current study seeks to identify the specific energy of coquina compared to
a modern day structural foam which has a similar cellular structure (albeit man-made).
The Castillo de San Marcos Fort was built by Spanish and each wall of the fort is 12 ft thick and the wall facing the harbor
is 19 ft thick. Seven years after the fort was built, the British attacked the fort [1]. However, when the cannon balls hit, the
coquina absorbed the impact without causing large cracks in the wall. The cannon balls became stuck a few inches deep into
the wall. The walls did not crack or fragments from the wall did not eject off. Surprisingly, to date, no systematic studies
have been performed to understand this behavior. More than a million visitors and students visit each year but no detailed
scientific explanation is available to these visitors. With this motivation, the current study was conducted to understand the
behavior of Coquina under quasistatic compression (Figs. 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3).
S.G. Subhash (*)

Buchholz High School, Gainesville, FL 32606, USA
e-mail: subhash@ufl.edu
P. Jannotti • G. Subhash
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
# The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 1

B. Song et al. (eds.), Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Volume 1,
Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-22452-7_1
2 S.G. Subhash et al.
Fig. 1.1 Image of the Castillo de San Marcos fort in St. Augustine, FL and (a) residual impressions left in the fort walls due to projectile impacts.
Notice in (b) that no significant cracking extends beyond the impact craters
Fig. 1.2 Images of the

(a) coquina and (b) foam
samples used for testing
Fig. 1.3 Image of the servo-

hydraulic testing machine
used to perform quasi-static
compression experiments
1 Impact Response of Coquina 3
1.2 Materials
Coquina is a sedimentary rock made up primarily of small clam, oyster, and mollusk shells as well as fossils, sands, and
calcite [4, 5]. Samples of approximately 100 mm 100 mm 25 mm were purchased from the Castillo de San Marcos
Fort Gift Shop and cut into appropriate size and shape for various tests. This coquina was quarried from Summer Haven, FL.
To gain better insight into its deformation behavior another material with similar microstructure, i.e., a commercial foam,
was also obtained and cut into the appropriate size and shape for testing. The commercial foam, trade named Divinicell® H-
60, was selected due to its uniformity in porosity and cellular structure. This material is expected to provide the response of
an ideal cellular material with uniform porosity and will act as a reference to understand the response of natural materials
(Table 1.1).
1.3 Experimental
Quasi-static uniaxial compression studies were conducted using a servo-hydraulic testing machine (MTS model 309.2, Eden
Prairie, MN USA). The force-displacement data from quasistatic tests were plotted for each material and the area under the
curves, which represents the energy absorbed during deformation, was calculated and compared. The surfaces in contact
with the test specimens were lightly lubricated prior to experimentation to minimize friction between the loading surfaces
and the specimens. Using displacement control, specimens were tested at a nominal strain rate of 10 4 s 1.
1.4 Results and Discussion
The compression tests revealed interesting differences in the behaviors of coquina and foam. The force-displacement curves,
shown in Fig. 1.4, revealed that for coquina, the applied force increased initially and reached a maximum. At this stage, the
load dropped rapidly as is typical for brittle materials, but rather than experiencing catastrophic failure the load stabilized to
around 20 % of the peak load. This behavior was marked by intermittent increase and decrease (load oscillation) until the
Table 1.1 Selected properties Material Density(g/cc) Compressive strength (MPa)

of coquina and foam
Coquina 1.4–1.6 [7] 1.0–1.9 [7]
Foam 0.06 [8] 0.9 [8]
Fig. 1.4 Representative load-displacement curves for (a) coquina and (b) foam
4 S.G. Subhash et al.
coquina was fully crushed. In this way, coquina exhibits a progressive failure as it is crushed beyond is elastic limit. It can be
inferred that such crushing in coquina occurs by particle debonding due to weak interparticle bonding. On the other hand, the
commercial foam revealed an initial peak in applied load followed by continuous crushing behavior at the peak stress.
Unlike the brittle coquina, the foam had a nearly constant load bearing capacity beyond its peak load. Here, crushing relates
to the buckling of cell walls, resulting in pore closure and crushing.
The area under each force-displacement curve represents the energy consumed in the deformation process for that
specimen. For the coquina and foam approximately 0.61 and 0.30 J-mm 3 was absorbed over ~15 mm of displacement. It is
noted that coquina has around two times the energy absorption capability compared to foam. Despite being a brittle material,
the coquina exhibits an ability to retain load after its initial load drop, which contributed to the excellent dissipation of
energy due to the cannon ball impacts during the wars.
1.5 Conclusions
The energy absorbed per unit volume of coquina is significantly higher than that of the foam with similar cellular/porous
structure. As the cannon ball impacted the coquina, these mechanisms came into play immediately and hence cracks did not
propagate long distances and no large fragments ejected from the fort wall. The energy of the impact was absorbed locally.
These mechanisms contributed to the ability of the fort to withstand the impacts of cannon balls and the effects of hurricanes.
References
1. National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos. nps.gov/casa (2015)

2. Maynard, C.C.M.: Castillo de San Marcos. PowerKids Press, New York (2002)
3. National Park Service (NPS): Castillo de San Marcos: a guide to the Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, U.S. National Park Service,
Division of Publications. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Washington, DC (1993)
4. U.S. Bureau of Mines Staff: Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, & Related Terms. Report SP-96-1. U.S. Department of Interior, U.S. Bureau of
Mines, Washington, DC (1996)
5. Neuendorf, K.K.E., Mehl Jr., J.P., Jackson, J.A.: Glossary of Geology, 5th edn. American Geological Institute, Alexandria (2005)
6. Flynn, B.: The Complete Guide to Building with Rocks and Stone: Stonework Projects and Techniques Explained Simply. Atlantic Publishing
Group, Ocala (2011)
7. Knab, L.I., Clifton, J.R.: Mechanical and Physical Properties of Coquina Stone from the Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, NBSIR
88-3714.National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Gaithersburg (1988)
8. Matweb: Online materials information resource. matweb.com (2015)
Chapter 2
Experimental Investigation of the Dynamic Fragmentation
Process in a Transparent Ceramic Under Impact Loading
P. Forquin
Abstract In the present project, edge-on impact (EOI) experiments have been conducted to improve the understanding and
modelling of the dynamic fragmentation process in a transparent ceramic. In the EOI experiments a cylindrical projectile hits
the edge of the target with an impact velocity ranging from 60 to 175 m/s. An ultra-high speed camera is used to visualize the
fragmentation process with an interframe time set to 1 μs. An intense and complex cracking network develops in a ten of
μs into the target composed of numerous “radial cracks”, “Rayleigh cracks” and “release cracks”. The intensity of damage
increases with the impact velocity. In addition, numerical simulations of impact tests have been conducted considering the
DFH (Denoual-Forquin-Hild) anisotropic damage model. Finally the numerical predictions of DFH model are compared to
the experimental results in terms of cracking density and velocity of damage front.
Keywords Dynamic fragmentation • High speed imaging • ZnS ceramic • Impact loading • Anisotropic damage model
2.1 Introduction
The present project aims to investigate the fragmentation properties of a transparent ceramic in an Edge-On Impact
configuration. During EOI experiments, a cylindrical projectile hits the edge of the brittle material tile inducing the
propagation of a compressive wave in the sample. Radial motion of the material induces tensile hoop stresses being
responsible of intense damage in the target. In open configuration, the fragmentation of the target in visualized with an
ultra-high speed camera [1]. In the so-called ‘sarcophagus configuration’ a metal casing surrounds the tested target [2, 3] so
the damage pattern is analyzed post-mortem. During the last decade, edge-on impact (EOI) experiments have been widely
used to investigate the fragmentation properties of ceramics [4], microconcrete [5], rocks [6] and concrete [7] samples. In the
present work, this technique has been employed with a (ZnS) transparent ceramic considering cylindrical projectile made of
high-strength steel impacting the target with an impact velocity of 60, 100 and 175 m/s. The fragmentation patterns are
compared to the results of numerical simulations conducted considering the DFH (Denoual-Forquin-Hild) anisotropic
damage model (Denoual and Hild 2000; [8]). The experimental method is presented first. The DFH model is detailed in
the second part. Comparisons between experimental and numerical data are given in the third part of the paper. The influence
of impact velocity is discussed at the end of the paper.
2.1.1 Experimental Technique
The device used to perform the EOI experiments is described on the Fig. 2.1. The gas gun, of caliber 20 mm, is used to
launch small cylindrical projectile at impact velocity ranging from 10 to 300 m/s. In the present work, the projectiles are
made of high-strength steel. They are 10 mm in diameter and 15 mm in length. In addition their hemispherical end cap of
large radius (100 mm) allows ensuring better contact conditions when impacting the target. The camera used to visualize the
target is a Shimadzu HPV1 ultra-high speed camera. The resolution of the images is 312 260 pixels. The interframe time
is set to 1 μs. The target is a transparent ZnS ceramic of size 60 30 4 mm3. The impacted edge is 60 4 mm2.
P. Forquin (*)
3SR laboratory, Grenoble Alpes University, Grenoble 38041, France
e-mail: pascal.forquin@3sr-grenoble.fr

