A First Course in Differential Equations With Modeling Applications 12E Metric Edition Dennis G Zill Full Chapter

A First Course in Differential Equations
with Modeling Applications, 12e (Metric

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Review of Differentiation
Rules
1. Constant: 2. Constant multiple:
3. Sum: 4. Product:
5. Quotient: 6. Chain:
7. Power: 8. Power:
Functions
Trigonometric:
9. 10. 11.
12. 13. 14.
Inverse trigonometric:
15. 16. 17.
18. 19. 20.
Hyperbolic:
21. 22. 23.
24. 25. 26.
Inverse hyperbolic:
27. 28. 29.
30. 31. 32.
Exponential:
33. 34.
Logarithmic:
35. 36.
Integral defined:
x b b −
37. (t) dt 38. (x, t) dt (x, t) dt
a a a −
Brief Table of Integrals
Table of Laplace Transforms
f (t) +{ f (t)} 5 F(s) f (t) +{ f (t)} 5 F(s)
1 s2a
1. 1 21. eat cosh kt
s (s 2 a)2 2 k 2
1 2ks
2. t 22. t sin kt
s2 (s2 1 k2)2
n! s2 2 k 2
3. tn , n a positive integer 23. t cos kt
s n11
(s2 1 k2)2
4. t21/2 Î p
s
24. sin kt 1 kt cos kt
2 ks2
(s 1 k2)2
2
Ïp 2 k3
5. t1/2 25. sin kt 2 kt cos kt
2s 3/2 (s 1 k2)2
2
G(a 1 1) 2 ks
6. ta , a . 21 26. t sinh kt
s a11 (s2 2 k 2)2
k s2 1 k2
7. sin kt 27. t cosh kt
s 1 k2
2 (s2 2 k 2)2
s eat 2 e bt 1
8. cos kt 28.
s 1 k2
2
a2b (s 2 a)(s 2 b)
2k 2 ae at 2 be bt s
9. sin2 kt 29.
s(s2 1 4k2) a2b (s 2 a)(s 2 b)
s2 1 2k2
10. cos2 kt k2
s(s2 1 4 k2) 30. 1 2 cos kt
s(s2 1 k2)
1
11. eat k3
s2a 31. kt 2 sin kt
s (s 1 k2)
2 2
k
12. sinh kt a sin bt 2 b sin at 1
s2 2 k 2 32.
ab (a2 2 b2) (s2 1 a2)(s2 1 b2)
s
13. cosh kt cos bt 2 cos at s
s2 2 k 2 33.
a2 2 b2 (s2 1 a2)(s2 1 b2)
2k 2
14. sinh2kt 2 k 2s
s(s 2 4k 2)
2
34. sin kt sinh kt
s 1 4k4
4
s2 2 2k2
15. cosh2kt k(s2 1 2 k2 )
s(s2 2 4k2) 35. sin kt cosh kt
s4 1 4k4
1
16. teat
(s 2 a)2 k(s2 2 2k2 )
36. cos kt sinh kt
s4 1 4k4
n!
17. tn eat , n a positive integer
(s 2 a)n11 s3
37. cos kt cosh kt
s 1 4k4
4
k
18. eat sin kt
(s 2 a)2 1 k 2 2ks2
38. sin kt cosh kt 1 cos kt sinh kt
s2a s 1 4k4
4
19. eat cos kt
(s 2 a)2 1 k 2
4k3
39. sin kt cosh kt 2 cos kt sinh kt
k s4 1 4k4
20. eat sinh kt
(s 2 a)2 2 k 2
2k3
40. sinh kt 2 sin kt
s 2 k4
4
f (t) +{ f (t)} 5 F(s) f (t) +{ f (t)} 5 F(s)
2k2s
41. cosh kt 2 cos kt
s4 2 k 4
2
52. ea b eb t erfc b Ït 1 1 2 Ït 2
a e2aÏs
Ïs(Ïs 1 b)
1
42. J0(kt)
Ï s2 1 k 2
2
53. 2ea b eb t erfc b Ït 1 1 a
2 Ït 2 be2a Ïs
s(Ïs 1 b)
43.
ebt 2 e at
t
ln
s2a
s2b
1 erfc 12 Ïa t2
2(1 2 cos kt) s2 1 k 2 54. eat f (t) F(s 2 a)
44. ln
t s2
e2a s
2(1 2 cosh kt) s2 2 k2 55. 8(t 2 a)
45. ln s
t s2
56. f (t 2 a)8(t 2 a) e2asF(s)
46.
sin at
t
arctan
a
s 12 57. g(t) 8 (t 2 a) e2as +{ g(t 1 a)}
sin at cos bt 1 a1b 1 a2b
47. arctan 1 arctan
t 2 s 2 s 58. f (n)(t) s n F(s) 2 s(n21) f (0) 2 Á 2 f (n21) (0)
1 2a2/4t e2a Ïs
48. e dn
Ïpt Ïs 59. tn f (t) (21)n F(s)
ds n
a 2
/4t
49. e2a e2a Ïs
# f (t) g (t 2 t) dt
t
2 Ïpt 3 60. F(s)G(s)
0
12Ïa t 2
2a Ïs
e
50. erfc 61. d(t) 1
s
51. 2 Î t 2a2 /4t

p
e 2 a erfc
a
2Ït 1 2
e2a Ïs
s Ïs
62. d(t 2 t0) e2st0
A First Course in
Differential Equations with
Modeling Applications
Twelfth Edition Dennis G. Zill
Loyola Marymount University
Metric Version
prepared by Aly El-Iraki
Professor Emeritus, Alexandria University, Egypt
Australia ● Brazil ● Canada ● Mexico ● South Africa ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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A First Course in Differential Equations with Copyright © 2024 Cengage Learning, Inc. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
Modeling Applications, Metric Version, WCN: 02-300
Twelfth Edition, Dennis G. Zill No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced
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Contents
Preface for this Metric Edition vi
1 Introduction to Differential Equations 2

Christian Bertrand/Shutterstock.com
1.1 Definitions and Terminology 3
1.2 Initial-Value Problems 15
1.3 Differential Equations as Mathematical Models 22
Chapter 1 In Review 34
2 First-Order Differential Equations 36

TurneroundDesigns/Shutterstock.com
2.1 Solution Curves without a Solution 37

2.1.1 Direction Fields 37
2.1.2 Autonomous First-Order DEs 39
2.2 Separable Equations 47
2.3 Linear Equations 56
2.4 Exact Equations 65
2.5 Solutions by Substitutions 73
2.6 A Numerical Method 77
3 Modeling with First-Order Differential

Agefotostock/Alamy Stock Photo
Equations 84
3.1 Linear Models 85
3.2 Nonlinear Models 96
3.3 Modeling with Systems of First-Order DEs 107
4 Higher-Order Differential Equations 118

4.1 Theory of Linear Equations 119
SpaceX/Alamy Stock Photo
4.1.1 Initial-Value and Boundary-Value Problems 119

4.1.2 Homogeneous Equations 121
4.1.3 Nonhomogeneous Equations 127
4.2 Reduction of Order 132
4.3 Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant
Coefficients 135
4.4 Undetermined Coefficients—Superposition Approach 142
4.5 Undetermined Coefficients—Annihilator Approach 152
4.6 Variation of Parameters 159
4.7 Cauchy-Euler Equations 166
iii
iv Contents
4.8 Green’s Functions 173

4.8.1 Initial-Value Problems 173
4.8.2 Boundary-Value Problems 179
4.9 Solving Systems of Linear DEs by Elimination 183
4.10 Nonlinear Differential Equations 188
Zoonar GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo 5 Modeling with Higher-Order Differential

Equations 196
5.1 Linear Models: Initial-Value Problems 197
5.1.1 Spring/Mass Systems: Free Undamped Motion 197
5.1.2 Spring/Mass Systems: Free Damped Motion 202
5.1.3 Spring/Mass Systems: Driven Motion 204
5.1.4 Series Circuit Analogue 207
5.2 Linear Models: Boundary-Value Problems 215
5.3 Nonlinear Models 223
6 Series Solutions of Linear Equations 240

