A First Course in The Finite Element Method 6 Enhanced Si Edition Daryl L Logan Full Chapter

A First Course in the Finite Element
Method 6 Enhanced SI Edition Daryl L.

Logan
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CONVERSION FACTORS U.S. Customary Units to SI Units
Quantity Converted from U.S. Customary To SI Equivalent
(Acceleration)
1 foot/second2 (ft/s2) meter/second2 (m/s2) 0.3048 m/s2
1 inch/second2 (in./s2) meter/second2 (m/s2) 0.0254 m/s2
(Area)
1 foot2 (ft2) meter2 (m2) 0.0929 m2
1 inch2 (in.2) meter2 (m2) 645.2 mm2
(Density, mass)
1 pound mass/inch3 (lbm/in.3) kilogram/meter3 (kg/m3) 27.68 Mg/m3
1 pound mass/foot3 (lbm/ft3) kilogram/meter3 (kg/m3) 16.02 kg/m3
(Energy, Work)
1 British thermal unit (BTU) Joule (J) 1055 J
1 foot-pound force (ft-lb) Joule (J) 1.356 J
1 kilowatt-hour Joule (J) 3:60 106 J
(Force)
1 kip (1000 lb) Newton (N) 4.448 kN
1 pound force (lb) Newton (N) 4.448 N
(Length)
1 foot (ft) meter (m) 0.3048 m
1 inch (in.) meter (m) 25.4 mm
1 mile (mi), (U.S. statute) meter (m) 1.609 km
1 mile (mi), (international nautical) meter (m) 1.852 km
(Mass)
1 pound mass (lbm) kilogram (kg) 0.4536 kg
1 slug (lb-sec2/ft) kilogram (kg) 14.59 kg
1 metric ton (2000 lbm) kilogram (kg) 907.2 kg
(Moment of force)
1 pound-foot (lb ft) Newton-meter (N m) 1.356 N m
1 pound-inch (lb in.) Newton-meter (N m) 0.1130 N m
(Moment of inertia of an area)

1 inch4 meter4 (m4) 0:4162 106 m4
(Moment of inertia of a mass)

1 pound-foot-second2(lb ft s2) kilogram-meter2 (kg m2) 1.356 kg m2
(Momentum, linear)
1 pound-second (lb s) kilogram-meter/second (kg m/s) 4.448 N s
(Momentum, angular)
pound-foot-second (lb ft s) Newton-meter-second (N m s) 1.356 N m s
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS Notes: ¼ mass density, m ¼ mass, I ¼ mass moment of inertia.
1. Slender Rod
y
pd 2Lr
m=
4
d 2
z L Iy = Iz = mL
12
x
2. Thin Disk
y
t pd 2tr
d m=
4
md 2
Ix =
8
x md 2
z Iy = Iz =
16
3. Rectangular Prism
y
m = abcr
m 2
Ix = (a + b2)
12
b Iy = m (a2 + c2)
12
z c m 2
a x Iz = (b + c2)
12
4. Circular Cylinder
y
pd 2Lr
m=
d 4
2
z L Ix = md
8
x m (3d 2 + 4L 2)
Iy = Iz =
48
5. Hollow Cylinder
y
pLr 2 2
di m= (do − di )
4
do
m 2 2
L Ix = (do + di )
z 8
x m
Iy = Iz = (3do2 + 3di2 + 4L2)
48
CONVERSION FACTORS U.S. Customary Units to SI Units (Continued )
Quantity Converted from U.S. Customary To SI Equivalent
(Power)
1 foot-pound/second (ft � lb/s) Watt (W) 1.356 W
1 horsepower (550 ft� lb/s) Watt (W) 745.7 W
(Pressure, stress)
1 atmosphere (std)(14.7.lb/in.2Þ Newton/meter2 (N/m2 or Pa) 101.3 kPa
1 pound/foot2 (lb/ft2) Newton/meter2 (N/m2 or Pa) 47.88 Pa
1 pound/inch2 (lb/in.2 or psi) Newton/meter2 (N/m2 or Pa) 6.895 kPa
1 kip/inch2(ksi) Newton/meter2 (N/m2 or Pa) 6.895 MPa
(Spring constant)
1 pound/inch (lb/in.) Newton/meter (N/m) 175.1 N/m
(Temperature)
T(� F) ¼ 1.8T(� C) þ 32
(Velocity)
1 foot/second (ft/s) meter/second (m/s) 0.3048 m/s
1 knot (nautical mi/h) meter/second (m/s) 0.5144 m/s
1 mile/hour (mi/h) meter/second (m/s) 0.4470 m/s
1 mile/hour (mi/h) kilometer/hour (km/h) 1.609 km/h
(Volume)
1 foot3 (ft3) meter3 (m3) 0.02832 m3
1 inch3 (in.3) meter3 (m3) 16:39 � 10�6 m3
A First Course in the
Finite Element Method
ENHANCED SIXTH EDITION, SI VERSION
Daryl L. Logan
University of Wisconsin–Platteville
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2021
v
CONTENTS
Preface to the SI Edition ix

Preface x
Digital Resource xii
Acknowledgments xv
Notation xvi
1 Introduction 1
Chapter Objectives 1
Prologue 1
1.1 Brief History 3
1.2 Introduction to Matrix Notation 4
1.3 Role of the Computer 6
1.4 General Steps of the Finite Element Method 7
1.5 Applications of the Finite Element Method 15
1.6 Advantages of the Finite Element Method 21
1.7 Computer Programs for the Finite Element Method 25
References 27
Problems 30
2 Introduction to the Stiffness (Displacement) Method 31