6 P. Forquin
a b Ceramic
Gas launcher
rc = 10 mm
10 mm
0.125
15 mm
Ultra-high speed camera
Fig. 2.1 Geometry of projectile and sketch of the experimental device
Fig. 2.2 Illustration of the obscuration mechanism in a dynamic fragmentation process
2.1.2 The DFH (Denoual-Forquin-Hild) Anisotropic Damage Model
Dynamic fragmentation in brittle solids is the consequence of the triggering and the propagation of cracks from defects such
as sintering flaws in ceramics, pores in concrete and scratches in glass (Denoual and Hild 2000; [8]). The dynamic
fragmentation process is driven by three types of parameters: parameters related to initiation of defects (Weibull
parameters), parameters related to cracks propagation (crack speed) and parameters related to the loading rate (applied
stress-rate). The dynamic fragmentation process corresponds to a competition between the initiation of cracks on critical
defects and the obscuration of existing critical defects due to release wave in the vicinity of existing cracks. Obscuration is
defined as a relaxation of stress (σ < 0) in a domain of size Zo(T t) in the vicinity of a propagating crack, preventing
activation of potential critical defects. T t corresponds to the time interval between the crack inception t and the current
time T. One assumes that the zone of stress release is centered on the point of crack initiation and grows in a self-similar way
with a diameter proportional to the size of the crack (Fig. 2.2).
Zo ðT tÞ ¼ S½kC ðT tÞn ð2:1Þ
S is a shape parameter of the obscuration volume equal to 4π/3 when assuming that obscuration volumes are similar to
spheres in 3D (n ¼ 3), k is a constant parameter assumed equal to 0.38 [9] and C is the 1D wave speed. The interaction law
between critical defects of the material and cracks already created is given by the concept of probability of non-obscuration
Pno or “local weakest link hypothesis” [8]:
0 1
ðð
B dλt ðm; tÞ C
Pno ¼ exp@ dVdtA ð2:2Þ
dt
HorizonðM;T Þ
In a case of a multiple fragmentation process, the non-obscuration probability (Denoual and Hild 2000) reads:
ð T
dλt ðtÞ
Pno ¼ exp V o ½T tdt ð2:3Þ
0 dt
2 Experimental Investigation of the Dynamic Fragmentation Process in a Transparent Ceramic Under Impact Loading 7
Where λt is the density of critical defects given by Eq. (2.4):

m
σ
λ t ðσ Þ ¼ λ 0 ð2:4Þ
σ0
λ0/σ 0m and m are the Weibull parameters identified through quasi-static bending test series. Furthermore, a damage variable
D can be defined for each principle stress assuming that damage corresponds to the ratio of the obscured volume to the total
volume:
V0
D ¼ 1 Pno ð2:5Þ
V total
The macroscopic stress can be calculated as function of the microscopic stress σ according to:
Σ ¼ σ ð1 D Þ ð2:6Þ
If a constant stress-rate is assumed (σ ¼ σ t) the growth of damage is given by the following close-form solution:
nþm
n!m! t
DðtÞ ¼ 1 exp ð2:7Þ
ðn þ mÞ! tc
Where tc corresponds to the characteristic time of fragmentation:

m m
1 mþn mþn
n
tc ¼ σ 0 λ0 m
1 mþn
σ kCSn ð2:8Þ
In addition, the cracking density can be calculated by considering that new cracks are only triggered in non-obscured
zones [8]:
∂λcracks ∂λt
¼ Pno ð2:9Þ
∂t ∂t
This model was used to simulate the fragmentation process in dense or porous ceramics ([10, 11]), in ultra-high performance
concretes [3], in microconcrete [5], in glass [12] and in limestone rock [6].
2.1.3 Experimental Results and Numerical Simulation of Edge-on Impact Tests
Three edge-on impact experiments have been conducted considering different impact velocities: 60, 100 and 175 m/s. The
pictures of Shimadzu HPV1 ultra-high speed camera are given on the left side of each next figures considering three times
after impact. The experiments have been simulated numerically with the finite-element code Abaqus-Explicit. The mesh of
the target is composed of 230 400 C3D8R finite-elements (eight nodes, reduced integration). Three types of parameters are
used for modelling the behavior of ZnS ceramic: the elastic parameters (E ¼ 87.6 GPa et ν ¼ 0.331), the Weibull
parameters identified in 3-point bending tests (m ¼ 11, σ w ¼ 68.2 MPa, Veff ¼ 86.7 mm3) and the parameters related to
the growth of obscuration zones: the shape parameter (S ¼ 3.74) and the crack speed (k ¼ 0.38). The results of each
numerical simulation are given on the right side of each figure in terms of damage isocontours.
The Fig. 2.3 presents the experimental and numerical results obtained with an impact velocity of 60 m/s. An intense
damage composed of a large number of small radial cracks is observed at T ¼ 4.5 μs. At T ¼ 8.5 μs, many isolated (i.e. not
connected to the main damage zone) radial cracks are noted. It demonstrates that cracks initiate on independent defects
existing in the microstructure. Moreover, some cracks initiate on the rear face of the target and propagate orthogonally to the
rear surface. This damage is due to “release wave” forming when the incident wave reflects on the free rear surface. In
8 P. Forquin
Fig. 2.3 Edge-on impact

experiment performed at
Vimpact ¼ 60 m/s. (a) Images
of ultra-high speed camera.
(b) Numerical simulation with
DFH anisotropic damage
model
addition “Rayleigh cracks” are initiated on the impacted edge (T ¼ 8.5 μs) and propagate through the target with an inclined
angle. The target is totally damage at T ¼ 10.5 μs.
Numerical predictions of DFH (Denoual-Forquin-Hild) anisotropic damage model are given on the right hand-side of the
Fig. 2.3. The calculation provides correct predictions of cracking density and crack extension at T ¼ 5 μs and T ¼ 9 μs. In
particular the central zone corresponding to damage of high intensity is noted in the calculation. “Numerical cracks” (i.e.
damage corridor) initiated on the impacted edge and on the rear edge are consistent with experimental observations. The
final damage pattern (T ¼ 11 μs) is also correctly predicted.
The next Figure (Fig. 2.4) concerns the EOI experiment performed with an impact velocity of 100 m/s. The damage front
is composed of a large amount of radial cracks. The cracking density is significantly increased compared to the previous test
(60 m/s). The target is totally damaged at T ¼ 9 μs. The damage pattern is compared to numerical predictions on the same
figure. A good agreement is noted in terms of cracking density, cracking orientation and velocity of damage front.

model
The Fig. 2.5 presents the EOI experiment performed with an impact velocity of 175 m/s. The damage front is so strong
that makes difficult to visualize each individual crack. Again cracking density is significantly increased compared to the tests
conducted at lower impact velocities (60 and 100 m/s). The target is totally damaged at T ¼ 9 μs. Again, the damage pattern
is compared to numerical predictions on the same figure. Again a satisfactory agreement is noted in terms of damage front.
Influence of impact velocity on the intensity of damage is discussed in the last Figure. The Fig. 2.6 provides a comparison
of damage pattern for three impact velocities (60, 100, 175 m/s). It is observed that DFH model enables to reproduce the
increase of damage intensity with the increase of impact velocity.
10 P. Forquin