6.1 Review of Power Series 241
Marc Hill/Alamy Stock Photo
6.2 Solutions About Ordinary Points 247

6.3 Solutions About Singular Points 256
6.4 Special Functions 266
7 The Laplace Transform 284

Vadim Volodin/Shutterstock.com
7.1 Definition of the Laplace Transform 285

7.2 Inverse Transforms and Transforms of Derivatives 293
7.2.1 Inverse Transforms 293
7.2.2 Transforms of Derivatives 296
7.3 Operational Properties I 302
7.3.1 Translation on the s-Axis 302
7.3.2 Translation on the t-Axis 305
7.4 Operational Properties II 315
7.4.1 Derivatives of a Transform 315
7.4.2 Transforms of Integrals 317
7.4.3 Transform of a Periodic Function 323
7.5 The Dirac Delta Function 328
7.6 Systems of Linear Differential Equations 332
8 Systems of Linear Differential Equations 344

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8.1 Theory of Linear Systems 345

8.2 Homogeneous Linear Systems 354
8.2.1 Distinct Real Eigenvalues 355
8.2.2 Repeated Eigenvalues 358
8.2.3 Complex Eigenvalues 362
Contents v
8.3 Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems 369

8.3.1 Undetermined Coefficients 369
8.3.2 Variation of Parameters 371
8.4 Matrix Exponential 376
9 Numerical Solutions of Ordinary Differential
Cultura Creative RF/Alamy Stock Photo

Equations 382
9.1 Euler Methods and Error Analysis 383
9.2 Runge-Kutta Methods 388
9.3 Multistep Methods 392
9.4 Higher-Order Equations and Systems 395
9.5 Second-Order Boundary-Value Problems 399
Appendices
A Integral-Defined Functions APP-3
Sumikophoto/Shutterstock.com
B Matrices APP-11
C Laplace Transforms APP-29
Answers for Selected Odd-Numbered Problems ANS-1
Index I-1
Preface for this Metric Edition
This International Metric Version differs from the US version of A First Course in Dif-
ferential Equations with Modeling Applications, Twelfth Edition, as follows:
The units of measurement used in most of the examples and exercises have been
converted from U.S. Customary Systems (USCS) of units (also referred to as Eng-
lish, or Imperial units) to Metric units.
This Metric Version includes conversion tables to reference as you work through
the related applications and exercises.
Jacqueline Dewar
To The Student
Dennis G. Zill Authors of books live with the hope that someone actually reads them. Contrary to
Los Angeles, CA what you might believe, almost everything in a typical college-level mathematics text
is written for you and not the instructor. True, the topics covered in the text are chosen
to appeal to instructors because they make the decision on whether to use it in their
classes, but everything written in it is aimed directly at you, the student. So I want
to encourage you—no, actually I want to tell you—to read this textbook! But do not
read this text as you would a novel; you should not read it fast and you should not skip
anything. Think of it as a workbook. By this I mean that mathematics should always
be read with pencil and paper at the ready because, most likely, you will have to work
your way through the examples and the discussion. Before attempting any problems in
the section exercise sets, work through all the examples in that section. The examples
are constructed to illustrate what I consider the most important aspects of the section,
and therefore, reflect the procedures necessary to work most of the problems. When
reading an example, copy it down on a piece of paper and do not look at the solution in
the book. Try working it, then compare your results against the solution given, and, if
necessary resolve any differences. I have tried to include most of the important steps in
each example, but if something is not clear you should always try—and here is where
the pencil and paper come in again—to fill in the details or missing steps. This may
not be easy, but it is part of the learning process. The accumulation of facts followed by
the slow assimilation of understanding simply cannot be achieved without a struggle.
Specifically for you, a Student Solutions Manual (SSM) is available as an op-
tional supplement. In addition to containing solutions of selected problems from the
exercises sets, the SSM contains hints for solving problems, extra examples, and a re-
view of those areas of algebra and calculus that I feel are particularly important to the
successful study of differential equations. Bear in mind you do not have to purchase
the SSM; you can review the appropriate mathematics from your old precalculus or
calculus texts.
In conclusion, I wish you good luck and success. I hope you enjoy the text and
the course you are about to embark on—as an undergraduate math major it was one
of my favorites because I liked mathematics that connected with the physical world.
If you have any comments, or if you find any errors as you read/work your way
through the text, or if you come up with a good idea for improving either it or the
SSM, please feel free to contact me through Cengage Learning.
vi
Preface for this Metric Edition vii
To The Instructor
In case you are examining this text for the first time, A First Course in Differen-
tial Equations with Modeling Applications, Twelfth Edition, is intended for a one-
semester or one-quarter course in ordinary differential equations. The longer version
of the text, Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Tenth Edition,
can be used for either a one- or two-semester course that covers ordinary and partial
differential equations. This text contains six additional chapters. For a one-semester
course, it is assumed that the students have successfully completed at least two semes-
ters of calculus. Since you are reading this, undoubtedly you have already examined
the table of contents for the topics that are covered. You will not find a “suggested
syllabus” in this preface; I will not pretend to be so wise as to tell other teachers
what to teach. I feel that there is plenty of material here to choose from and to form
a course to your liking. The text strikes a reasonable balance between the analyti-
cal, qualitative, and quantitative approaches to the study of differential equations.
As far as my “underlying philosophy” goes, it is this: An undergraduate text should
be written with the students’ understanding kept firmly in mind, which means to
me that the material should be presented in a straightforward, readable, and help-
ful manner, while keeping the level of theory consistent with the notion of a “first
course.”
For those who are familiar with the previous editions, I would like to mention
a few improvements made in this edition. Many exercise sets have been updated by
the addition of new problems. Some of these problems involve new and, I think,
interesting mathematical models. Additional examples, figures, and remarks have
been added to many sections. Throughout the text I have given a greater emphasis
to the concepts of piecewise-linear differential equations and solutions that involve
nonelementary integrals. Finally, the table of Laplace transforms in Appendix C has
been expanded.
Student Resources
● Student Solutions Manual (SSM), prepared by Roberto Martinez
(ISBN 979-8-214-03824-7, accompanies A First Course in Differential
Equations with Modeling Applications, Twelfth Edition, and ISBN 978-0-357-
76058-1 accompanies Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems,
Tenth Edition) provides important review material from algebra and calculus,
the solution of every third problem in each exercise set (with the exception
of the Discussion Problems and Computer Lab Assignments), relevant
command syntax for the computer algebra systems Mathematica and Maple,
and lists of important concepts, as well as helpful hints on how to start
certain problems.
● WebAssign for A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling
Applications, Twelfth Edition. WebAssign provides you with the tools you
need to be successful in differential equations. Course materials and resources
have been specially customized for you by your instructor, giving you an array
of study tools to get a true understanding of course concepts and achieve better
grades.
Instructor Resources
● Complete Solutions Manual (CSM), prepared by Roberto Martinez, provides
complete worked-out solutions for all problems in the text. It is available through
the Instructor Companion website at cengage.com.
● Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online system
that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content, create multiple
viii Preface for this Metric Edition
test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your learning management
system (LMS), your classroom, or wherever you want. This is available online
at www.cengage.com/login.
● WebAssign for A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling
Applications, Twelfth Edition. Built by educators, WebAssign provides
flexible settings at every step to customize your course with online activities
and secure testing to meet learners’ unique needs. Students get everything in
one place, including rich content and study resources designed to fuel deeper
understanding, plus access to a dynamic, interactive ebook. Proven to help
hone problem-solving skills, WebAssign helps you help learners in any course
format.
Acknowledgments
Compiling a mathematics textbook such as this and making sure that its thousands
of symbols and hundreds of equations are accurate is an enormous task, but since I
am called “the author,” that is my job and responsibility. But many people besides
myself have expended enormous amounts of time and energy in working toward its
eventual publication. So I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincerest
appreciation to everyone—most of them unknown to me—at Cengage Learning and
at MPS North America who were involved in the publication of this edition.
Finally, over the years, this text has been improved in a countless number of
ways through the suggestions and criticisms of the reviewers. Thus it is fitting to
conclude with an acknowledgment of my debt to the following generous people for
sharing their expertise and experience.
Reviewers of Past Editions