Introduction 31
2.1 Definition of the Stiffness Matrix 32
2.2 Derivation of the Stiffness Matrix
for a Spring Element 32
2.3 Example of a Spring Assemblage 36
2.4 Assembling the Total Stiffness Matrix by Superposition
(Direct Stiffness Method) 38
2.5 Boundary Conditions 40
2.6 Potential Energy Approach to Derive Spring Element Equations 55
Summary Equations 65
References 66
Problems 66
3 Development of Truss Equations 72

Introduction 72
3.1 Derivation of the Stiffness Matrix for a Bar Element in Local Coordinates 73
vi Contents
3.2 Selecting a Displacement Function in Step 2 of the Derivation

of Stiffness Matrix for the One-Dimensional Bar Element 78
3.3 Transformation of Vectors in Two Dimensions 82
3.4 Global Stiffness Matrix for Bar Arbitrarily Oriented in the Plane 84
3.5 Computation of Stress for a Bar in the x – y Plane 89
3.6 Solution of a Plane Truss 91
3.7 Transformation Matrix and Stiffness Matrix for a Bar
in Three-Dimensional Space 100
3.8 Use of Symmetry in Structures 109
3.9 Inclined, or Skewed, Supports 112
3.10 Potential Energy Approach to Derive Bar Element Equations 121
3.11 Comparison of Finite Element Solution to Exact Solution for Bar 132
3.12 Galerkin’s Residual Method and Its Use to Derive
the One-Dimensional Bar Element Equations 136
3.13 Other Residual Methods and Their Application to a One-Dimensional Bar
Problem 139
3.14 Flowchart for Solution of Three-Dimensional Truss Problems 143
3.15 Computer Program Assisted Step-by-Step Solution for Truss Problem 144
References 147
Problems 147
4 Development of Beam Equations 169

Introduction 169
4.1 Beam Stiffness 170
4.2 Example of Assemblage of Beam Stiffness Matrices 180
4.3 Examples of Beam Analysis Using the Direct Stiffness Method 182
4.4 Distributed Loading 195
4.5 Comparison of the Finite Element Solution to the Exact Solution for a Beam 208
4.6 Beam Element with Nodal Hinge 214
4.7 Potential Energy Approach to Derive Beam Element Equations 222
4.8 Galerkin’s Method for Deriving Beam Element Equations 225
References 228
Problems 229
5 Frame and Grid Equations 239

Introduction 239
5.1 Two-Dimensional Arbitrarily Oriented Beam Element 239
5.2 Rigid Plane Frame Examples 243
5.3 Inclined or Skewed Supports—Frame Element 261
5.4 Grid Equations 262
Contents vii
5.5 Beam Element Arbitrarily Oriented in Space 280

5.6 Concept of Substructure Analysis 295
References 302
Problems 303
6 Development of the Plane Stress and Plane Strain

Stiffness Equations 337
Introduction 337
6.1 Basic Concepts of Plane Stress and Plane Strain 338
6.2 Derivation of the Constant-Strain Triangular Element Stiffness
Matrix and Equations 342
6.3 Treatment of Body and Surface Forces 357
6.4 Explicit Expression for the Constant-Strain Triangle Stiffness Matrix 362
6.5 Finite Element Solution of a Plane Stress Problem 363
6.6 Rectangular Plane Element (Bilinear Rectangle, Q4) 374
References 384
Problems 384
7 Practical Considerations in Modeling; Interpreting Results;

and Examples of Plane Stress/Strain Analysis 391
Introduction 391
7.1 Finite Element Modeling 392
7.2 Equilibrium and Compatibility of Finite Element Results 405
7.3 Convergence of Solution and Mesh Refinement 408
7.4 Interpretation of Stresses 411
7.5 Flowchart for the Solution of Plane Stress/Strain Problems 413
7.6 Computer Program–Assisted Step-by-Step Solution, Other Models, and Results
for Plane Stress/Strain Problems 414
References 420
Problems 421
8 Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 437

Introduction 437
8.1 Derivation of the Linear-Strain Triangular Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations 437
8.2 Example LST Stiffness Determination 442
8.3 Comparison of Elements 444
References 448
Problems 448
viii Contents
9 Axisymmetric Elements 451

Introduction 451
9.1 Derivation of the Stiffness Matrix 451
9.2 Solution of an Axisymmetric Pressure Vessel 462
9.3 Applications of Axisymmetric Elements 468
References 475
Problems 475
10 Isoparametric Formulation 486

Introduction 486
10.1 Isoparametric Formulation of the Bar Element Stiffness Matrix 487
10.2 Isoparametric Formulation of the Plane Quadrilateral (Q4) Element Stiffness
Matrix 492
10.3 Newton-Cotes and Gaussian Quadrature 503
10.4 Evaluation of the Stiffness Matrix and Stress Matrix by Gaussian Quadrature 509
10.5 Higher-Order Shape Functions (Including Q6, Q8, Q9, and Q12 Elements) 515
References 530
Problems 530
11 Three-Dimensional Stress Analysis 536

Introduction 536
11.1 Three-Dimensional Stress and Strain 537
11.2 Tetrahedral Element 539
11.3 Isoparametric Formulation and Hexahedral Element 547
References 558
Problems 558
12 Plate Bending Element 572

Introduction 572
12.1 Basic Concepts of Plate Bending 572
12.2 Derivation of a Plate Bending Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations 577
12.3 Some Plate Element Numerical Comparisons 582
12.4 Computer Solutions for Plate Bending Problems 584
References 590
Problems 591
Contents ix
13 Heat Transfer and Mass Transport 599