model
Fig. 2.6 Comparison of damage patterns predicted by DFH model considering three impact velocities
2.2 Conclusion
In the present work, edge-on impact tests have been performed with a transparent ZnS ceramic. A hemispherical end cap
projectile hits the target at an impact velocity ranging from 60 to 175 m/s. The growth of damage in the target is visualized
with an ultra-high speed camera. A fragmentation process made of a large number of oriented cracks develops in the target.
The fragmentation pattern is composed of radial cracks induced by high-strain-rate tensile hoop stresses, cracks initiated on
the rear face due to “release waves”, cracks triggered at the impacted edge or at the lateral edges.
Numerical simulations have been performed with Abaqus-explicite finite-element code. The fragmentation of the target is
model by means of the DFH (Denoual-Forquin-Hild) anisotropic damage model. Based on the concept of obscuration this
model provides a micromechanical description of crack initiation, crack propagation and obscuration of critical defects due
to crack previously triggered. The parameters used in the model (elastic parameter, Weibull parameters) have been identified
from quasi-static experiments. The model enables predicting the damage in the target and the propagation of the damage
front as function of time. As observed in experiments, the numerical calculation reproduces the increase of damage intensity
and velocity of damage front with the impact velocity of the projectile.
References
1. Riou, P., Denoual, C., Cottenot, C.E.: Visualization of the damage evolution in impacted silicon carbide ceramics. Int. J. Impact Eng. 21(4),
225–235 (1998)
2. Denoual, C., Hild, F.: A damage model for the dynamic fragmentation of brittle solids. Comp. Math. Appl. Mech. Eng. 183, 247–258 (2000)
3. Forquin, P., Hild, F.: Dynamic fragmentation of an ultra-high strength concrete during edge-on impact tests. ASCE J. Eng. Mech. 134(4),
302–315 (2008)
4. Zinszner, J.-L., Forquin, P., Rossiquet, G.: Experimental and numerical analysis of the dynamic fragmentation in a SiC ceramic under impact.
Int. J. Impact Eng. 76, 9–19 (2015)
5. Forquin, P., Erzar, B.: Dynamic fragmentation process in concrete under impact and spalling tests. Int. J. Fracture 163, 193–215 (2010)
6. Grange, S., Forquin, P., Mencacci, S., Hild, F.: On the dynamic fragmentation of two limestones using edge-on impact tests. Int. J. Impact Eng.
35, 977–991 (2008)
7. Erzar, B., Forquin, P.: Experiments and mesoscopic modelling of dynamic testing of concrete. Mech. Mater. 43, 505–527 (2011)
8. Forquin, P., Hild, F.: A probabilistic damage model of the dynamic fragmentation process in brittle materials. Adv. Appl. Mech. 44, 1–72
(2010)
9. Kanninen, M.F., Popelar, C.H.: Advanced Fracture Mechanics. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1985)
10. Denoual, C., Hild, F.: Dynamic fragmentation of brittle solids: a multi-scale model. Eur. J. Mech. A Solids 21(1), 105–120 (2002)
11. Forquin, P., Tran, L., Louvigné, P.-F., Rota, L., Hild, F.: Effect of aluminum reinforcement on the dynamic fragmentation of SiC ceramics.
Int. J. Impact Eng. 28, 1061–1076 (2003)
12. Brajer, X., Forquin, P., Gy, R., Hild, F.: The role of the surface and volume for the fracture of glass under quasi-static and dynamic loadings. J.
Non Cryst. Solids 316, 42–53 (2003)
Chapter 3
Effects of Chain Extender on Dynamic Properties of PLLA/PBSL Blends
Masahiro Nishida, Yuma Takeuchi, Shun Furuya, Tetsuo Takayama, and Mitsugu Todo
Abstract The effects of the additive amount of a chain extender, with a weight ratio of 3–5 %, on stress-strain curves
of poly(lactic acid) (PCL) and poly(butylene succinate-co-L-lactate) (PBSL) polymer blends were examined with a mixing
ratio of PLA to PBSL of 70/30. The additive increased the elongation at break, and the strain rate decreased elongation
at break.
Keywords Bioplastics • Strain rate • Tensile split Hopkinson pressure bar method • Polymer alloy • Crosslinking agent
3.1 Introduction
Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics are being investigated extensively, and new biodegradable plastics and bioplastics
continue to be developed. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a typical biodegradable bioplastic. Many studies have been conducted to
develop various industrial products that can be manufactured using biodegradable plastics and bioplastics. However, such
applications are currently limited to machine parts that are not subjected to high loading. Because PLA is brittle, its
mechanical properties have been improved by polymer blends or natural-fiber reinforcement [1–3]. Because poly(butylene
succinate-co-lactate) (PBSL) is a ductile and biodegradable polymer, PLA/PBSL polymer blends have great potential for
high strength and toughness [4–7]. In order to increase their compatibility, a chain extender, Joncryl (ADR4370S, BASF),
was added.
In this study, we examined the effects of different amounts of the chain extender (crosslinking agent) additive, 3–5 %, on
dynamic and static tensile properties, with a mixing ratio of PLA to PBSL of 70/30, using a tensile split Hopkinson bar
method and a universal testing machine. After dynamic and static tensile tests, the fracture surfaces of the specimens were
observed.
3.2 Experimental Methods
3.2.1 Materials
Polymer blends of PLA and PBSL were prepared using PLA pellet from Nature Works Co. (Ingeo, 3100D) and PBSL pellet
from Mitsubishi Chemical Co. (GS Pla® AZ91T). Because PBSL is ductile, there are many possibilities for high mechanical
properties (for example, high impact strength) in polymer blends with PLA. Figure 3.1 illustrates the chemical structural
formula of PLA and PBSL.
The mixing ratio (mass fraction) of PLA to PBSL was fixed at 70/30. During melt mixing, the chain extender (BASF,
Joncryl ADR 4370-S) of the weight ratio of 3, 4, or 5 % was added. After melt mixing in a conventional melt mixer at 190 C
for 20 min, the blend mixtures were press processed using a conventional hot press at 190 C and 30 MPa for 30 min.
M. Nishida (*) • Y. Takeuchi • S. Furuya

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Gokiso-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 466-8555, Japan
e-mail: nishida.masahiro@nitech.ac.jp
T. Takayama
Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamagata University, 4-3-16 Jonan, Yonezawa, Yamagata 992-8510, Japan
M. Todo
Research Institute for Applied Mechanics, Kyushu University, 6-1 Kasuga-koen, Kasuga, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan

14 M. Nishida et al.
Fig. 3.1 Chemical structural

formula. (a) PLA. (b) PBSL
Fig. 3.2 SEM photographs before tensile tests. (a) Joncryl ¼ 3 wt%. (b) Joncryl ¼ 4 wt%. (c) Joncryl ¼ 5 wt%
Fig. 3.3 Photograph

of tensile test specimens.
(a) Static tensile test (gauge
area 2 mm by 5 mm, gauge
length 10 mm). (b) Dynamic
tensile test (gauge area 2 mm
by 5 mm, gauge length 4 mm)
Photographs of the cryo-fractured surfaces, taken using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), are shown in Fig. 3.2. Clear
two-phase structures were not observed by a scanning electron microscope when the chain extender was added. The chain
extender improved the compatibility of PLA and PBSL.
3.2.2 Static Tensile Tests
Quasi-static tensile tests were conducted at a crosshead speed of 0.2 mm/min (strain rate of 0.9 104 to 2.2 104 s1)
using a universal testing machine. The strain was calculated by images of the gauge area taken by digital camera.
Dimensions of the specimens of static and dynamic tensile tests are shown in Fig. 3.3a.
3 Effects of Chain Extender on Dynamic Properties of PLLA/PBSL Blends 15
Fig. 3.4 Experimental setup for tensile Hopkinson bar (Kolsky bar) method
Table 3.1 Material constants of input and output bars used in calculations
Density [kg/m3] Elastic wave velocity in bar, c3 [m/s] Young’s modulus E [GPa]
Stainless steel, SUS304 8.0 103 4970 200
3.2.3 Dynamic Tensile Tests
At high strain rates, the dynamic properties of the specimens were examined by the tensile split Hopkinson bar test, as shown in
Fig. 3.4. The diameters and lengths of input and output bars were 12 and 2000 mm respectively. Strain gages were applied to both
sides of the input and output bars at distances of 1750 and 350 mm from the specimen, respectively. The stresses and strains of
the specimens [8, 9] were calculated from the strains of the bars measured by strain gages, based on the following equations:
AE
σ ðtÞ ¼ εT ð t Þ ð3:1Þ
AS
ðt
2c3
εð t Þ ¼ ½εI ðtÞ εT ðtÞ dt ð3:2Þ
L 0
where εI and εT are the axial strains in the input bar induced by the incident wave and the axial strain in the output bar induced by
the transmitted wave, respectively. E and c3 are the Young’s modulus and the elastic wave velocity of the input and output bars,
respectively. L is the specimen’s thickness. A and As are the cross-sectional areas of the input/output bars and the specimens. The
input and output bars were made of stainless steel (SUS304), and their material constants used in the calculations are listed in
Table 3.1. We preserved the specimens in a desiccator at a humidity of 30–40 % until just before use in order to avoid the effects
of moisture absorption on the specimens. During the experiments, our laboratory was maintained at a temperature of 25 2 C
and a humidity of 19–54 %. Dimensions of the specimens of dynamic tensile tests are shown in Fig. 3.3b.
3.3 Results and Discussion
The nominal stress-strain curves of the static tensile tests (Fig. 3.5) showed strain softening (work softening), which is
defined as the reduction of stress with an increase in strain. When the additive was 5 %, the strain softening was not clear.
The maximum stress with the 4 % additive was larger than those of 3 and 5 %. The elongation at break was almost the same
among 3, 4 and 5 % additive ratios. At high strain rates, the stress-strain curves of the dynamic tensile tests (Fig. 3.6) did not
show strain softening (work softening). The maximum stress and elongation at break were compared (Figs. 3.7 and 3.8);
Fig. 3.5 Stress-strain curves