William Atherton, Cleveland State University
Philip Bacon, University of Florida
Bruce Bayly, University of Arizona
William H. Beyer, University of Akron
R. G. Bradshaw, Clarkson College
Bernard Brooks, Rochester Institute of Technology
Allen Brown, Wabash Valley College
Dean R. Brown, Youngstown State University
David Buchthal, University of Akron
Nguyen P. Cac, University of Iowa
T. Chow, California State University–Sacramento
Dominic P. Clemence, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
Pasquale Condo, University of Massachusetts–Lowell
Vincent Connolly, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Philip S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University
Bruce E. Davis, St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley
Paul W. Davis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Richard A. DiDio, La Salle University
James Draper, University of Florida
James M. Edmondson, Santa Barbara City College
John H. Ellison, Grove City College
Raymond Fabec, Louisiana State University
Donna Farrior, University of Tulsa
Robert E. Fennell, Clemson University
W. E. Fitzgibbon, University of Houston
Harvey J. Fletcher, Brigham Young University
Paul J. Gormley, Villanova
Layachi Hadji, University of Alabama
Ruben Hayrapetyan, Kettering University
Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Zdzislaw Jackiewicz, Arizona State University
S. K. Jain, Ohio University
Preface for this Metric Edition ix
Anthony J. John, Southeastern Massachusetts University

David C. Johnson, University of Kentucky–Lexington
Harry L. Johnson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Kenneth R. Johnson, North Dakota State University
Joseph Kazimir, East Los Angeles College
J. Keener, University of Arizona
Steve B. Khlief, Tennessee Technological University
Helmut Knaust, The University of Texas at El Paso
C. J. Knickerbocker, Sensis Corporation
Carlon A. Krantz, Kean College of New Jersey
Thomas G. Kudzma, University of Lowell
Alexandra Kurepa, North Carolina A&T State University
G. E. Latta, University of Virginia
Cecelia Laurie, University of Alabama
Mulatu Lemma, Savannah State University
James R. McKinney, California Polytechnic State University
James L. Meek, University of Arkansas
Gary H. Meisters, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Stephen J. Merrill, Marquette University
Vivien Miller, Mississippi State University
George Moss, Union University
Gerald Mueller, Columbus State Community College
Philip S. Mulry, Colgate University
Martin Nakashima, California State Polytechnic University–Pomona
C. J. Neugebauer, Purdue University
Tyre A. Newton, Washington State University
Brian M. O’Connor, Tennessee Technological University
J. K. Oddson, University of California–Riverside
Carol S. O’Dell, Ohio Northern University
Bruce O’Neill, Milwaukee School of Engineering
A. Peressini, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
J. Perryman, University of Texas at Arlington
Joseph H. Phillips, Sacramento City College
Jacek Polewczak, California State University Northridge
Nancy J. Poxon, California State University–Sacramento
Robert Pruitt, San Jose State University
K. Rager, Metropolitan State College
F. B. Reis, Northeastern University
Brian Rodrigues, California State Polytechnic University
Tom Roe, South Dakota State University
Kimmo I. Rosenthal, Union College
Barbara Shabell, California Polytechnic State University
Seenith Sivasundaram, Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University
Don E. Soash, Hillsborough Community College
F. W. Stallard, Georgia Institute of Technology
Gregory Stein, The Cooper Union
M. B. Tamburro, Georgia Institute of Technology
Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College
Jianping Zhu, University of Akron
Jan Zijlstra, Middle Tennessee State University
Jay Zimmerman, Towson University
Christian Bertrand/Shutterstock.com
Chapter
1
Introduction to Differential
Equations
1.1 Definitions and Terminology The words differential and equations suggest solving some kind of equation
1.2 Initial-Value Problems that contains derivatives y9, y0, Á . Analogous to a course in algebra, in which a
1.3 Differential Equations as good amount of time is spent solving equations such as x2 1 5x 1 4 5 0 for the
Mathematical Models
unknown number x, in this course one of our tasks will be to solve differential
Chapter 1 In Review
equations such as y0 1 2y9 1 y 5 0 for an unknown function y 5 f(x). As the
course unfolds, you will see there is more to the study of differential equations
than just mastering methods that mathematicians over past centuries devised to
solve them. But first things first. In order to read, study, and be conversant in a
specialized subject you have to learn some of the terminology of that discipline.
This is the thrust of the first two sections of this chapter. In the last section we
briefly examine the link between differential equations and the real world.
1.1 Definitions and Terminology

Introduction The derivative dyydx of a function y 5 f(x) is itself another
2
function f9(x) found by an appropriate rule. The exponential function y 5 e0.1x is
differentiable on the interval (2`, `) and by the Chain Rule its first derivative is
2 2
dyydx 5 0.2xe0.1x . If we replace e0.1x on the right-hand side of the last equation by
the symbol y, the derivative becomes
dy
5 0.2xy. (1)
dx
Now imagine that a friend of yours simply hands you equation (1)—you have no idea
how it was constructed—and asks, What is the function represented by the symbol y?
You are now face to face with one of the basic problems in this course:
How do you solve an equation such as (1) for the function y = f(x)?
A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

equation. Before proceeding any further, let us consider a more precise definition
of this concept.
Definition 1.1.1 Differential Equation

An equation containing the derivatives of one or more unknown functions (or
dependent variables), with respect to one or more independent variables, is
said to be a differential equation (DE).
To talk about them, we shall classify differential equations according to type, order,
and linearity.
Classification by Type If a differential equation contains only ordinary deriva-

tives of one or more unknown functions with respect to a single independent variable,
it is said to be an ordinary differential equation (ODE). An equation involving
partial derivatives of one or more unknown functions of two or more independent
variables is called a partial differential equation (PDE). Our first example illus-
trates several of each type of differential equation.
Example 1 Types of Differential Equations

(a) The equations
an ODE can contain more
than one unknown function
p p
dy d 2 y dy dx dy
1 5y 5 e x, 2 1 6y 5 0, and 1 5 2x 1 y (2)
dx dx 2 dx dt dt
are examples of ordinary differential equations.
(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

−2u −2u −2u −2u −u −u −v
1 5 0, 5 2 22 , 52 . (3)
−x2 −y2 −x2 −t −t −y −x
*Except for this introductory section, only ordinary differential equations are considered in A First Course
in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Twelfth Edition. In that text the word equation
and the abbreviation DE refer only to ODEs. Partial differential equations or PDEs are considered in the
expanded volume Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Tenth Edition.
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Differential Equations
Notice in the third equation that there are two unknown functions and two indepen-
dent variables in the PDE. This means u and v must be functions of two or more
independent variables. .
Notation The German polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716)

along with the English mathematician, physicist, and theologian Sir Isaac Newton
(1643–1727) are considered to be the co-inventors of calculus. But much of the nota-
Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo

tion used today in mathematics is due to Leibniz and the Italian mathematician and
astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813). See Figures 1.1.1–1.1.3. For
example, the familiar symbols
dy
and f 9(x)
dx
are due, respectively, to Leibniz and Lagrange. Throughout this text ordinary deriva-
tives will be written using either the Leibniz notation
Figure 1.1.1 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz dy d 2y d 3y
, , ,Á
dx dx 2 dx 3
or the Lagrange prime notation
y9, y0, y-, . Á
By using the latter notation, the first two differential equations in (2) can be written
a little more compactly as y9 1 5y 5 ex and y0 2 y9 1 6y 5 0. Actually the prime
notation is used to denote only the first three derivatives; the fourth derivative is
written y(4) instead of y9-. In general, the nth derivative of y is written d nyydx n or
y(n). Although less convenient to write and to typeset, the Leibniz notation has an
advantage over the prime notation in that it clearly displays both the dependent and
independent variables. For example, in the differential equation
d 2x
1 16x 5 0
dt 2
GL Archive/Alamy Stock Photo
it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable whereas
the independent variable is t. You should also be aware that in physical sciences
and engineering, Newton’s dot notation (derogatively referred to by some as the
“flyspeck” notation) is sometimes used to denote derivatives with respect to time t.
Thus, the differential equation
Figure 1.1.2 Sir Isaac Newton
d 2s $
5 232 becomes s 5 232.
dt 2
Partial derivatives such as −2uy−x 2 and −uy−t are often denoted by a subscript
notation indicating the independent variables. For example, the first and second
equations in (3) can be written, in turn,
uxx 1 uyy 5 0 and uxx 5 utt 2 2ut.
Classification by Order The order of a differential equation (either ODE

or PDE) is the order of the highest derivative in the equation. For example,
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second order first order

d 2y
( )
dy 3
––––2 1 5 ––– 2 4y 5 e x
dx dx
is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

equations in (2) are first-order ODEs, whereas in (3) the first two equations are
second-order PDEs. A first-order ordinary differential equation is sometimes written
in the differential form
Figure 1.1.3 Joseph-Louis Lagrange M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0.
Example 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