Introduction 599
13.1 Derivation of the Basic Differential Equation 601
13.2 Heat Transfer with Convection 604
13.3 Typical Units; Thermal Conductivities, K; and Heat Transfer
Coefficients, h 605
13.4 One-Dimensional Finite Element Formulation Using
a Variational Method 607
13.5 Two-Dimensional Finite Element Formulation 626
13.6 Line or Point Sources 636
13.7 Three-Dimensional Heat Transfer by the Finite Element
Method 639
13.8 One-Dimensional Heat Transfer with Mass Transport 641
13.9 Finite Element Formulation of Heat Transfer with Mass Transport
by Galerkin’s Method 642
13.10 Flowchart and Examples of a Heat Transfer Program 646
References 654
Problems 655
14 Fluid Flow in Porous Media and through

Hydraulic Networks; and Electrical Networks
and Electrostatics 673
Introduction 673
14.1 Derivation of the Basic Differential Equations 674
14.2 One-Dimensional Finite Element Formulation 678
14.3 Two-Dimensional Finite Element Formulation 691
14.4 Flowchart and Example of a Fluid-Flow Program 696
14.5 Electrical Networks 697
14.6 Electrostatics 701
References 719
Problems 720
15 Thermal Stress 727

Introduction 727
15.1 Formulation of the Thermal Stress Problem and Examples 727
Reference 753
Problems 754
x Contents
16 Structural Dynamics and Time-Dependent

Heat Transfer 761
Introduction 761
16.1 Dynamics of a Spring-Mass System 762
16.2 Direct Derivation of the Bar Element Equations 764
16.3 Numerical Integration in Time 768
16.4 Natural Frequencies of a One-Dimensional Bar 780
16.5 Time-Dependent One-Dimensional Bar Analysis 784
16.6 Beam Element Mass Matrices and Natural Frequencies 789
16.7 Truss, Plane Frame, Plane Stress, Plane Strain, Axisymmetric, and Solid
Element Mass Matrices 796
16.8 Time-Dependent Heat Transfer 801
16.9 Computer Program Example Solutions for Structural Dynamics 808
References 821
Problems 822
Appendix A Matrix Algebra 827
Appendix B Methods for Solution of Simultaneous

Linear Equations 843
Appendix C Equations from Elasticity Theory 865
Appendix D Equivalent Nodal Forces 873
Appendix E Principle of Virtual Work 876
Appendix F Geometric Properties of Structural Steel Wide-Flange

Sections (W Shapes) 880
Answers to Selected Problems 908
Index 938
xi
P R E FA C E T O T H E S I E D I T I O N
This edition of A First Course in the Finite Element Method, Enhanced Sixth Edition has
been adapted to incorporate the International System of Units (Le Système International
d’Unités or SI) throughout the book.
Le Système International d’Unités

The United States Customary System (USCS) of units uses FPS (foot−pound−second) units
(also called English or Imperial units). SI units are primarily the units of the MKS (meter−
kilogram−second) system. However, CGS (centimeter−gram−second) units are often accepted
as SI units, especially in textbooks.
Using SI Units in this Book

In this book, we have used both MKS and CGS units. USCS (U.S. Customary Units) or
FPS (foot-pound-second) units used in the US Edition of the book have been converted to SI
units throughout the text and problems. However, in case of data sourced from handbooks,
government standards, and product manuals, it is not only extremely difficult to convert all
values to SI, it also encroaches upon the intellectual property of the source. Some data in
figures, tables, and references, therefore, remains in FPS units. For readers unfamiliar with
the relationship between the USCS and the SI systems, a conversion table has been provided
inside the front cover.
To solve problems that require the use of sourced data, the sourced values can be con-
verted from FPS units to SI units just before they are to be used in a calculation. To obtain
standardized quantities and manufacturers’ data in SI units, readers may contact the appropriate
government agencies or authorities in their regions.
Instructor Resources
The Instructors’ Solution Manual in SI units is available through your Sales Representative
or online through the book website at http://login.cengage.com. A digital version of the ISM,
Lecture Note PowerPoint slides for the SI text, as well as other resources are available for
instructors registering on the book website.
Feedback from users of this SI Edition will be greatly appreciated and will help us improve
subsequent editions.
xii
P R E FA C E
Features and Approach