of static tensile test
Fig. 3.6 Stress-strain

curves of dynamic tensile
test (850–1400 s1)
Fig. 3.7 Effects of mixing

ratio on maximum stress
3 Effects of Chain Extender on Dynamic Properties of PLLA/PBSL Blends 17
Fig. 3.8 Effects of mixing

ratio on elongation at break
Fig. 3.9 Fracture surfaces of specimens at high strain rate
however, the comparisons showed no significant differences. Figure 3.9 shows SEM photographs of the fracture surface.
The fracture surface was flat, and no clear elongation was observed. It seems that the elongation of materials decreased
at high strain rate.
3.4 Conclusions
Dynamic tensile properties of a bioplastic PLA/PLBS blends were investigated experimentally using a tensile split
Hopkinson bar and a universal testing machine. The additive clearly increased elongation at break at low strain rate.
However, the additive increased slightly elongation at break. At low strain rate, stress-strain curves showed strain softening.
Acknowledgment Dynamic tensile properties of bioplastic PLA/PLBS blends were investigated experimentally using a tensile split Hopkinson
bar and a universal testing machine. At low strain rate, the additive clearly but only slightly increased elongation at break. At low strain rate,
stress-strain curves showed strain softening.
References
1. Ikeda, E.: Enhancement of Degradation Rate of Plastics for Suppression of Environmental Pollution by Plastics Waste. J. Soc. Mater. Sci. Jpn.
46(12), 1347–1354 (1997)
2. Tsukamoto, N., Maruyama, H., Nishida, N.: Biodegradable Plastic Gears. Trans. Jpn. Soc. Mech. Eng. A 60(58), 4318–4324 (1994)
3. Nishimura, Y., Kato, K., Kobayashi, H.: Development of the Biodegradable String-type Contact Material, Aichi Industrial Technology Institute
Report, vol. 1, pp. 242–245 (2002–2012)
4. Vilay, V., Todo, M., Takayama, T., Jaafar, M., Ahmad, Z., Pasomsouk, K.: Effect of lysine triisocyanate on the mode I fracture behavior of
polymer blend of poly(L-lactic acid) and poly(butylene succinate-co-L-lactide). J. Mater. Sci. 44(11), 3006–3009 (2009)
5. Vilay, V., Mariatti, M., Ahmad, Z., Todo, M., Pasomsouk, K.: Effect of Copolymer on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties and
Morphological Behavior of Biodegradable Poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) and Poly (Butylene Succinate-co-L-Lactate) (PBSL) Blends. Polymer.
Adv. Tech. 22, 1786–1793 (2011)
6. Kuno, S., Nishida, M., Kawashima, I., Takayama, T., Todo, M.: Dynamic Property Evaluation of PLLA/PBSL Polymer Blends using
Compressive and Tensile Split Hopkinson Bar Methods. J. JSEM 12(Special Issue), s198–s204 (2012)
7. Takeuchi, Y., Nishida, M., Takayama, T., Todo, M.: Effect of chain extender on impact properties of poly (lactic acid) and poly (butylene
succinate-co-L-lactate) blends. Proceedings 4th Asian Conference on Mechanics of Functional Materials and Structures, pp. 283–284 (2014)
8. Gray III, G.T.: Classic split Hopkinson pressure bar testing. In: ASM Handbook, vol. 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, pp. 462–476. ASM,
Materials Park (2000)
9. Chen, W., Song, B.: Split Hopkinson (Kolsky) Bar: Design, Testing and Applications. Springer, New York (2010)
Chapter 4
Observation and Modeling of Cone Cracks in Ceramics
Brady Aydelotte and Brian Schuster
Abstract Ceramics undergo a complex failure process when subjected to impact by a projectile. Projectile impacts on thick
ceramic targets produce varying levels of comminution, cone cracking, and radial cracking. Sphere impacts result in limited
penetration and comminution relative to projectiles with a longer aspect ratio, yet significant radial and cone cracking is
produced, and it is similar to Hertzian indentation. Sphere impact is a good way to study ceramics and a good validation
problem to study the ability of hydrocodes to predict the formation and extent of radial and cone fractures in ceramic
materials. Experimental results from normal and oblique sphere impacts on hot-pressed boron carbide cylinders are reported.
Oblique sphere impacts created curved cone cracks, which did not appear oriented perpendicular to the impact surface. Cone
angles appear to be the same for normal and oblique impacts for the impact conditions tested. Hydrocode predictions
captured some but not all of the experimentally observed features.
Keywords Cone crack • Impact • Indentation • Ceramic • Damage
4.1 Introduction
Damage due to normal impact on ceramics has received considerable attention (see for example [1–6]). Evidently less effort
has been directed towards the study of damage resulting from oblique impacts, particularly how it differs from damage
resulting from normal impacts on armor grade ceramics. The terminology used in this paper to discuss different types of
damage in a ceramic target from projectile impact is shown in Fig. 4.1. We could not find any published literature on oblique
impact of ceramics, though there do exist some sliding indentation studies on polycrystalline ceramic materials [7–9]. Some
work has also been done on oxide glasses [10–12].
In order to address this deficiency and further the study of the mechanical behavior of ceramics, we conducted impact
experiments to explore the effects of oblique impacts on ceramics. We compared the cone cracking induced by normal and
oblique impacts from tungsten carbide spheres on hot-pressed boron carbide (PAD B4C) targets.
4.2 Experimental Setup
PAD B4C cylinders 38.1 mm (1.5 in) diameter 25.4 mm (1.0 in) length were procured from BAE Advanced Ceramics
which is now owned by Coorstek. Some properties for PAD B4C are listed in Table 4.1 for the reader’s benefit.
The ceramic cylinders were impacted with 6.35 mm diameter (0.25 in) tungsten carbide-6 % cobalt (WC) spheres. Impact
experiments were conducted at three different obliquities: 0∘, 30∘, and 60∘ from horizontal. Foam target holders were machined
to orient the ceramic cylinders with an accuracy of plus or minus one degree. The spheres were fired out of a 0.30 caliber smooth-
bore laboratory powder gun using plastic, two-piece, discarding sabots. WC projectile velocities were limited to between 200
and 500 m/s with emphasis on 300, 350, and 400 m/s impact velocities. The experimental setup is diagrammed in Fig. 4.2.
Two orthogonal pairs of 150 kV flash X-rays were used to determine projectile velocity. Additional 150 kV flash X-rays
were used to capture late time (>100 μs post impact) images of fractures within the B4C targets. The targets were recovered
for future analysis. All angles were measured using FIJI [14] with repeated measurements to assess error.
B. Aydelotte (*) • B. Schuster

US Army Research Laboratory, RDRL-WML-H321 Colleran Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21005, USA
e-mail: brady.b.aydelotte.civ@mail.mil