If we assume that y is the dependent variable in a first-order ODE, then recall from
calculus that the differential dy is defined to be dy 5 y9dx.
(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0 is given by
dy dy
y 2 x 1 4x 5 0 or equivalently 4x 1 y 5 x.
dx dx
(b) By multiplying the differential equation
dy
6xy 1 x2 1 y2 5 0
dx
by dx we see that the equation has the alternative differential form
(x2 1 y2) dx 1 6xy dy 5 0. .
In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

dependent variable by the general form
F(x, y, y9, . . . , y(n)) 5 0, (4)
(n)
where F is a real-valued function of n + 2 variables: x, y, y9, . . . , y . For both practi-
cal and theoretical reasons we shall also make the assumption hereafter that it is pos-
sible to solve an ordinary differential equation in the form (4) uniquely for the highest
derivative y (n) in terms of the remaining n + 1 variables. The differential equation
d ny
5 f (x, y, y9, . . . , y (n21)), (5)
dx n
where f is a real-valued continuous function, is referred to as the normal form of (4).
Thus when it suits our purposes, we shall use the normal forms
dy d 2y
5 f (x, y) and 5 f (x, y, y9)
dx dx2
to represent general first- and second-order ordinary differential equations.
Example 3 Normal Form of an ODE

(a) By solving for the derivative dyydx the normal form of the first-order differential
equation
dy dy x 2 y
4x 1 y 5 x is 5 .
dx dx 4x
(b) By solving for the derivative y0 the normal form of the second-order differential
equation
y0 2 y9 1 6y 5 0 is y0 5 y9 2 6y. .
Classification by Linearity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is said

to be linear if F is linear in y, y9, . . . , y(n). This means that an nth-order ODE is linear
when (4) is an(x)y(n) + an−1(x)y(n−1) + Á + a1(x)y9 + a0(x)y − g(x) = 0 or
d ny d n21y dy
an(x) n 1 an21(x) 1 Á 1 a1(x) 1 a0 (x)y 5 g(x). (6)
dx dx n21 dx
Two important special cases of (6) are linear first-order (n 5 1) and linear second-
order (n = 2) DEs:
dy d 2y dy
a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x) and a2(x) 2
1 a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x). (7)
dx dx dx
In the additive combination on the left-hand side of equation (6) we see that the char-
acteristic two properties of a linear ODE are as follows:
● The dependent variable y and all its derivatives y9, y0, . . . , y (n) are of the
first degree, that is, the power of each term involving y is 1.
● The coefficients a 0, a1, . . . , a n of y, y9, . . . , y (n) depend at most on the
independent variable x.
A nonlinear ordinary differential equation is simply one that is not linear. Nonlinear
functions of the dependent variable or its derivatives, such as sin y or ey9, cannot
appear in a linear equation.
Example 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(a) The equations
d 3y dy
(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0, y0 2 2y 1 y 5 0, x3 1x 2 5y 5 ex
dx3 dx
are, in turn, linear first-, second-, and third-order ordinary differential equations. We
have just demonstrated in part (a) of Example 2 that the first equation is linear in the
variable y by writing it in the alternative form 4xy9 + y = x.
(b) The equations

nonlinear term: nonlinear term: nonlinear term:
coefficient depends on y nonlinear function of y power not 1
d 2y d 4y
(1 2 y)y9 1 2y 5 ex, ––––2 1 sin y 5 0, and ––––4 1 y 2 5 0
dx dx
are examples of nonlinear first-, second-, and fourth-order ordinary differential equa-
tions, respectively.
(c) By using the quadratic formula the nonlinear first-order differential equation
(y9)2 1 2xy9 2 y 5 0 is equivalent to two nonlinear first-order equations in normal form
y9 5 2x 1 Ïx2 1 y and y9 5 2x 2 Ïx2 1 y. .
Solutions As was stated on page 2, one of the goals in this course is to solve, or
find solutions of, differential equations. In the next definition we consider the con-
cept of a solution of an ordinary differential equation.
Definition 1.1.2 Solution of an ODE

Any function f, defined on an interval I and possessing at least n derivatives
that are continuous on I, which when substituted into an nth-order ordinary
differential equation reduces the equation to an identity, is said to be a solution
of the equation on the interval.
In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

function f that possesses at least n derivatives and for which
F(x, f(x), f9(x), . . . , f(n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.
We say that f satisfies the differential equation on I. For our purposes we shall also
assume that a solution f is a real-valued function. In our introductory discussion we
2
saw that y 5 e0.1x is a solution of dyydx = 0.2xy on the interval (−`, `).
Occasionally, it will be convenient to denote a solution by the alternative
symbol y(x).
Interval of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

equation without simultaneously thinking interval. The interval I in Definition 1.1.2
is variously called the interval of definition, the interval of existence, the interval
of validity, or the domain of the solution and can be an open interval (a, b), a closed
interval [a, b], an infinite interval (a, `), and so on.
Example 5 Verification of a Solution

Verify that the indicated function is a solution of the given differential equation on
the interval (−`, `).
dy 1 4
(a) 5 xy1/2; y 5 16 x (b) y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 0; y 5 xex
dx
Solution One way of verifying that the given function is a solution is to see, after
substituting, whether each side of the equation is the same for every x in the interval.
(a) From
dy 1 1
left { hand side: 5 (4 ? x 3) 5 x 3,
dx 16 4
1 2 114 x 2 5 14 x ,
1/2
1 4
right { hand side: xy1/2 5 x ? x 5x? 2 3
16
we see that each side of the equation is the same for every real number x. Note that
y1/2 5 14 x2 is, by definition, the nonnegative square root of 16
1 4
x.
(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real

number x,
left { hand side: y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 (xe x 1 2e x ) 2 2(xe x 1 e x ) 1 xe x 5 0,

right { hand side: 0. .
y
Note, too, that each differential equation in Example 5 possesses the constant
solution y 5 0, −` < x < `. A solution of a differential equation that is identically
1 zero on an interval I is said to be a trivial solution.
1 x Solution Curve The graph of a solution f of an ODE is called a solution curve.

Since f is a differentiable function, it is continuous on its interval I of definition.
Thus there may be a difference between the graph of the function f and the graph of
the solution f. Put another way, the domain of the function f need not be the same
as the interval I of definition (or domain) of the solution f. Example 6 illustrates the
(a) function y 5 1/x, x ? 0
difference.
y
Example 6 Function versus Solution
1 (a) The domain of y = 1yx, considered simply as a function, is the set of all real
numbers x except 0. When we graph y = 1yx, we plot points in the xy-plane cor-
1 x responding to a judicious sampling of numbers taken from its domain. The ratio-
nal function y = 1yx is discontinuous at 0, and its graph, in a neighborhood of
the origin, is given in Figure 1.1.4(a). The function y = 1yx is not differentiable at
x = 0, since the y-axis (whose equation is x = 0) is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
(b) solution y 5 1/x, (0, ∞)
(b) Now y = 1yx is also a solution of the linear first-order differential equation
Figure 1.1.4 In Example 6 the function xy9 + y = 0. (Verify.) But when we say that y = 1yx is a solution of this DE, we
y = 1yx is not the same as the solution mean that it is a function defined on an interval I on which it is differentiable and
y = 1yx satisfies the equation. In other words, y = 1yx is a solution of the DE on any interval
that does not contain 0, such as (−3, −1), _12, 10+, (−`, 0), or (0, `). Because the
solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −3 < x < −1 and 12 , x , 10 are simply
segments, or pieces, of the solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −` < x < 0 and
0 < x < `, respectively, it makes sense to take the interval I to be as large as pos-
sible. Thus we take I to be either (−`, 0) or (0, `). The solution curve on (0, `) is
shown in Figure 1.1.4(b). .
Explicit and Implicit Solutions You should be familiar with the terms explicit
functions and implicit functions from your study of calculus. A solution in which
the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of the independent variable and
constants is said to be an explicit solution. For our purposes, let us think of an
explicit solution as an explicit formula y = f(x) that we can manipulate, evaluate,
and differentiate using the standard rules. We have just seen in the last two examples
1 4
that y 5 16 x , y = xex, and y = 1yx are, in turn, explicit solutions of dyydx = xy1/2,
y0 − 2y9 + y = 0, and xy9 + y = 0. Moreover, the trivial solution y = 0 is an explicit
solution of all three equations. When we get down to the business of actually solving
some ordinary differential equations, you will see that methods of solution do not
always lead directly to an explicit solution y = f(x). This is particularly true when
we attempt to solve nonlinear first-order differential equations. Often we have to be
content with a relation or expression G(x, y) = 0 that defines a solution f implicitly.
Definition 1.1.3 Implicit Solution of an ODE
A relation G(x, y) = 0 is said to be an implicit solution of an ordinary dif-

ferential equation (4) on an interval I, provided that there exists at least one
function f that satisfies the relation as well as the differential equation on I.
It is beyond the scope of this course to investigate the conditions under which a
relation G(x, y) = 0 defines a differentiable function f. So we shall assume that if
the formal implementation of a method of solution leads to a relation G(x, y) = 0,
then there exists at least one function f that satisfies both the relation (that is,
G(x, f(x)) = 0) and the differential equation on an interval I. If the implicit solution
G(x, y) = 0 is fairly simple, we may be able to solve for y in terms of x and obtain
one or more explicit solutions. See (iv) in the Remarks.
Example 7 Verification of an Implicit Solution

The relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 is an implicit solution of the differential equation
dy x
52 (8)
dx y
on the open interval (−5, 5). By implicit differentiation we obtain
d 2 d 2 d dy
x 1 y 5 25 or 2x 1 2y 5 0. (9)
dx dx dx dx
Solving the last equation in (9) for the symbol dyydx gives (8). Moreover, solving
x2 + y2 = 25 for y in terms of x yields y 5 6Ï25 2 x2. The two functions
y 5 f1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and y 5 f2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 satisfy the relation (that is,
x2 + f21 = 25 and x2 + f22 = 25) and are explicit solutions defined on the interval
(−5, 5). The solution curves given in Figures 1.1.5(b) and 1.1.5(c) are segments of the
graph of the implicit solution in Figure 1.1.5(a).
y y y
5 5 5
5 5 5
x x x
25
(a) implicit solution (b) explicit solution (c) explicit solution

x 1 y 5 25
2 2 y1 5 Ï25 2 x , 2 5 , x , 5 2
y2 5 2Ï25 2 x 2, 25 , x , 5
Figure 1.1.5 An implicit solution and two explicit solutions of (8) in Example 7 .
Because the distinction between an explicit solution and an implicit solution

should be intuitively clear, we will not belabor the issue by always saying, “Here is
an explicit (implicit) solution.”
Families of Solutions The study of differential equations is similar to that of

integral calculus. When evaluating an antiderivative or indefinite integral in calculus,
we use a single constant c of integration. Analogously, we shall see in Chapter 2 that
when solving a first-order differential equation F(x, y, y9) 5 0 we usually obtain a
solution containing a single constant or parameter c. A solution of F(x, y, y9) 5 0 con-
taining a constant c is a set of solutions Gsx, y, cd 5 0 called a one-parameter family
of solutions. When solving an nth-order differential equation F(x, y, y9, Á , y(n)) 5 0
we seek an n-parameter family of solutions G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0. This means
that a single differential equation can possess an infinite number of solutions cor-
responding to an unlimited number of choices for the parameter(s). A solution of a
differential equation that is free of parameters is called a particular solution.
The parameters in a family of solutions such as G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0 are
arbitrary up to a point. For example, proceeding as in (9) a relation x2 1 y2 5 c
y
formally satisfies (8) for any constant c. However, it is understood that the relation
c.0 should always make sense in the real number system; thus, if c 5 225 we cannot say
c50 that x2 1 y2 5 225 is an implicit solution of the differential equation.
x
c,0
Example 8 Particular Solutions
(a) For all real values of c, the one-parameter family y 5 cx 2 x cos x is an explicit
solution of the linear first-order equation
Figure 1.1.6 Some solutions of DE in
part (a) of Example 8 xy9 2 y 5 x2 sin x
on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) Figure 1.1.6 shows the graphs of some particular
solutions in this family for various choices of c. The solution y = −x cos x, the blue
y
graph in the figure, is a particular solution corresponding to c = 0.
(b) The two-parameter family y = c1e x + c 2xe x is an explicit solution of the linear
second-order equation
x y0 − 2y9 + y = 0
in part (b) of Example 5. (Verify.) In Figure 1.1.7 we have shown seven of the “dou-
ble infinity” of solutions in the family. The solution curves in red, green, and blue
Figure 1.1.7 Some solutions of DE in are the graphs of the particular solutions y = 5xe x (cl = 0, c2 = 5), y = 3e x (cl = 3,
part (b) of Example 8 c2 = 0), and y = 5ex − 2xex (c1 = 5, c2 = −2), respectively. .
In all the preceding examples we used x and y to denote the independent and
dependent variables, respectively. But you should become accustomed to seeing
and working with other symbols to denote these variables. For example, we could
denote the independent variable by t and the dependent variable by x.
Example 9 Using Different Symbols

The functions x = c1 cos 4t and x = c2 sin 4t, where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants
or parameters, are both solutions of the linear differential equation
x0 1 16x 5 0.
For x = c1 cos 4t the first two derivatives with respect to t are x9 = −4c1 sin 4t
and x0 = −16c1 cos 4t. Substituting x0 and x then gives
x0 1 16x 5 216c1 cos 4t 1 16(c1 cos 4t) 5 0.
In like manner, for x = c 2 sin 4t we have x0 = −16c 2 sin 4t, and so
x0 1 16x 5 216c2 sin 4t 1 16(c2 sin 4t) 5 0.
Finally, it is straightforward to verify that the linear combination of solutions, or the
two-parameter family x = c1 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t, is also a solution of the differential
equation. .
The next example shows that a solution of a differential equation can be a

piecewise-defined function.
Example 10 Piecewise-Defined Solution

The one-parameter family of quartic monomial functions y = cx 4 is an explicit solu-
tion of the linear first-order equation
xy9 − 4y = 0
on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) The blue and red solution curves shown in
Figure 1.1.8(a) are the graphs of y = x4 and y = −x4 and correspond to the choices
c = 1 and c = −1, respectively.
y
The piecewise-defined differentiable function
c51
y5 5 2x4, x , 0
x4, x $ 0
is also a solution of the differential equation but cannot be obtained from the family
x
c 5 21 y = cx4 by a single choice of c. As seen in Figure 1.1.8(b) the solution is constructed
from the family by choosing c = −1 for x < 0 and c = 1 for x $ 0. .
Singular Solution Sometimes an nth-order differential equation possesses a

(a) two explicit solutions solution that is not a member of an n-parameter family of solutions of the equation—
that is, a solution that cannot be obtained by specializing any of the parameters in the
y family of solutions. Such solution is called a singular solution.
c 5 1,
x$0 Example 11 Singular Solution
1 4
x We saw on page 7 that the functions1
y 5 16 x and y 5 0 are solutions of the dif-
c 5 21, ferential equation dyydx 5 xy on (2`, `). In Section 2.2 we1 shall demonstrate,
2
x,0 by actually solving it, that the differential equation dyydx 5 xy 2 possesses the one-
2
parameter family of solutions y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ , c $ 0. When c 5 0 the resulting par-
1 4
ticular solution is y 5 16 x . But the function that is identically zero, that is y 5 0,
(b) piecewise-defined solution
called the trivial solution, is a singular solution since it is not a member of the family
2
Figure 1.1.8 Some solutions of DE in y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ . In the last expression there is no way of assigning a value of to the
Example 10 constant c to obtain y 5 0. .
Systems of Differential Equations Up to this point we have been discuss-

ing single differential equations containing one unknown function. But often in
theory, as well as in many applications, we must deal with systems of differential
equations. A system of ordinary differential equations is two or more equations
involving the derivatives of two or more unknown functions of a single indepen-
dent variable. For example, if x and y denote dependent variables and t denotes
the independent variable, then a system of two first-order differential equations
is given by
dx
5 f (t, x, y)
dt
(10)
dy
5 g(t, x, y).
dt
A solution of a system such as (10) is a pair of differentiable functions x = f 1(t),

y = f 2(t), defined on a common interval I, that satisfy each equation of the system
on this interval.
Remarks
(i) It might not be apparent whether a first-order ODE written in differential

form M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0 is linear or nonlinear because there is
nothing in this form that tells us which symbol denotes the dependent variable.
See Problems 11 and 12 in Exercises 1.1.
(ii) We will see in the chapters that follow that a solution of a differential equa-
tion may involve an integral-defined function. One way of defining a function
F of a single variable x by means of a definite integral is:
# g(t) dt.
x
F(x) 5 (11)
a
If the integrand g in (11) is continuous on an interval [a, b] and a # x # b, then