The purpose of this enhanced edition is to provide an introductory approach to the finite
element method that can be understood by both undergraduate and graduate students without
the usual prerequisites (such as structural analysis and upper level calculus) required by many
available texts in this area. The book is written primarily as a basic learning tool for the under-
graduate student in civil and mechanical engineering whose main interest is in stress analysis
and heat transfer, although material on fluid flow in porous media and through hydraulic
networks and electrical networks and electrostatics is also included. The concepts are presented
in sufficiently simple form with numerous example problems logically placed throughout the
book, so that the book serves as a valuable learning aid for students with other backgrounds, as
well as for practicing engineers. The text is geared toward those who want to apply the finite
element method to solve practical physical problems.
General principles are presented for each topic, followed by traditional applications of
these principles, including longhand solutions, which are in turn followed by computer appli-
cations where relevant. The approach is taken to illustrate concepts used for computer analysis
of large-scale problems.
The book proceeds from basic to advanced topics and can be suitably used in a two-
course sequence. Topics include basic treatments of (1) simple springs and bars, leading to
two- and three-dimensional truss analysis; (2) beam bending, leading to plane frame, grid, and
space frame analysis; (3) elementary plane stress/strain elements, leading to more advanced
plane stress/strain elements and applications to more complex plane stress/strain analysis;
(4) axisymmetric stress analysis; (5) isoparametric formulation of the finite element method;
(6) three-dimensional stress analysis; (7) plate bending analysis; (8) heat transfer and fluid
mass transport; (9) basic fluid flow through porous media and around solid bodies, hydraulic
networks, electric networks, and electrostatics analysis; (10) thermal stress analysis; and
(11) time-dependent stress and heat transfer.
Additional features include how to handle inclined or skewed boundary conditions, beam
element with nodal hinge, the concept of substructure, the patch test, and practical consider-
ations in modeling and interpreting results.
The direct approach, the principle of minimum potential energy, and Galerkin’s residual
method are introduced at various stages, as required, to develop the equations needed for
analysis.
Appendices provide material on the following topics: (A) basic matrix algebra used
throughout the text; (B) solution methods for simultaneous equations; (C) basic theory of elas-
ticity; (D) work-equivalent nodal forces; (E) the principle of virtual work; and (F) properties
of structural steel shapes.
Preface xiii
More than 100 solved examples appear throughout the text. Most of these examples are
solved “longhand” to illustrate the concepts. More than 570 end-of-chapter problems are pro-
vided to reinforce concepts. The answers to many problems are included in the back of the
book to aid those wanting to verify their work. Those end-of-chapter problems to be solved
using a computer program are marked with a computer symbol.
Additional Features
Additional features of this edition include updated notation used by most engineering instruc-
tors, chapter objectives at the start of each chapter to help students identify what content is
most important to focus on and retain summary equations for handy use at the end of each
chapter, additional information on modeling, and more comparisons of finite element solutions
to analytical solutions.
New Features
Over 140 new problems for solution have been included, and additional design-type prob-
lems have been added to chapters 3, 5, 7, 11, and 12. Additional real-world applications from
industry have been added to enhance student understanding and reinforce concepts. New space
frames, solid-model-type examples, and problems for solution have been added. New examples
from other fields now demonstrate how students can use the Finite Element Method to solve
problems in a variety of engineering and mathematical physics areas. As in the 5 th edition,
this edition deliberately leaves out consideration of special purpose computer programs and
suggests that instructors choose a program they are familiar with to integrate into their finite
element course.
Resources for Instructors

To access instructor resources, including a secure, downloadable Instructor’s Solution
Manual and Lecture Note PowerPoint Slides, please visit our Instructor Resource Center at
http://login.cengage.com.
xiv Digital Resources
Digital Resources
New Digital Solution for Your Engineering Classroom

WebAssign is a powerful digital solution designed by educators to enrich the engineering
teaching and learning experience. With a robust computational engine at its core, WebAssign
provides extensive content, instant assessment, and superior support. WebAssign’s powerful
question editor allows engineering instructors to create their own questions or modify exist-
ing questions. Each question can use any combination of text, mathematical equations and
formulas, sound, pictures, video, and interactive HTML elements. Numbers, words, phrases,
graphics, and sound or video files can be randomized so that each student receives a different
version of the same question. In addition to common question types such as multiple choice,
fill-in-the-blank, essay, and numerical, you can also incorporate robust answer entry palettes
(mathPad, chemPad, calcPad, physPad, Graphing Tool) to input and grade symbolic expres-
sions, equations, matrices, and chemical structures using powerful computer algebra systems.
WebAssign Offers Engineering Instructors the Following

• The ability to create and edit algorithmic and numerical exercises.
• The opportunity to generate randomized iterations of algorithmic and numerical
exercises. When instructors assign numerical WebAssign homework exercises
(engineering math exercises), the WebAssign program offers them the ability
to generate and assign their students differing versions of the same engineering
math exercise. The computational engine extends beyond and provides the
luxury of solving for correct solutions/answers.
• The ability to create and customize numerical questions, allowing students to
enter units, use a specific number of significant digits, use a specific number of
decimal places, respond with a computed answer, or answer within a different
tolerance value than the default.
Visit www.webassign.com/instructors/features/ to learn more. To create an account,
instructors can go directly to the signup page at www.webassign.net/signup.html.
WebAssign Features for Students

Review Concepts at Point of Use
Within WebAssign, a “Read It” button at the bottom of each question links students
to corresponding sections of the textbook, enabling access to the MindTap Reader
at the precise moment of learning. A “Watch It” button allows a short video to play.
These videos help students understand and review the problem they need to complete,
enabling support at the precise moment of learning.
Digital Resources xv
My Class Insights
WebAssign’s built-in study feature shows performance across course topics so that students
can quickly identify which concepts they have mastered and which areas they may need to
spend more time on.
Ask Your Teacher

This powerful feature enables students to contact their instructor with questions about a spe-
cific assignment or problem they are working on.
MindTap Reader
Available via WebAssign and our digital subscription service, Cengage Unlimited,
MindTap Reader is Cengage’s next-generation eBook for engineering students.
The MindTap Reader provides more than just text learning for the student. It offers
a variety of tools to help our future engineers learn chapter concepts in a way that
resonates with their workflow and learning styles.
Personalize their experience

Within the MindTap Reader, students can highlight key concepts, add notes, and book-
mark pages. These are collected in My Notes, ensuring they will have their own study
guide when it comes time to study for exams.
xvi Digital Resources
Flexibility at their fingertips

With access to the book’s internal glossary, students can personalize their study expe-
rience by creating and collating their own custom flashcards. The ReadSpeaker feature
reads text aloud to students, so they can learn on the go—wherever they are.
The Cengage Mobile App