20 B. Aydelotte and B. Schuster
Fig. 4.1 Schematic of the

damage produced by
projectile impact on a thick
cylindrical ceramic target
showing our terminology for
cone cracks, radial cracks, and
a comminuted region.
Comminution is the process of
microcrack formation and
intersection that converts a
brittle solid into a granular
material
Table 4.1 Selected mechanical properties of hot-pressed (PAD) B4C from Vargas-Gonzalez et al. [13]
Density Elastic modulus Knoop hardness (HK2) Fracture toughness
pffiffiffiffi
2.50 kg/m3 445.5 GPa 2019 60 kg/mm2 2.90 0.4 MPa m
Fig. 4.2 Schematic of the

impact experiments showing
the obliquity measurement
4.3 Experimental Results and Analysis
Some selected results of the sphere impacts are shown in Fig. 4.3 for roughly three different velocities: 300, 350, and 400 m/s.
There was considerable velocity scatter because it was difficult to hit low velocities with our current laboratory gun setup.
Cone cracks which form as a result of normal impacts are axisymmetric (unless the impact is off-center). Near the impact
surface, the cone angle is constant. Away from the impact surface near the cylindrical sides of the target, the cone crack
curves out to be normal to the sides of the cylinder. This is evident in Fig. 4.3a, d, g and is consistent with the PAD B4C
images published by LaSalvia et al. [4].
Cone cracks which form as a result of oblique impacts have concave down curvature on the leading edge and concave up
curvature on the trailing edge. This behavior is evident in the oblique impacts in Fig. 4.3, and it is also shown schematically
in Fig. 4.4. The curvature of cone cracks due to oblique impacts was also observed by Chaudhri and Liangyi [10] in soda-
lime glass. We believe this is a result of cone crack surfaces locally reorienting themselves due to the spatially and
temporally varying stress field from the projectile and/or debris sliding along the surface, changing the location of the
maximum pressure. Chaudhri and Liangyi [10] also concluded that the movement of the point of contact was the cause of the
curved cone cracks they observed in soda-lime glass. There may also be some effect from applying a shear load to the
surface, though Chaudhri and Liangyi [10] didn’t believe this effect was significant.
LaSalvia et al. [4] reported sphere impacts on PAD B4C at 103, 209, and 312 m/s. The cone angles for the cone cracks in
the targets impacted at 103 and 209 m/s measured 102∘ 2∘ and 82∘ 2∘ respectively. The outer cone of the PAD B4C target
impacted at 312 m/s measured 89∘ 2∘, and the inner cone measured 31∘ 2∘. The cone crack angles for the normal impacts
reported in this work measured 78∘ 3∘, 80∘ 3∘, and 86∘ 3∘ for impacts at 284, 363, and 415 m/s respectively. This
somewhat consistent with measurements of LaSalvia et al. [4] cone crack angles for impacts at 209 and 312 m/s.
Another random document with
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THE FOUR FEARS OF OUR GENERAL
SOUVENIRS of CHILDHOOD
Adapted from the French by Adele Bacon.
THE SECOND FEAR.
The battle on the mountain had passed off much better than we
had dared to hope, and, although we had not found our enemies as
sound asleep as we had desired, our early morning attack had
never-the-less completely surprised them. We managed to seize
their recent position on the plateau with scarcely any loss. This
position, although a very exposed one, was worth a great deal more,
from the strategist’s point of view, than the valley in which we were
encamped the night before. Besides, in making war, it is always
desirable to occupy those places voluntarily selected and defended
by an opponent.
Our work, however, was by no means over; another sort of effort
lay before us.
Our foes, driven from their position on the heights, had succeeded
in forming another; and were strongly entrenched on the lower
extremity of the same plateau, from the loftier end of which we had
so lately dislodged them.
With a considerable amount of adroitness, they had succeeded in
placing a little river, called the Oued-el-Kebir, between our camp and
their own. We were compelled therefore to cross this river, in order to
force them to move farther on, and abandon to us the territory that
we both coveted.
We had resolved, once our morning’s work was over, to enjoy a
much needed repose on our hardly earned mountain; but, towards
noon, everybody was on foot, excepting several badly wounded
soldiers, and the little group of officers, who had chatted together
near the General’s tent the preceding evening, were invited to drink
a cup of coffee with him in the most picturesque smoking room that I
have ever seen, although the picturesque quality is by no means
rare in Algeria.
It was an enclosure walled in by rocks in the shape of heaps of
large pennies, arranged side by side, so as to form an amphitheatre,
the slope of which permitted us to see, by the aid of our glasses, the
new field on which we were soon to operate.
The country, which was beautiful so far as the scenery was
concerned, presented no insolvable military problems; it was
wooded, but not impenetrable.
We would of course have much preferred not to be separated from
the place of attack by a long, serpentine strip of water, which,
swollen by the recent melting of the snow, added materially to the
defence of our adversaries. It goes without saying that we
possessed neither artillery to protect our passage nor boats to effect
it. In pursuits such as now occupied us, a train of artillery could only
be an encumbrance, and the river which flowed sometimes in a
valley, and sometimes between high, steep banks, made it almost a
certainty that we should get a thorough wetting before we reached
the other side. We knew that the General had sent the necessary
men to measure the depth of that barrier of water, and to see if we
should have the good luck to find a place for fording it. In default of
this, we should be forced to make use of our temporary bridges, but
we did not wish to count absolutely on them. In making war, one can
usually tell best what to do on the spur of the moment. While waiting
for the necessary information to be brought in for making such
preparations as were possible, and for the night to come, fully half a
day must elapse. The General had thought that crossing at night was
less dangerous. Little Jacques, grown up, had no longer a horror of
shadows, and even liked to utilize them. When we had considered,
found great fault with, and speculated upon the meditated
expedition, we returned to our conversation of the preceding night.
The General had had the imprudence to speak to us of two
stories; we had heard one; what about the other?
Captain Robert,—the officer with whom the General sometimes
quarrelled, perhaps because he felt that he had an especial partiality
for him,—being slyly urged on by the rest of us, had the indiscretion
to ask him for it.
“Oh, as to that one, my children, you must not insist,” said the
General. “It is only a story of childhood, which has none of the
qualities which made the other acceptable to grown men. I have no
taste for failures,—you will cause me to be guilty of one.”
“General,” replied the obstinate captain, “you have just called us
your children, therefore a child’s story is quite suitable for us. It will
rejuvenate us. Children are amused by everything, you know, and if
by chance your second tale is a trifle more gay than the first, very
well,—we shall enjoy it.”
“Gay!” responded the General, “I don’t know about that. However,
it is not a tragedy. But you shall see. You wish it,—so here goes!”
“Perhaps all of you here are not fond of the water,” began the
General, casting a significant glance at the river which had
preoccupied our thoughts.
“That depends on circumstances,” responded the captain; “water
is very good, but there are times when one would rather do without
it.”
“Water, mingled with too many gun-shots, and after a difficult
march, might prove unhealthy,” interrupted a hoarse voice, that of
the doctor. “I should not recommend it as a remedy for my cold, but
the water of your story, General,—for I suppose by your
commencement your history is going to be a wet one,—will perhaps
do me good.”
“Good!” said the General, “here is the doctor who imagines I am
going to give him a tonic. But so long as you have wished for it
doctor, you must drink it. But no more interruptions:—I have already
forgotten where I was.”
“General,” replied the doctor, “you have just said ‘every one here is
perhaps not fond of water;’ and you were not contradicted.”
“Thanks!” said the General. “And silence in the ranks; I will
recommence.”
“Every one here does not like the water I said, very well, when I
was little it seems I was of that same opinion. I didn’t like water. Let
us understand each other fully as to the importance which you
should attach to my repugnance to this fluid, during these first years
of my life. I accepted water in many ways: I loved it sugared, and
even with a little orange flavor, but I hated it cold on my face in
winter, and only allowed myself to be washed willingly when it was
warm. I liked, too, to stand on a bridge, and watch the water flowing
underneath, and by a strange contradiction, I even enjoyed going on
it, in a boat—with papa. But I should have had a horrible fear to fall
in the water, or have it go suddenly over my head. To be frank, I
believe I should have been frightened to have it up to my ankles,
otherwise than in a foot bath. But then, one is not born perfect.
“This fear of the water was the despair of my father. He, like a
practical man, thought my love of boats and navigation, and my
horror of all actual contact with it, were contradictory if not
incompatible traits; that the liking for it on the one hand and the
dislike of it on the other argued as complete an absence of logic in
the brain of his little son as in his physical and moral organisms. He
was right. Aunt Marie and my mother were guilty of the sugared and
warm water, but my antipathy for it, otherwise than in these forms,
seemed to be a fundamental part of my nature.
“‘There is a reform for you to make in my absence,’ said my father
to his wife and his sister-in-law. ‘If I don’t find it accomplished when I
return, I agree in any way that you may find best, you will force me to
intervene myself, with a method perhaps a little brusque, but of
which I have more than once seen the efficacy.
“‘Understand that if I have to throw Jacques into the water like a
little dog, to teach him to save himself, I shall do it over and over
again, until he finds it agreeable, until he conquers his fright, and
learns to swim. Jacques pretends he wishes to become a sailor, like
his father, but I shall not allow him to become one of those sailors,—
and there are such,—who are actually afraid of the water.’”
“‘Afraid of the water? The child is not afraid of it,’ said mamma.
“‘It is only the cold which he dislikes,’ added my aunt.
“‘Really! And you can suggest no other remedy than to heat the
brooks and the rivers, the lakes and the seas, expressly for our little
darling? That would be, according to your ideas, a reform more
easily carried out than the correction of his fear of cold water!’
“‘Correction! Correction!’ replied aunt Marie impatiently. ‘One can
not “correct” one’s nervous system at will, my dear brother, one has
to cure it as one can. There are certain organisms which must be left
to correct themselves, with age. Our Jacques is brave in many ways,
as you well know; he has really only one fear,—that of contact with
cold water. Well, that will pass in time, as he grows older.’
“‘Time! time!’ returned my father, ‘time passes, but not our defects,
when, instead of correcting them, we leave them alone, or envelop
them in cotton. Sister Marie, do not change my boy into a little girl.’
“‘Your son,’ responded aunt Marie, ‘is as yet neither a boy nor a
girl: he is an angel, and you ought to be glad of it.’
“‘Glad!’ replied my father. ‘I can tell you about that better on my
return. However, I reserve the right of trying to find a young sailor in
your angel, some fine morning. I will not take you unawares. I have
warned both you and my wife. When I come back, I will take your
little Jacques with me in a boat, and whether he knows how to swim
or not, I will make him brave, in spite of himself.’
“This conversation made my aunt and my mother tremble.
Although they were apparently against me, they were really on my
side. They tried to encourage me, telling me I should be a sailor first,
and a brave one,—an admiral soon after. This delighted me. ‘What a
pity, though,’ I said to myself, ‘that water is so cold and wet, and that
one can not walk on it without sinking. Why should it be so?’”
“The moment has come, to speak to you of my uncle, my father’s