the derivative form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that F is
differentiable on (a, b) and
# g(t) dt 5 g(x)
d x
F9(x) 5 (12)
dx a
The integral in (11) is often nonelementary, that is, an integral of a function g

that does not have an elementary-function antiderivative. Elementary functions
include the familiar functions studied in a typical precalculus course:
constant, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

and inverse trigonometric functions,
as well as rational powers of these functions; finite combinations of these func-
tions using addition, subtraction, multiplication, division; and function com-
2
positions. For example, even though e2t ,Ï1 1 t3, and cos t2 are elementary
2
functions, the integrals ee2t dt, eÏ1 1 t3 dt, and e cos t2 dt are nonelementary.
See Problems 27–30 in Exercises 1.1. Also see Appendix A.
(iii) Although the concept of a solution of a differential equation has been
emphasized in this section, you should be aware that a DE does not necessarily
have to possess a solution. See Problem 51 in Exercises 1.1. The question of
whether a solution exists will be touched on in the next section.
(continued )
(iv) A few last words about implicit solutions of differential equations are in
order. In Example 7 we were able to solve the relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 for y in terms
of x to get two explicit solutions, f1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and f2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2,
of the differential equation (8). But don’t read too much into this one example.
Unless it is easy or important or you are instructed to, there is usually no need
to try to solve an implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 for y explicitly in terms of x.
Also do not misinterpret the second sentence following Definition 1.1.3. An
implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 can define a perfectly good differentiable func-
tion f that is a solution of a DE, yet we might not be able to solve G(x, y) = 0
using analytical methods such as algebra. The solution curve of f may be
a segment or piece of the graph of G(x, y) = 0. See Problems 57 and 58 in
Exercises 1.1. Also, read the discussion following Example 5 in Section 2.2.
(v) It might not seem like a big deal to assume that F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n) ) = 0
can be solved for y (n), but one should be a little bit careful here. There
are exceptions, and there certainly are some problems connected with this
assumption. See Problems 64 and 65 in Exercises 1.1.
(vi) If every solution of an nth-order ODE F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n)) = 0 on an inter-
val I can be obtained from an n-parameter family G(x, y, c1, c 2, . . . , cn) = 0 by
appropriate choices of the parameters ci, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we then say that the
family is the general solution of the DE. In solving linear ODEs, we shall im-
pose relatively simple restrictions on the coefficients of the equation; with these
restrictions one can be assured that not only does a solution exist on an interval
but also that a family of solutions yields all possible solutions. Nonlinear ODEs,
with the exception of some first-order equations, are usually difficult or impos-
sible to solve in terms of elementary functions. Furthermore, if we happen to ob-
tain a family of solutions for a nonlinear equation, it is not obvious whether this
family contains all solutions. On a practical level, then, the designation “general
solution” is applied only to linear ODEs. Don’t be concerned about this concept
at this point, but store the words “general solution” in the back of your mind —
we will come back to this notion in Section 2.3 and again in Chapter 4.
Exercises 1.1 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.
In Problems 1 – 10 state the order of the given ordinary differential In Problems 11 and 12 determine whether the given first-order dif-
equation. Determine whether the equation is linear or nonlinear by ferential equation is linear in the indicated dependent variable by
matching it with (6). matching it with the first differential equation given in (7).
1. (1 − x)y0 − 4xy9+ 5y = cos x 11. (y2 − 1) dx + x dy = 0; in y; in x
2. x
d 3y
dx 3
2 SD dy
dx
4
1y50
12. u dv + (v + uv − ueu) du = 0; in v; in u
In Problems 13–16 verify that the indicated function is an explicit

3. t5y(4) − t3y0 + 6y = 0 solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate
d 2u du interval I of definition for each solution.
4. 1 1 u 5 cos(r 1 u)
dr 2 dr 13. 2y9 + y = 0; y = e−x/2
5.
d 2y
dx 2
5 Î 11 1dx2
dy 2
14.
dy
dt
6 6
1 20y 5 24; y 5 2 e220t
5 5
d 2R k 15. y0 − 6y9 + 13y = 0; y = e3x cos 2x
6. 52 2
dt 2 R 16. y0 + y = tan x; y = −(cos x) ln(sec x + tan x)
x?2 ?
7. (sin u)y- − (cos u)y9 = 2
$
8. x 2 1 2
3 1x1x50 2 In Problems 17–20 verify that the indicated function y = f(x) is
9. sin
dy
dx SD 5y1x 10.
dx
dy
1 y3x 5 sin y
an explicit solution of the given first-order differential equation.
Proceed as in Example 6, by considering f simply as a function and
give its domain. Then by considering f as a solution of the differen- In Problems 33–36 find values of m so that the function y = emx is a
tial equation, give at least one interval I of definition. solution of the given differential equation.
17. (y 2 x)y9 5 y 2 x 1 8; y 5 x 1 4Ïx 1 2 33. y9 + 2y = 0 34. 5y9 = 2y
2
18. y9 = 25 + y ; y = 5 tan 5x 35. y0 − 5y9 + 6y = 0 36. 2y0 + 7y9 − 4y = 0
2 2
19. y9 = 2xy ; y = 1y(4 − x )
In Problems 37–40 find values of m so that the function y = xm is a
3 −1/2
20. 2y9 = y cos x; y = (1 − sin x) solution of the given differential equation.
In Problems 21 and 22 verify that the indicated expression is an im- 37. xy0 + 2y9 = 0 38. 4x 2 y0 1 y 5 0
plicit solution of the given first-order differential equation. Find at
39. x2y0 − 7xy9 + 15y = 0 40. x 2 y- 2 3xy0 1 3y9 5 0
least one explicit solution y = f(x) in each case. Use a graphing util-
ity to obtain the graph of an explicit solution. Give an interval I of In Problems 41–44 use the concept that y = c, −` < x < `, is a
definition of each solution f. constant function if and only if y9 = 0 to determine whether the given
differential equation possesses constant solutions.
1 2
dX 2X 2 1
21. 5 (X 2 1)(1 2 2X); ln 5t
dt X21 41. 3xy9 + 5y = 10 42. y9 = y2 + 2y − 3
22. 2xy dx + (x2 − y) dy = 0; −2x2y + y2 = 1 43. (y − 1)y9 = 1 44. y0 + 4y9 + 6y = 10
In Problems 23–26 verify that the indicated family of functions is a In Problems 45–48 verify that the given one-parameter family is a
solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate solution of the differential equation. Find at least one singular solu-
interval I of definition for each solution. tion of the DE.
23.
dP
dt
5 P(1 2 P); P 5
c1et
1 1 c1et 45. y 5 (x 1 c1)2; SD dy
dx
2
5 4y
SD
dy 2
24. 1 4xy 5 8x3; y 5 2x2 2 1 1 c1e22x dy 2
dx 46. y 5 3 sin(x 1 c1); 5 9 2 y2
dx
d 2y dy
25. 24 1 4y 5 0; y 5 c1e 2x 1 c2xe 2x dy
dx 2 dx 47. x 2 Ï16 2 y2 5 c1; y
dx Ï
1 16 2 y2 5 0
d3y d 2y dy
SD
26. x 3 1 2x 2 2x 1 y 5 12x 2; 2
dx 3
dx 2 dx dy dy
48. y 5 x 2 (x 2 c1)2; 22 1 4y 5 4x 2 1
dx dx
y 5 c1x21 1 c2x 1 c3x ln x 1 4x2
In Problems 27–30 use (12) to verify that the indicated function is In Problems 49 and 50 verify that the indicated pair of functions is a
a solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate solution of the given system of differential equations on the interval
interval I of definition of each solution. (−`, `).
dx d 2x
#
dy x e23t 49. 5 x 1 3y 50. 5 4y 1 et
27. x 2 3xy 5 1; y 5 e3x dt dt dt 2
dx 1 t
dy d 2y
5 5x 1 3y; 5 4 x 2 et;
# cosÏtt dt
dy x dt dt 2
28. 2x 2 y 5 2x cos x; y 5 Ïx
dx 4 x 5 e22t 1 3e6t, x 5 cos 2t 1 sin 2t 1 15 et,
# sint t dt y 5 2e22t 1 5e6t

dy 5 10 x
y 5 2cos 2t 2 sin 2t 2 15 et
29. x2 1 xy 5 10 sin x; y 5 1
dx x x 1
# e dt Discussion Problems
dy 2 2
x
t2
30. 1 2xy 5 1; y 5 e2x 1 e2x
dx 0 51. Make up a differential equation that does not possess any real
31. Verify that the piecewise-defined function solutions.
52xx ,,
2
x,0 52. Make up a differential equation that you feel confident possesses
y5 2
x$0 only the trivial solution y = 0. Explain your reasoning.
is a solution of the differential equation xy9 − 2y = 0 on (−`, `). 53. What function do you know from calculus is such that its first
derivative is itself? Its first derivative is a constant multiple k of
32. In Example 7 we saw that y = f1(x) = Ï25 2 x and 2
itself? Write each answer in the form of a first-order differential
y 5 f2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 are solutions of dyydx = −xyy on the
equation with a solution.
interval (−5, 5). Explain why the piecewise-defined function
54. What function (or functions) do you know from calculus is such
y5 5 Ï25 2 x2
2Ï25 2 x2,
25 , x , 0
0#x,5
that its second derivative is itself? Its second derivative is the
negative of itself? Write each answer in the form of a second-
is not a solution of the differential equation on the interval (−5, 5). order differential equation with a solution.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Modern cookery
for private families
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Title: Modern cookery for private families
Author: Eliza Acton
Release date: December 23, 2023 [eBook #72482]
Language: English
Original publication: London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and