Available on iOS and Android smartphones, the Cengage Mobile App provides conve-
nience. Students can access their entire textbook anyplace and anytime. They can take notes,
highlight important passages, and have their text read aloud whether they are online or off.
To learn more and download the mobile app, visit www.cengage.com/mobile-app/.
All-You-Can-Learn Access with Cengage Unlimited

Cengage Unlimited is the cost-saving student plan that includes access to our entire
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skill-building activities. To learn more, visit www.cengage.com/unlimited.
Digital Resources xvii
Suggested Topics
Following is an outline of suggested topics for a first course (approximately 44 lectures,
52 minutes each) in which this textbook is used.
Topic Number of Lectures
Appendix A 1
Appendix B 1
Chapter 1 2
Chapter 2 3
Chapter 3, Sections 3.1–3.11, 3.14 and 3.15 5
Exam 1 1
Chapter 4, Sections 4.1–4.6 4
Chapter 5, Sections 5.1–5.3, 5.5 4
Chapter 6 4
Chapter 7 3
Exam 2 1
Chapter 9 2
Chapter 10 4
Chapter 11 3
Chapter 13, Sections 13.1–13.7 5
Chapter 15 3
Exam 3 1
Acknowledgments
I express my deepest appreciation to the staff at Cengage Learning especially Tim Anderson,
Publisher; Mona Zeftel, Content Developer and Teresa Versaggi, Product Assistant; and to Rose
Kernan of RPK Editorial Services for their assistance in producing this new edition.
I am grateful to Dr. Ted Belytschko for his excellent teaching of the finite element method,
which aided me in writing this text. Also I want to thank the many students at the University
for their suggestions on ways to make topics easier to understand. These suggestions have been
incorporated into this edition as well.
I also wish to thank the reviewers for this enhanced edition who include Raghu Agarwal, San
Jose State University; Mohammad Alimi, California State University, Fresno; K. Chandrashek-
hara, Missouri University of Science and Technology; Howie Fang, University of North Carolina,
Charlotte; Winfred Foster, Auburn University; Kenneth Miller, St. Cloud State University; Ronald
Rorrer, University of Colorado, Denver; and Charles Yang, Wichita State University.
I thank many students at the University of Wisconsin-Platteville (UWP), whose names
are credited throughout the book, for contributing various two-and three-dimensional models
from the finite element course. Thank you also to UWP graduate student William Gobeli for
Table 11-2. Also special thanks to Andrew Heckman, an alum of UWP and Design E ngineer at
Seagraves Fire Apparatus for permission to use Figure 11-10 and to Mr. Yousif Omer, S tructural
Engineer at John Deere Dubuque Works for allowing permission to use Figure 1-11. I want to
thank the people at Autodesk for their contribution of Figure 9-2b. Finally, I want to thank Ioan
Giosan, Senior Design Engineer at Valmont West Coast Engineering for allowing permission
to use Figures 1-12 and 1-13.
xviii
N O T AT I O N
English Symbols
ai generalized coordinates (coefficients used to express displacement in general
form)
A cross-sectional area
[B] matrix relating strains to nodal displacements or relating temperature
gradient to nodal temperatures
c specific heat of a material
[C9] matrix relating stresses to nodal displacements
C direction cosine in two dimensions
C x , C y, Cz direction cosines in three dimensions
{d} element and structure nodal displacement matrix, both in global coordinates
{d9} local-coordinate element nodal displacement matrix
D bending rigidity of a plate
[D] matrix relating stresses to strains
[ D9] operator matrix given by Eq. (10.2.16)
e exponential function
E modulus of elasticity
{f} global-coordinate nodal force matrix
{ f 9} local-coordinate element nodal force matrix
{ fb } body force matrix
{ fh } heat transfer force matrix
{ fq } heat flux force matrix
{ fQ } heat source force matrix
{ fs } surface force matrix
{F} global-coordinate structure force matrix
{Fc} condensed force matrix
{Fi } global nodal forces
{F0 } equivalent force matrix
{g} temperature gradient matrix or hydraulic gradient matrix
G shear modulus
h heat-transfer (or convection) coefficient
i, j, m nodes of a triangular element
I principal moment of inertia
[J ] Jacobian matrix
k spring stiffness
[k] global-coordinate element stiffness or conduction matrix
[ kc ] condensed stiffness matrix, and conduction part of the stiffness matrix in
heat-transfer problems
[ k9] local-coordinate element stiffness matrix
[kn ] convective part of the stiffness matrix in heat-transfer problems
[K] global-coordinate structure stiffness matrix
K xx , K yy thermal conductivities (or permeabilities, for fluid mechanics) in the x and y
directions, respectively
L length of a bar or beam element
Notation xix
m maximum difference in node numbers in an element