brother. This brother, who was older than my father by about ten
years, was a retired officer. What a wonderful man he was too! It
seems to me that I had known only great and heroic people, in my
childhood. It was hardly possible to turn out badly, in the midst of
such fine beings. What is good in me, I owe altogether to them. My
uncle had traveled extensively. He had taken part in all the
campaigns of the first Republic, and of the First Empire, and had
brought back from them a love of flowers which you may explain as
best you can. He loved the land as much as my father loved the sea,
but only for the purpose of covering it with flowers. He possessed a
charmingly situated property, on the outskirts of the town, where he
cultivated, with excessive care, a magnificent collection of roses,
celebrated throughout the entire horticultural world. This collection
contained more than four thousand varieties: I repeat, four thousand,
catalogued, numbered, each with a name and a history. Certain
people pretend to tell them apart at a glance, but I must say it was
easier to confound them in an equal degree of admiration. I should
have felt unjust in preferring one to another, and I admitted a
difference in them only in their colors. My father called his brother’s
place ‘the Garden of Roses.’ The Garden of Roses was for me the
only serious rival of the court of aunt Marie’s hospital, and do you
know why? Not because it was sweeter smelling, and richer in
flowers than any place I have ever seen elsewhere; not because I
always brought back beautiful bouquets for my mother, for aunt
Marie and for her chapel; not because it was bordered on one entire
side by a pretty little river, but because upon that river my uncle
Antoine, out of honor for his brother, the sailor, kept a small, but very
attractive looking, boat. In this boat, which appeared immense to me,
my father used to take me on short voyages, not in the water, but on
the water, which frightened me so much. When I was navigating on
the little stream, how many times have I imagined that I was on the
ocean, en route for America, India, the North Pole, or the Island of
Robinson Crusoe.
“At the time of which I speak, my father, after a year passed upon
the seas of China, returned to spend a three months’ holiday with us.
I felt that I must make the most of it. The year before, I had been
delighted to go with him on many little expeditions, both by land and
water. But this year, alas! I expected little pleasure on the latter. One
of the first questions he asked was whether I was still afraid of my
old enemy. I was obliged to confess that I still felt the same in regard
to it.
“‘What! But how old are you?’
“Brother,’ said aunt Marie, ‘he was just six years old when you left
us.’
“‘But according to that your pupil is now seven.’
“‘Yes, papa, seven,’ said I. ‘I am getting to be a big boy.’
“‘Big! Yes, that is possible. But the larger you are, my poor
Jacques, the less excuse you have for not knowing how to swim, for
having fear of the water.’
“‘He has tried,’ interposed my aunt. ‘I had uncle Antoine’s
gardener, who is an excellent swimmer, give him a lesson in the
river, but he came out so blue with cold that I dared not let him go
back again. Although he neither cried nor complained, I am certain
he would have died in less than five minutes.’
“‘You believe that, perhaps, my poor dear sister,’ replied my father.
‘It is, however, an experience which he will have to repeat. But I warn
Jacques that in the meantime, or until he is able to swim, at least a
few feet, there will no longer be a boat for him at the “Garden of
Roses.” The St. Jacques (which was the name given in my honor to
my uncle’s boat)—the St. Jacques must remain at anchor.’
“This was terrible, but it was irrevocable. It never entered my head
to try to make my father alter his decision.
“Then he said to me, ‘My boy, you love boats, but hate the water;
when you have rendered two such contrary propositions a little more
harmonious, when you are no longer afraid of wetting your precious
little skin, you may voyage all you like in uncle Antoine’s boat. Until
then, do not dream of doing so. One should never go in a boat
unless one is capable of taking care of one’s self in case of
accident.’
“The following morning we went to see uncle Antoine.
“My father and I at length set out. It was good to have him back, to
hold his hand, and our disagreement upon one point had not
seriously troubled our friendly relations. When we arrived, we found
uncle Antoine, who occasionally suffered from the gout, incapable of
taking a step in the garden. My father offered to give him his revenge
for the game of chess which he had gained from him the year before,
—the day previous to his departure.
“‘As for you, Jacques,’ said uncle Antoine, ‘as you have no gout,
run away, pick my cherries, eat my strawberries, look at my roses,
go and see your chickens and rabbits and feed them for me. You
would perhaps do well to take along a book, your ‘Swiss Family
Robinson,’ go and read it in the hammock. Take a nap, if that
pleases you, but whatever you do, be good. When one is not
watched, there is a double duty and a double merit in being good.’
“‘I will add,’ put in my father, ‘that you may go in the path by the
edge of the water, and you will do well to watch attentively what goes
on in the river. Flowing water is an instructive spectacle for a boy like
you.’
“‘Instructive?’ queried my uncle.
“‘Full of information,’ answered my father. ‘It is in the water that the
fishes swim. It is in the water also that Jacques will have to swim
very shortly,—like a fish.’
“‘Like a fish?’ said my uncle. ‘Then you will have to give him fins.’
“‘One doesn’t need fins to swim with,’ replied my father. ‘Frogs do
not have them, yet they manage to swim beautifully. If Jacques will
examine those which he disturbs when he approaches the bank, if
he studies the way they keep their heads out of the water in order to
breathe, and the art with which they manage their arms and legs, in
directing themselves about in that beautiful fresh water which so
frightens your nephew, he will receive from these little animals a
swimming lesson superior to any that your gardener can give him.’
“‘That is very true’, uncle Antoine replied. ‘Go, Jacques,—go take
your lesson. It has never before occurred to me what services my
frogs could render you.’
“I was about to start, when my father stopped me with a gesture.
“‘You understand, do you not Jacques, exactly what you are