Dyer, 1882
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MODERN

COOKERY FOR PRIVATE FAMILIES ***
MODERN COOKERY
F O R P R I VAT E FA M I L I E S
BY ELIZA ACTON
NEW EDITION
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER
1882.
PREFACE.
It cannot be denied that an improved system of practical domestic

cookery, and a better knowledge of its first principles, are still much
needed in this country; where, from ignorance, or from
mismanagement in their preparation, the daily waste of excellent
provisions almost exceeds belief. This waste is in itself a very
serious evil where so large a portion of the community often procure
—as they do in England—with painful difficulty, and with the heaviest
labour, even sufficient bread to sustain existence; but the amount of
positive disease which is caused amongst us by improper food, or by
food rendered unwholesome by a bad mode of cooking it, seems a
greater evil still. The influence of diet upon health is indeed a subject
of far deeper importance than it would usually appear to be
considered, if we may judge by the profound indifference with which
it is commonly treated. It has occupied, it is true, the earnest
attention of many eminent men of science, several of whom have
recently investigated it with the most patient and laborious research,
the results of which they have made known to the world in their
writings, accompanied, in some instances, by information of the
highest value as to the most profitable and nutritious modes of
preparing various kinds of viands. In arranging the present enlarged
edition of this volume for publication, I have gladly taken advantage
of such of their instructions (those of Baron Liebig especially) as
have seemed to me adapted to its character, and likely to increase
its real utility. These, I feel assured, if carefully followed out, will
much assist our progress in culinary art, and diminish the
unnecessary degree of expenditure which has hitherto attended its
operations; for it may safely be averred that good cookery is the best
and truest economy, turning to full account every wholesome article
of food, and converting into palatable meals, what the ignorant either
render uneatable, or throw away in disdain. It is a popular error to
imagine that what is called good cookery is adapted only to the
establishments of the wealthy, and that it is beyond the reach of
those who are not affluent. On the contrary, it matters comparatively
little whether some few dishes, amidst an abundant variety, be
prepared in their perfection or not; but it is of the utmost
consequence that the food which is served at the more simply
supplied tables of the middle classes should all be well and skilfully
prepared, particularly as it is from these classes that the men
principally emanate to whose indefatigable industry, high
intelligence, and active genius, we are mainly indebted for our
advancement in science, in art, in literature, and in general
civilisation.
When both the mind and body are exhausted by the toils of the
day, heavy or unsuitable food, so far from recruiting their enfeebled
powers, prostrates their energies more completely, and acts in every
way injuriously upon the system; and it is no exaggeration to add,
that many a valuable life has been shortened by disregard of this
fact, or by the impossibility of obtaining such diet as nature
imperatively required. It may be urged, that I speak of rare and
extreme cases; but indeed it is not so; and the impression produced
on me by the discomfort and the suffering which have fallen under
my own observation, has rendered me extremely anxious to aid in
discovering an efficient remedy for them. With this object always in
view, I have zealously endeavoured to ascertain, and to place clearly
before my readers, the most rational and healthful methods of
preparing those simple and essential kinds of nourishment which
form the staple of our common daily fare; and have occupied myself
but little with the elegant superfluities or luxurious novelties with
which I might perhaps more attractively, though not more usefully,
have filled my pages. Should some persons feel disappointed at the
plan I have pursued, and regret the omissions which they may
discover, I would remind them, that the fashionable dishes of the day
may at all times be procured from an able confectioner; and that part
of the space which I might have allotted to them is, I hope and
believe, better occupied by the subjects, homely as they are, to
which I have devoted it—that is to say, to ample directions for
dressing vegetables, and for making what cannot be purchased in
this country—unadulterated bread of the most undeniably
wholesome quality; and those refreshing and finely-flavoured
varieties of preserved fruit which are so conducive to health when
judiciously taken, and for which in illness there is often such a vain
and feverish craving when no household stores of them can be
commanded.[1]
1. Many of those made up for sale are absolutely dangerous eating; those
which are not adulterated are generally so oversweetened as to be
distasteful to invalids.
Merely to please the eye by such fanciful and elaborate

decorations as distinguish many modern dinners, or to flatter the
palate by the production of new and enticing dainties, ought not to be
the principal aim, at least, of any work on cookery. “Eat,—to live”
should be the motto, by the spirit of which all writers upon it should
be guided. I must here obtrude a few words of personal interest to
myself. At the risk of appearing extremely egotistic, I have appended
“Author’s Receipt” and “Author’s Original Receipt” to many of the
contents of the following pages; but I have done it solely in self-
defence, in consequence of the unscrupulous manner in which large
portions of my volume have been appropriated by contemporary
authors, without the slightest acknowledgment of the source from
which they have been derived. I have allowed this unfairness, and
much beside, to pass entirely unnoticed until now; but I am suffering
at present too severe a penalty for the over-exertion entailed on me
by the plan which I adopted for the work, longer to see with perfect
composure strangers coolly taking the credit and the profits of my
toil. The subjoined passage from the preface of my first edition will
explain in what this toil—so completely at variance with all the
previous habits of my life, and, therefore, so injurious in its effects—
consisted; and prevent the necessity of recapitulating here, in
another form, what I have already stated in it. “Amongst the large
number of works on cookery which we have carefully perused, we
have never yet met with one which appeared to us either quite
intended for, or entirely suited to the need of the totally
inexperienced! none, in fact, which contained the first rudiments of
the art, with directions so practical, clear, and simple, as to be at
once understood, and easily followed, by those who had no previous
knowledge of the subject. This deficiency, we have endeavoured in
the present volume to supply, by such thoroughly explicit and minute
instructions as may, we trust, be readily comprehended and carried
out by any class of learners; our receipts, moreover, with a few
trifling exceptions which are scrupulously specified, are confined to
such as may be perfectly depended on, from having been proved
beneath our own roof and under our own personal inspection. We
have trusted nothing to others; but having desired sincerely to render
the work one of general usefulness, we have spared neither cost nor
labour to make it so, as the very plan on which it has been written
must of itself, we think, evidently prove. It contains some novel
features, calculated, we hope, not only to facilitate the labours of the
kitchen, but to be of service likewise to those by whom they are
directed. The principal of these is the summary appended to the
receipts, of the different ingredients which they contain, with the
exact proportion of each, and the precise time required to dress the
whole. This shows at a glance what articles have to be prepared
beforehand, and the hour at which they must be ready; while it
affords great facility as well, for an estimate of the expense attending
them. The additional space occupied by this closeness of detail has
necessarily prevented the admission of so great a variety of receipts
as the book might otherwise have comprised; but a limited number,
thus completely explained, may perhaps be more acceptable to the
reader than a larger mass of materials vaguely given.
“Our directions for boning poultry, game, &c., are also, we venture
to say, entirely new, no author that is known to us having hitherto
afforded the slightest information on the subject; but while we have
done our utmost to simplify and to render intelligible this, and several
other processes not generally well understood by ordinary cooks, our
first and best attention has been bestowed on those articles of food
of which the consumption is the most general, and which are
therefore of the greatest consequence; and on what are usually
termed plain English dishes. With these we have intermingled many
others which we know to be excellent of their kind, and which now so
far belong to our national cookery, as to be met with commonly at all
refined modern tables.”
Since this extract was written, a rather formidable array of works
on the same subject has issued from the press, part of them from the
pens of celebrated professional gastronomers; others are constantly
appearing; yet we make, nevertheless, but slight perceptible
progress in this branch of our domestic economy. Still, in our
cottages, as well as in homes of a better order, goes on the “waste”
of which I have already spoken. It is not, in fact, cookery-books that
we need half so much as cooks really trained to a knowledge of their
duties, and suited, by their acquirements, to families of different
grades. At present, those who thoroughly understand their business
are so few in number, that they can always command wages which
place their services beyond the reach of persons of moderate
fortune. Why should not all classes participate in the benefit to be
derived from nourishment calculated to sustain healthfully the
powers of life? And why should the English, as a people, remain
more ignorant than their continental neighbours of so simple a matter
as that of preparing it for themselves? Without adopting blindly
foreign modes in anything merely because they are foreign, surely
we should be wise to learn from other nations, who excel us in aught
good or useful, all that we can which may tend to remedy our own
defects; and the great frugality, combined with almost universal
culinary skill, or culinary knowledge, at the least—which prevails
amongst many of them—is well worthy of our imitation. Suggestions
of this nature are not, however, sufficient for our purpose. Something
definite, practical, and easy of application, must open the way to our
general improvement. Efforts in the right direction are already being
made, I am told, by the establishment of well-conducted schools for
the early and efficient training of our female domestic servants.
These will materially assist our progress; and if experienced cooks
will put aside the jealous spirit of exclusiveness by which they are
too often actuated, and will impart freely the knowledge they have
acquired, they also may be infinitely helpful to us, and have a claim
upon our gratitude which ought to afford them purer satisfaction than
the sole possession of any secrets—genuine or imaginary—
connected with their craft.
The limits of a slight preface do not permit me to pursue this or
any other topic at much length, and I must in consequence leave my
deficiencies to be supplied by some of the thoughtful, and, in every
way, more competent writers, who, happily for us, abound at the
present day; and make here my adieu to the reader.
ELIZA ACTON
London, May, 1855.
VOCABULARY OF TERMS,
PRINCIPALLY FRENCH, USED IN MODERN COOKERY.
Aspic—fine transparent savoury jelly, in which cold game, poultry,