m(x) general moment expression
mx , m y , mxy moments in a plate
[m9], [m] local element mass matrix
[m9i ] local nodal moments
[M] global mass matrix
[M*] matrix used to relate displacements to generalized coordinates for a
linear-strain triangle formulation
[ M9] matrix used to relate strains to generalized coordinates for a linear-strain
triangle formulation
nb bandwidth of a structure
nd number of degrees of freedom per node
[N] shape (interpolation or basis) function matrix
Ni shape functions
p surface pressure (or nodal heads in fluid mechanics)
pr , pz radial and axial (longitudinal) pressures, respectively
P concentrated load
[ P9] concentrated local force matrix
q heat flow (flux) per unit area or distributed loading on a plate
q rate of heat flow
q* heat flow per unit area on a boundary surface
Q heat source generated per unit volume or internal fluid source
Q* line or point heat source
Qx , Q y transverse shear line loads on a plate
r, u, z radial, circumferential, and axial coordinates, respectively
R residual in Galerkin’s integral
Rb body force in the radial direction
Rix, Riy nodal reactions in x and y directions, respectively
s, t, z9 natural coordinates attached to isoparametric element
S surface area
t thickness of a plane element or a plate element
ti , t j , t m nodal temperatures of a triangular element
T temperature function
T` free-stream temperature
[T] displacement, force, and stiffness transformation matrix
[Ti ] surface traction matrix in the i direction
u, v, w displacement functions in the x, y, and z directions, respectively
ui , vi , wi x, y, and z displacements at node i, respectively
U strain energy
ΔU change in stored energy
v velocity of fluid flow
V shear force in a beam
w distributed loading on a beam or along an edge of a plane element
W work
xi, yi , zi nodal coordinates in the x, y, and z directions, respectively
x9, y9, z9 local element coordinate axes
x, y, z structure global or reference coordinate axes
[X ] body force matrix
X b , Yb body forces in the x and y directions, respectively
Zb body force in longitudinal direction (axisymmetric case)
or in the z direction (three-dimensional case)
xx Notation
Greek Symbols
a coefficient of thermal expansion
ai , bi, g i, di used to express the shape functions defined by Eq. (6.2.10) and
Eqs. (11.2.5) through (11.2.8)
d spring or bar deformation
e normal strain
{«T } thermal strain matrix
k x , k y , k xy curvatures in plate bending
n Poisson’s ratio
fi nodal angle of rotation or slope in a beam element
ph functional for heat-transfer problem
pp total potential energy
r mass density of a material
rw weight density of a material
v angular velocity and natural circular frequency
Ω potential energy of forces
f fluid head or potential, or rotation or slope in a beam
s normal stress
{s T } thermal stress matrix
t shear stress and period of vibration
u angle between the x axis and the local x9 axis for two-dimensional
problems
up principal angle
u x , u y, uz angles between the global x, y, and z axes and the local x9 axis,
respectively, or rotations about the x and y axes in a plate
[c] general displacement function matrix
Other Symbols
d( )
derivative of a variable with respect to x
dx
dt time differential
(⋅) the dot over a variable denotes that the variable is being differentiated
with respect to time
[] denotes a rectangular or a square matrix
{} denotes a column matrix
(_) the underline of a variable denotes a matrix
(9 ) the prime next to a variable denotes that the variable is being described
in a local coordinate system
[ ]21 denotes the inverse of a matrix
[ ]T denotes the transpose of a matrix
( )
partial derivative with respect to x
x
( )
partial derivative with respect to each variable in {d}
{x}
CHAPTER
Introduction
1
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:

■ Present an introduction to the finite element method.
■ Provide a brief history of the finite element method.
■ Introduce matrix notation.
■ Describe the role of the computer in the development of the finite element method.
■ Present the general steps used in the finite element method.
■ Illustrate the various types of elements used in the finite element method.
■ Show typical applications of the finite element method.
■ Summarize some of the advantages of the finite element method.
Prologue
The finite element method is a numerical method for solving problems of engineering and
mathematical physics. Typical problem areas of interest in engineering and mathematical
physics that are solvable by use of the finite element method include structural analysis, heat
transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and electromagnetic potential.
For physical systems involving complicated geometries, loadings, and material proper-
ties, it is generally not possible to obtain analytical mathematical solutions to simulate the
response of the physical system. Analytical solutions are those given by a mathematical
expression that yields the values of the desired unknown quantities at any location in a body
(here total structure or physical system of interest) and are thus valid for an infinite number of
locations in the body. These analytical solutions generally require the solution of ordinary or
partial differential equations, typically created by engineers, physicists, and mathematicians
to eliminate the need for the creation and testing of numerous prototype designs, which may
be quite costly. Because of the complicated geometries, loadings, and material properties, the
solution to these differential equations is usually not obtainable. Hence, we need to rely on
numerical methods, such as the finite element method, that can approximate the solution to
these equations.
The finite element formulation of the problem results in a system of simultaneous algebraic
equations for solution, rather than requiring the solution of differential equations. These numerical
2 1 | Introduction
Typical fixed node
(a) Fixed nodes along bottom of dam (b)
Figure 1–1 Two-dimensional models of (a) discretized dam and (b) discretized bicycle wrench
(Applied loads are not shown.) All elements and nodes lie in a plane.
methods yield approximate values of the unknowns at discrete numbers of points in the contin-
uum. Hence, this process of modeling a body by dividing it into an equivalent system of smaller
bodies of units (finite elements) interconnected at points common to two or more elements (nodal
points or nodes) and/or boundary lines and/or surfaces is called discretization. Figure 1–1 shows
a cross section of a concrete dam and a bicycle wrench, respectively, that illustrate this process
of discretization, where the dam has been divided into 490 plane triangular elements and the
wrench has been divided into 254 plane quadrilateral elements. In both models the elements are
connected at nodes and along inter element boundary lines. In the finite element method, instead
of solving the problem for the entire body in one operation, we formulate the equations for each
finite element and then combine them to obtain the solution for the whole body.
Briefly, the solution for structural problems typically refers to determining the displace-
ments at each node and the stresses within each element making up the structure that is sub-
jected to applied loads. In nonstructural problems, the nodal unknowns may, for instance, be
temperatures or fluid pressures due to thermal or fluid fluxes.
This chapter first presents a brief history of the development of the finite element method.
You will see from this historical account that the method has become a practical one for
solving engineering problems only in the past 60 years (paralleling the developments asso-
ciated with the modern high-speed electronic digital computer). This historical account is
followed by an introduction to matrix notation; then we describe the need for matrix methods
(as made practical by the development of the modern digital computer) in formulating the
equations for solution. This section discusses both the role of the digital computer in solving
the large systems of simultaneous algebraic equations associated with complex problems and
the development of numerous computer programs based on the finite element method. Next, a
general description of the steps involved in obtaining a solution to a problem is provided. This
description includes discussion of the types of elements available for a finite element method
solution. Various representative applications are then presented to illustrate the capacity of the
method to solve problems, such as those involving complicated geometries, several different
materials, and irregular loadings. Chapter 1 also lists some of the advantages of the finite
element method in solving problems of engineering and mathematical physics. Finally, we
present numerous features of computer programs based on the finite element method.
1.1 Brief History 3
1.1 Brief History