permitted to do? I have still, however, to tell you what you must not
do: you are not to set foot upon the St. Jacques; this is forbidden
until I tell you otherwise. Do you understand?’
“‘Yes, father, I understand, but⸺’
“‘There isn’t any “but,”’ replied my father.
“Uncle Antoine threw me a compassionate look. However, this
look was only meant to say: ‘I am sorry, Jacques, but your father has
spoken. I have nothing to say.’
“I did, one after another, the things which were authorized. I ate
some cherries, I picked some strawberries, gave grain to the
chickens, and cabbage-leaves to our rabbits. I re-read, lying in the
hammock, two chapters of my ‘Swiss Family Robinson,’ but, far from
making me sleepy, this book awoke in me a longing for adventure. I
then directed my steps towards the river. I had, however, the wisdom
not to go in the direction of the boat,—that is to say, in the direction
of temptation. I regarded the flowing water curiously, and found real
pleasure in doing so. My uncle’s river was not one of those lazy
streams of which the movement is imperceptible. How could it rest
mute between its borders, when it was forced to carry its fresh water
past the lands of a hundred owners, which, from the right and the
left, cried to it—‘Wet us,’ ‘Refresh us,’ ‘We are dying of thirst.’
“It certainly was a spectacle well worth seeing, this continuous flow
of clear water over a bed of golden sand, dotted here and there with
flexible green plants, which, swaying with every movement of the
tide make such charming little retreats for the fish. The minnows and
gudgeon glided like shadows between the few large stones which
took the place of reefs on this miniature coast. Their goings and
comings amused me very much, and I made up my mind that some
day one could apply to me as to them the proverb, ‘Happy as a fish
in the water.’ All this would have been perfect, if little by little I had
not approached the spot where, under the boughs and between the
roots of an enormous willow, my uncle had anchored the famous St.
Jacques. Desiring not to disobey my father. I had made up my mind
not to look at the St. Jacques, not to take a step towards it; this was
prudent, but it was ordained that I should break my word that day.
Reasons for doing so were not lacking: first—the portion of the walk
by the water where I intended to stay being in the hot sun, I had not
seen a single frog; the hot herbage did not suit them.
“To take my swimming lesson it was necessary to go to the side
where the boat was moored. Only under the willows, and in the
damp grass which surrounded the Bay St. Jacques, could I hope to
find them. Second—as my father was anxious that I should study
how frogs swam, I had made a mistake in keeping away from the
only place where I stood some chance of finding them. I knew well
that there alone could they always be seen. Besides, going near the
St. Jacques was not the same thing as going on the St. Jacques.
Third—it is not difficult to refrain from getting into a boat, even when
one has a great desire to do so. So I pushed aside the long
branches of the great willow which hung down to the ground, and
found myself in the presence of the St. Jacques. What a beautiful
boat she was! Since I had last seen her my uncle had had her
repainted. Her new costume of mingled red and white suited her
marvelously; her mast,—there was a mast,—painted also, was even
more beautiful than one of those lovely paper wind-mills that one’s
parents never buy one. Her pennant had also been renewed. It was
certainly for my father’s return that uncle Antoine had gone to the
expense of this brilliant toilette. The hull hardly stirred. Its
imperceptible balancings on the water resembled the quiet breathing
of a sleeping person. Under the transparent veil of the drooping
branches of the weeping willow, no breath could reach it. The St.
Jacques had the air of a little potentate in repose, under a canopy of
verdure. If papa had not forbidden me to get in the little boat, it would
have been delightful to read my ‘Swiss Family Robinson’ out upon
the water. Sitting in the bow, leaning against the mast, one might
imagine one’s self on an island. But then, that which is forbidden one
can not prevent from being forbidden.”
“I tried at first to think of nothing but frogs. But, as if on purpose,
not one showed himself. I was sure they were hiding in the shadow
of the boat. I went up quite close to the St. Jacques, and still nothing
jumped into the water. Decidedly, and in spite of all my good
intentions, I was not to take my swimming lesson that day. But what
were those three green spots that I saw down there on the white
edge of the boat? They were,—yes, they were three frogs taking a
nap at their ease, as if the St. Jacques belonged to them.
“One could not tolerate a thing of that sort. I stepped gently over
the edge of the boat to chase away the trespassers. Paf, paf, paf,
with a single hop, each of them made one of those famous dives of
which my father had spoken. Now or never was the moment to ask
them for a lesson. I did not fail to do so. I was lost in admiration of
their talent. Papa was right; a frog swims to perfection. It swims so
correctly and elegantly that by its vigorous, regular movements, one
understands clearly what one ought to do if one happened to be in
its place. This sort of lesson, illustrated by an example, shows one
much better what movements to make than when the gardener holds
you under the stomach, and shouts you don’t know what in your
ears. If father should throw me into the water, I should think of the
frogs: I should do as they did, and I should certainly swim.
“What a beautiful boat she was!”
Drawn by Clinton Peters.
“I had reached this point in my resolutions, when the sound of

something heavy falling suddenly into the water made me raise my
head. The noise was followed by a cry, and this cry by five or six
others.
“That which made the noise was something which looked like a big
blue package, which was squirming and beating the water frequently,
across by the opposite bank.
“I looked with all my eyes, and was filled with horror in recognizing
the little boy—still in dresses—of the gardener across the stream
whom I had sometimes seen from the bank. The poor little one—I
should be more correct in saying the poor big one—had evidently
escaped from his mother, and had taken advantage of the occasion
to come alone to the river, and turning a summersault by mistake,
was now in danger of drowning. He was not exactly happy. He cried
like a little madman in the instants when his crimson face emerged
from the water, and, by a sort of instinct, beat the water with both
hands and feet.
“I noticed that his skirts held him up temporarily, but that could not
last long. I began to cry in my turn, and call,—‘Papa! uncle!’—but the
sound of my voice could not reach so far, and I felt that there must
be something better to do than cry. I said to myself that one must go
into the river to rescue the poor child. Yes, but in order to do that, it
was necessary to wet one’s self in the cold water, which was
particularly disagreeable to me, as you already know, and what was
worse, they would see, afterwards, by my wet clothes that I had
disobeyed, that I had not stayed in the path, but had broken my
word; that was the most terrible part. In a couple of seconds all views
of the situation flashed through my mind. Should I try to save the
gardener’s little boy? Then I must disobey. An idea came to me
which struck me as brilliant. I would take off my shoes, my stockings
and my trousers, and leave them in the boat; the water evidently was
not very deep, because I could see the bottom; I was quite large and
by rolling my shirt up under my vest, I thought I could go. In a
moment this was done. In another moment, and without stumbling, I
had descended into the water, which, alas! was far from, warm. But
that was not all. I had miscalculated the depth of the water and my
height, and, when I had taken two or three steps towards the child,
who still cried, I saw that if I went any farther I should wet my shirt
and my vest. That seemed to me impossible to do. I took one step
back toward the boat. The thought did not occur to me that I should
have undressed completely at first, and that I might do it even now.
Yes, I very nearly left the child to drown, for the sake of not wetting
the clothes which I still wore (which, it is true, were new ones) and of
not having to admit afterwards, that I had disobeyed.
“My hesitation did not last long. ‘Father will forgive me.’ I said to
myself, when he knows all about it, ‘and giving myself up altogether
to the sentiment of a duty which I felt was superior to all others, I
succeeded, scarcely knowing how, in crossing the river, in reaching
the little boy, who had already stopped crying, in pulling his head out
of the water first, and then, with infinite pains, in seating him on the
first step of a worm-eaten stair-case which mounted the sloping
river-bank, towards his father’s garden.
“No one appeared; no answer came to my cries. There were still
four steps to mount, to reach the garden: I finally contrived to climb
them with my burden. Once there, I laid the child down among the
cabbages. From violet, he had become quite pale, and much
frightened, I ran towards his parents’ house.”
VI.
“Then I found the little one’s mother, whom I knew by sight.
“She was a large, healthy-looking woman, and, as I rushed into
her presence, was working at her spinning-wheel, singing
meanwhile. When she saw me suddenly appear, scarcely half
clothed, and soaking wet, she was seized with a fit of anger, and
before in my trouble I could manage to explain myself, boxed me
vigorously on both ears.
“It was the first time in my life I had received such treatment.
Furious at this proceeding, I threw myself on her, calling her every
name I could think of, and holding her by the skirt, I cried to her that
out among the cabbages there lay a little boy who might be dead.
“The good woman, astonished, began to imagine from the little I
was able to tell her, that she had been too quick; she concluded to
follow me. I feared I was taking her to a dead child, all was so quiet
over in the cabbage garden. But I was wrong. The little fellow I had
pulled out of the water was in better condition than I. We found him
sitting tranquilly in his wet garments, his arm resting carelessly on a
fine large cabbage. Without saying a word, he was staring straight in
front of him. But at the sight of his mother he suddenly recovered his
voice, and commenced bellowing even louder than he had done
when he was paddling in the river. Why should he cry? I thought it
stupid to cry just when help had arrived. He was, however, not so far
wrong, poor, fat little fellow: he was a little man who had already
experienced many things in life; he knew well what awaited him. To
tell the truth, he knew that his mother’s first action, in moments of
excitement, was at once quick and varied.
“Seeing him in good condition, but wet from head to foot, mother
Brazon lifted him up by one arm, and pulling up his frock,
administered a spanking which considerably augmented the
loudness of the little boy’s shrieks. I was indignant. It appears that I
was wrong. I have since heard it said that, medicinally, the maternal
treatment was admirably suited to the occasion. Is that true, doctor?”
“Quite true,” answered the doctor, laughing.
“With all this going on, I was scarcely contented; on the one hand,
I was beginning to shiver with cold, and on the other, for the first time
in my life, I found myself with strangers far away from the remainder
of my clothes, and I had a terrible fear lest Madame Brazon should
profit by the occasion to administer to me (otherwise than on my
ears) the same treatment she had so recently applied to her own
son, and which the doctor, no doubt, would have approved. But
these two exercises had been sufficient to calm the good woman.
“We had no sooner entered the house than she proved herself a
loving mother to little Auguste, and very kind to me. Quick as a wink
she undressed us both entirely, and bundled us both, in spite of our
resistance, between the white sheets of her big bed.
“Three minutes later she made us each drink a glass of sugared
wine—very hot—which put Auguste in an extremely jubilant frame of
mind. I could not share it. The worst was perhaps over. All was
finished on our side of the river, but that which was soon going to
pass on the other side began to occupy my mind. I thought
alternately of papa, of mamma, of my uncle, of my wet clothes, of the
two boxes on my ears, of the boat, and of aunt Marie. All this was
very complicated for a childish brain, already confused. Little
Auguste, searching for a warm place, had curled up in my arms and
gone to sleep. Scarcely knowing it, I followed his example, and
became unconscious in the middle of my sad reflections. It seems
they let us sleep nearly two hours. When I awoke and found myself
in that room and in that bed, and felt the head of a chubby little boy
on my shoulder, I was, at first, much astonished. I opened my eyes
without daring to move. But soon my memory returned, I
remembered everything, and cried, ‘Papa! papa!’
“‘Present!’ replied my father. He had been there by my bedside,—
my dear father,—for one hour, and my darling mother was there also.
Aunt Sister Marie had been unable to leave, or she would have been
there, too.
“Madame Brazon, it appears, had at length succeeded in
recognizing in the small gentleman so scantily clad, whose ears she
had so lately boxed, the little boy she had often seen in the garden
across the river, and to explain the enigma, she had sent a neighbor
to uncle Antoine’s. It had suddenly interrupted the game of chess.
My father arrived soon after, bringing with him my uncle’s doctor. The
doctor, after looking at the pretty picture we made in Madame
Brazon’s bed, had said, ‘Let them sleep.’
“While waiting for us to wake up, father had sent to town for dry
clothes; my mother had brought them herself. When I was dressed,
my father took me between his knees and said to me:
“‘Tell me everything.’
“I gave him, in fewer words than I have just used, an exact
account of what had happened. My father listened to me. I saw
clearly that he was not angry. At one moment, however, I saw him
grow pale; it was when he realized from my explanations that to go
and undrown little Auguste (this was the word I used, and it has been
so well remembered by all the family that I have not forgotten it), it
was, I say, when he understood that I must certainly have crossed
the river to reach the child.
“‘It is incomprehensible!’ said he to mamma and the doctor. ‘The
middle of the river is every where at least five or six feet deep. What
did he do?’
“‘Papa,’ said I, ‘I did as I saw the frogs do.’
“‘But then, my child, you swam.’
“‘I do not know, papa; perhaps—’
“‘Did the water go over your head?’
“‘No, papa, surely not.’
“‘You got no water in your mouth while you were going across to
rescue little Auguste? You did not go altogether under water?’
“‘No, papa; no papa.’
“‘Very well, my wife,’ said my father to my mother, ‘that proves that
when one has to swim, one can swim. Jacques swam, because
occupied with something besides his fear of water, he thought only of
the end he wished to attain. I am sure that he is now cured of his
former fright, and that with a few good lessons he will become a
good swimmer. And to be a good swimmer is very useful: it enables
one to save one’s self as well as others. Without this baby, Madame
Brazon, without his courage and sang-froid, your child would have
been lost.’
“‘My God!’ she cried. ‘And I thanked him with two blows!’
“‘Yes, papa,—two hard ones!’
“‘Madame Brazon,’ said my father, ‘kiss my son on the two cheeks
that you treated so roughly. There is nothing like a kiss to repair an
injury. When one is kissed, all wounds are cured.’”
VII.
“My story,” continued the General, “should not give the idea to
children, or to grown persons either, that it is always wise to make an
abrupt debut in the art of swimming, but it shows that the movements
by the aid of which a man swims are as natural to him as to most
animals, and that if suddenly forced to do so, he has no fear of
wetting himself, and can, by not losing his head, and by thinking of
frogs, cross a little river in safety.
“If you have to make the effort to-night, remember this, and help
one another. To leave a comrade behind is not a creditable
proceeding. Many a time have I congratulated myself that I pulled
little Brazon out of the water.”
“Brazon! Brazon! General?” said the doctor. “But I have known
someone of that name in the army,—a lieutenant-colonel, a strong,
brave fellow. Wait! It was he whose arm I cut off after our expedition
against the Beni-Raten. He was forced to retire—brave fellow!—after
that. I shall always remember what he said to me when the operation
was over: ‘Thanks, doctor. I regret my arm, but don’t regret the
occasion that made me lose it.’”
“And did he tell you,” said the General, “what that occasion was?”
“Faith! no!” responded the doctor, “he needed sleep too badly.”
“Very well, I will tell you,” continued the General, in a voice full of
feeling. “I had had my horse killed under me and my leg broken. I
should have been left to the mercy of the Kabyles, but he rescued
me, took me on his shoulders, carried me to a place of safety, and
only when this was done, discovered that during the trip a ball had
shattered his elbow. Brazon lost his arm in saving my life.
“The story I have just told you made us good friends. Uncle
Antoine became interested in him, my father also: we were educated
together, and have had more or less the same career. Poor Brazon!
When he retired, he returned to ⸺ and lives in what used to be his
father’s garden, opposite uncle Antoine’s ‘Garden of Roses.’
“Since then we have joined the two properties by a bridge, under
which a boat can pass. When I retire, in my turn, I shall not have to
swim to go and see my dear Auguste.”
VIII.
“General,” said the young captain, “will you permit me to ask you
one question? Did not your family spoil you a trifle after this
incident?”
“Oh, yes!” replied the General. “I did not lack attention. Aunt Marie
and my mother both kissed me. My uncle declared I was a fine little
fellow, and Madame Brazon, about two weeks later, sent me the very
biggest pumpkin in her garden. She had found out that I adored
pumpkin soup.”

Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Volume 1: Proceedings of The 2015 Annual Conference On Experimental and Applied Mechanics 1st Edition Bo Song

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Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Volume 1: Proceedings of The 2015 Annual Conference On Experimental and Applied Mechanics 1st Edition Bo Song

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Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Volume

1: Proceedings of the 2015 Annual

Experimental and Applied Mechanics, Volume 4:

Mechanics of Biological Systems and Materials, Volume

Challenges in Mechanics of Time Dependent Materials,

Experimental and Applied Mechanics, Volume 4:

Mechanics of Biological Systems and Materials amp Micro

Joining Technologies for Composites and Dissimilar

Micro and Nanomechanics, Volume 5: Proceedings of the

Residual Stress, Thermomechanics & Infrared Imaging,

Bo Song · Leslie Lamberson

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8922

Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Volume 1

ISSN 2191-5644 ISSN 2191-5652 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015951226

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Livermore, California, USA Bo Song

1 Impact Response of Coquina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

13 Quasistatic to Dynamic Behavior of Particulate Composites for Different Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . 81

32 Experimental Techniques to Characterize the Mechanical Behaviour

S.G. Subhash, P. Jannotti, and G. Subhash

Keywords Coquina • Rock • Energy absorption • Impact • Castillo de San Marcos

S.G. Subhash (*)

# The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 1

Fig. 1.2 Images of the

Fig. 1.3 Image of the servo-

1.4 Results and Discussion

Table 1.1 Selected properties Material Density(g/cc) Compressive strength (MPa)

1. National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos. nps.gov/casa (2015)

2.1.1 Experimental Technique

# The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 5

Fig. 2.1 Geometry of projectile and sketch of the experimental device

Fig. 2.2 Illustration of the obscuration mechanism in a dynamic fragmentation process

2.1.2 The DFH (Denoual-Forquin-Hild) Anisotropic Damage Model

Zo ðT tÞ ¼ S½kC ðT tÞn ð2:1Þ

Where λt is the density of critical defects given by Eq. (2.4):

Where tc corresponds to the characteristic time of fragmentation:

2.1.3 Experimental Results and Numerical Simulation of Edge-on Impact Tests

Fig. 2.3 Edge-on impact

Fig. 2.4 Edge-on impact

Fig. 2.5 Edge-on impact

3.2 Experimental Methods

M. Nishida (*) • Y. Takeuchi • S. Furuya

# The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 13

Fig. 3.1 Chemical structural

Fig. 3.3 Photograph

3.2.2 Static Tensile Tests

3.2.3 Dynamic Tensile Tests

3.3 Results and Discussion

Fig. 3.5 Stress-strain curves

Fig. 3.6 Stress-strain

Fig. 3.7 Effects of mixing

Fig. 3.8 Effects of mixing

Fig. 3.9 Fracture surfaces of specimens at high strain rate

Brady Aydelotte and Brian Schuster

Keywords Cone crack • Impact • Indentation • Ceramic • Damage

4.2 Experimental Setup

B. Aydelotte (*) • B. Schuster

# The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 19

Fig. 4.1 Schematic of the

Fig. 4.2 Schematic of the

Zo ðT tÞ ¼ S½kC ðT tÞn ð2:1Þ