fish, &c., are moulded; and which serves also to decorate or
garnish them.
Assiette Volante—a dish which is handed round the table without
ever being placed upon it. Small fondus in paper cases are
often served thus; and various other preparations, which require
to be eaten very hot.
Blanquette—a kind of fricassee.

Boudin—a somewhat expensive dish, formed of the French
forcemeat called quenelles, composed either of game, poultry,
butcher’s meat, or fish, moulded frequently into the form of a
rouleau, and gently poached until it is firm; then sometimes
broiled or fried, but as frequently served plain.
Bouilli—boiled beef, or other meat, beef being more generally
understood by the term.
Bouillie—a sort of hasty pudding.
Bouillon—broth.
Casserole—a stewpan; and the name also given to a rice-crust,
when moulded in the form of a pie, then baked and filled with a
mince or purée of game, or with a blanquette of white meat.
Court Bouillon—a preparation of vegetables and wine, in which (in
expensive cookery) fish is boiled.
Consommé—very strong rich stock or gravy.
Croustade—a case or crust formed of bread, in which minces,
purées of game, and other preparations are served.
Crouton—a sippet of bread.
Entrée—a first-course side or corner dish.[2]

2. Neither the roasts nor the removes come under the denomination of
entrées; and the same remark applies equally to the entremets in the
second course. Large standing dishes at the sides, such as raised pies,
timbales, &c., served usually in grand repasts, are called flanks; but in
an ordinary service all the intermediate dishes between the joints and
roasts are distinguished by the name of entrées, or entremets.
Entremets—a second-course side or corner dish.

Espagnole, or Spanish sauce—a brown gravy of high savour.
Farce—forcemeat.
Fondu—a cheese soufflé.
Gâteau—a cake, also a pudding, as Gâteau de Riz; sometimes

also a kind of tart, as Gâteau de Pithiviers.
Hors d’œuvres—small dishes of anchovies, sardines, and other

relishes of the kind, served in the first course.
Macaroncini—a small kind of maccaroni.

Maigre—made without meat.
Matelote—a rich and expensive stew of fish with wine, generally of
carp, eels, or trout.
Meringue—a cake, or icing, made of sugar and whites of egg
beaten to snow.
Meringué—covered or iced with a meringue-mixture.
Nouilles—a paste made of yolks of egg and flour, then cut small like
vermicelli.
Purée—meat, or vegetables, reduced to a smooth pulp, and then

mixed with sufficient liquid to form a thick sauce or soup.
Quenelles—French forcemeat, for which see page 163.
Rissoles—small fried pastry, either sweet or savoury.
Sparghetti—Naples vermicelli.
Stock—the unthickened broth or gravy which forms the basis of
soups and sauces.
Tammy—a strainer of fine thin woollen canvas.

Timbale—a sort of pie made in a mould.
Tourte—a delicate kind of tart, baked generally in a shallow tin pan,
or without any: see page 574.
Vol-au-vent—for this, see page 357.
Zita—Naples maccaroni.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
SOUPS.
Page
Ingredients which may all be 1

used for making Soup of
various kinds
A few directions to the Cook 2
The time required for boiling 4
down Soup or Stock
To thicken Soups 4
To fry Bread to serve with Soup 5
Sippets à la Reine 5
To make Nouilles (an elegant 5
substitute for Vermicelli)
Vegetable Vermicelli 5
(Vegetables cut very fine for
Soups)
Extract of Beef, or very strong 6
Beef Gravy-Soup (Baron
Liebig’s receipt)
Bouillon (the common Soup of 7
France), cheap and very
wholesome
Clear pale Gravy Soup, or 10
Consommé
Another receipt for Gravy Soup 10
Cheap clear Gravy Soup 11
Glaze (Note) 11

A First Course in Differential Equations With Modeling Applications 12E Metric Edition Dennis G Zill Full Chapter

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A First Course in Differential Equations With Modeling Applications 12E Metric Edition Dennis G Zill Full Chapter

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A First Course in Differential Equations

with Modeling Applications, 12e (Metric

12. 13. 14.

15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20.

21. 22. 23.

24. 25. 26.

27. 28. 29.

30. 31. 32.

f (t) +{ f (t)} 5 F(s) f (t) +{ f (t)} 5 F(s)

51. 2 Î t 2a2 /4t

Publisher, Global Editions: Marinda Louw Previous Editions: © 2018, © 2013

Learning Designer: Laura Gallus

Content Manager: Kelly Aull, Lynh Pham ISBN: 979-8-214-03820-9

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

For product information: www.cengage.com/International

Preface for this Metric Edition vi

1 Introduction to Differential Equations 2

2 First-Order Differential Equations 36

2.1 Solution Curves without a Solution 37

3 Modeling with First-Order Differential

4 Higher-Order Differential Equations 118

4.1.1 Initial-Value and Boundary-Value Problems 119

4.8 Green’s Functions 173

Zoonar GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo 5 Modeling with Higher-Order Differential

6 Series Solutions of Linear Equations 240

6.2 Solutions About Ordinary Points 247

7 The Laplace Transform 284

7.1 Definition of the Laplace Transform 285

8 Systems of Linear Differential Equations 344

8.1 Theory of Linear Systems 345

8.3 Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems 369

9 Numerical Solutions of Ordinary Differential

Cultura Creative RF/Alamy Stock Photo

Answers for Selected Odd-Numbered Problems ANS-1

Reviewers of Past Editions

Anthony J. John, Southeastern Massachusetts University

1.1 Definitions and Terminology

A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

Definition 1.1.1 Differential Equation

Classification by Type If a differential equation contains only ordinary deriva-

Example 1 Types of Differential Equations

(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

Notation The German polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716)

Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo

Classification by Order The order of a differential equation (either ODE

second order first order

is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

Figure 1.1.3 Joseph-Louis Lagrange M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0.

Example 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

Example 3 Normal Form of an ODE

Classification by Linearity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is said

Example 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(b) The equations

y9 5 2x 1 Ïx2 1 y and y9 5 2x 2 Ïx2 1 y. .

Definition 1.1.2 Solution of an ODE

In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

F(x, f(x), f9(x), . . . , f(n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.

Interval of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

Example 5 Verification of a Solution

(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real