This section presents a brief history of the finite element method as applied to both structural
and nonstructural areas of engineering and to mathematical physics. References cited here are
intended to augment this short introduction to the historical background.
The modern development of the finite element method began in the 1940s in the field of
structural engineering with the work by Hrennikoff [1] in 1941 and McHenry [2] in 1943,
who used a lattice of line (one-dimensional) elements (bars and beams) for the solution of
stresses in continuous solids. In a paper published in 1943 but not widely recognized for many
years, Courant [3] proposed setting up the solution of stresses in a variational form. Then he
introduced piecewise interpolation (or shape) functions over triangular subregions making up
the whole region as a method to obtain approximate numerical solutions. In 1947 Levy [4]
developed the flexibility or force method, and in 1953 his work [5] suggested that another
method (the stiffness or displacement method) could be a promising alternative for use in
analyzing statically redundant aircraft structures. However, his equations were cumbersome
to solve by hand, and thus the method became popular only with the advent of the high-speed
digital computer.
In 1954 Argyris and Kelsey [6, 7] developed matrix structural analysis methods using
energy principles. This development illustrated the important role that energy principles
would play in the finite element method.
The first treatment of two-dimensional elements was by Turner et al. [8] in 1956.
They derived stiffness matrices for truss elements, beam elements, and two-dimensional
triangular and rectangular elements in plane stress and outlined the procedure commonly
known as the direct stiffness method for obtaining the total structure stiffness matrix.
Along with the development of the high-speed digital computer in the early 1950s, the
work of Turner et al. [8] prompted further development of finite element stiffness equa-
tions expressed in matrix notation. The phrase finite element was introduced by Clough
[9] in 1960 when both triangular and rectangular elements were used for plane stress
analysis.
A flat, rectangular-plate bending-element stiffness matrix was developed by Melosh [10]
in 1961. This was followed by development of the curved-shell bending-element stiffness
matrix for axisymmetric shells and pressure vessels by Grafton and Strome [11] in 1963.
Extension of the finite element method to three-dimensional problems with the develop-
ment of a tetrahedral stiffness matrix was done by Martin [12] in 1961, by Gallagher et al. [13]
in 1962, and by Melosh [14] in 1963. Additional three-dimensional elements were studied by
Argyris [15] in 1964. The special case of axisymmetric solids was considered by Clough and
Rashid [16] and Wilson [17] in 1965.
Most of the finite element work up to the early 1960s dealt with small strains and small
displacements, elastic material behavior, and static loadings. However, large deflection and
thermal analysis were considered by Turner et al. [18] in 1960 and material nonlinearities by
Gallagher et al. [13] in 1962, whereas buckling problems were initially treated by Gallagher
and Padlog [19] in 1963. Zienkiewicz et al. [20] extended the method to visco elasticity prob-
lems in 1968.
In 1965 Archer [21] considered dynamic analysis in the development of the consistent-mass
matrix, which is applicable to analysis of distributed-mass systems such as bars and beams in
structural analysis.
4 1 | Introduction
With Melosh’s [14] realization in 1963 that the finite element method could be set up
in terms of a variational formulation, it began to be used to solve nonstructural applications.
Field problems, such as determination of the torsion of a shaft, fluid flow, and heat conduction,
were solved by Zienkiewicz and Cheung [22] in 1965, Martin [23] in 1968, and Wilson and
Nickel [24] in 1966.
Further extension of the method was made possible by the adaptation of weighted resid-
ual methods, first by Szabo and Lee [25] in 1969 to derive the previously known elasticity
equations used in structural analysis and then by Zienkiewicz and Parekh [26] in 1970 for
transient field problems. It was then recognized that when direct formulations and variational
formulations are difficult or not possible to use, the method of weighted residuals may at
times be appropriate. For example, in 1977 Lyness et al. [27] applied the method of weighted
residuals to the determination of magnetic field.
In 1976, Belytschko [28, 29] considered problems associated with large-displacement
nonlinear dynamic behavior and improved numerical techniques for solving the resulting sys-
tems of equations. For more on these topics, consult the texts by Belytschko, Liu, Moran [58],
and Crisfield [61, 62].
A relatively new field of application of the finite element method is that of bioengineering
[30, 31]. This field is still troubled by such difficulties as nonlinear materials, geometric non-
linearities, and other complexities still being discovered.
From the early 1950s to the present, enormous advances have been made in the appli-
cation of the finite element method to solve complicated engineering problems. Engineers,
applied mathematicians, and other scientists will undoubtedly continue to develop new appli-
cations. For an extensive bibliography on the finite element method, consult the work of Kard-
estuncer [32], Clough [33], or Noor [57].
1.2 Introduction to Matrix Notation

Matrix methods are a necessary tool used in the finite element method for purposes of simpli-
fying the formulation of the element stiffness equations, for purposes of longhand solutions of
various problems, and, most important, for use in programming the methods for high-speed
electronic digital computers. Hence matrix notation represents a simple and easy-to-use nota-
tion for writing and solving sets of simultaneous algebraic equations.
Appendix A discusses the significant matrix concepts used throughout the text. We will
present here only a brief summary of the notation used in this text.
A matrix is a rectangular array of quantities arranged in rows and columns that is
often used as an aid in expressing and solving a system of algebraic equations. As exam-
ples of matrices that will be described in subsequent chapters, the force components
( F1x , F1 y , F1z , F2 x , F2 y , F2 z , . . . , Fnx , Fny , Fnz ) acting at the various nodes or points (1, 2, . . . , n) on
a structure and the corresponding set of nodal displacements (u1 , v1 , w1 , u2 , v2 , w2 , . . ., un , vn , wn )
can both be expressed as matrices:
1.2 Introduction to Matrix Notation 5
 F1x   u1 
   
 F1 y  v1
 
 F1z   w1 
   
 F2 x  u2
 
 F2 y   v2 
{F } 5   {d } 5   (1.2.1)
 F2 z   w2 
   
 Fnx   un 
  
 Fny   vn 
   wn 
 Fnz   

The subscripts to the right of F identify the node and the direction of force, respectively. For
instance, F1x denotes the force at node 1 applied in the x direction. The x, y, and z displace-
ments at a node are denoted by u, v, and w, respectively. The subscript next to u, v, and w
denotes the node. For instance, u1 , v1 , and w1 denote the displacement components in the
x, y, and z directions, respectively, at node 1. The matrices in Eqs. (1.2.1) are called column
matrices and have a size of n 3 1 . The brace notation {} will be used throughout the text to
denote a column matrix. The whole set of force or displacement values in the column matrix
is simply represented by {F} or {d}.
The more general case of a known rectangular matrix will be indicated by use of the
bracket notation [ ]. For instance, the element and global structure stiffness matrices [k] and
[K], respectively, developed throughout the text for various element types (such as those in
Figure 1–2 on page 11), are represented by square matrices given as
 k11 k12 k1n 

 
k21 k22 k2n
[k ] 5   (1.2.2)
 
 
 kn1 kn 2 knn 
and
 K11 K12 K1n 

 
K 21 K 22 K 2n
[K ] 5   (1.2.3)
 
 K Kn2 K nn 
 n1 
where, in structural theory, the elements kij and K ij are often referred to as stiffness influence
coefficients.
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of the Fierce Beasts, for the water assuaged after nine years, and
the ravages of the man-eaters were confined to one place. Opium
has spread with frightful rapidity and heartrending results through the
provinces. Millions upon millions have been struck down by the
plague. To-day it is running like wild-fire. In its swift deadly course it
is spreading devastation everywhere, wrecking the minds and eating
away the strength and wealth of its victims. The ruin of the mind is
the most woeful of its many deleterious effects. The poison
enfeebles the will, saps the strength of the body, renders the
consumer incapable of performing his regular duties, and unfit for
travel from one place to another. It consumes his substance and
reduces the miserable wretch to poverty, barrenness and senility.
Unless something is soon done to arrest this awful scourge in its
devastating march, the Chinese people will be transformed into
satyrs and devils!”[20] Many thoughtful Chinese are apprehensive
that opium will finally extirpate the race. This is a severe indictment,
but there are plenty of leading men who will endorse it.
The Republican Government determined to stamp out the evil, and
none but the Chinese could have accomplished so great a reform so
rapidly: in many of the northern provinces there is no poppy grown.
But the Southern Government has not followed suit. No doubt the
question of revenue prevents it; for opium is one of the most
lucrative crops as regards taxation. Naturally there are times of great
scarcity, and then it is quite common for the people to sell their
children for food. A missionary told us of one child being sold for one
and a half dollars (about three shillings): this was a boy of three
years old. We saw two nice little girls on the road being taken to be
sold as slaves.
After leaving Küticul we found our coolies very troublesome, and
had to have recourse to the magistrate on two occasions, with a
good result. One day the men firmly refused to go more than an
absurdly short stage, and deposited us in the middle of a village. Our
head man stormed and raged, not another step would they budge.
Finally we made a compromise: we stayed there on the
understanding that they would do a hundred and five li next day,
about thirty-two miles. The magistrate later in the day had an
interview with Li and the head coolie, and emphasized the fact that
the agreement had got to be carried out, and the escort was
instructed to come early.
The spell worked! We started about six o’clock on a lovely misty
morning, the dew lying heavy on the grass, and our men walked with
a will for some hours. But like the mist, their zeal evaporated: after
lunch they said they must each have a dollar to go on. Li was in
despair at seeing his remonstrances unheeded. I sent him off to the
magistrate. He counselled giving them ten cents each, and ordered
them to start: there was nothing to be done save agree to it, as the
head coolie had disappeared, evidently feeling unable to cope with
the situation. The men grumbled, but set off, and by a quarter past
six we reached Ping-yi, a stiff twelve hours’ journey. We felt a little
sorry for the luggage coolies and wondered if the loads were not
rather heavy, but as they raced at the end of the stage to see who
would be in first, we felt our pity was misplaced. We stayed in
mission premises where a kind old caretaker was most solicitous for
our welfare. Yao could hardly be persuaded not to prepare our
evening meal, but we decided to prepare it for ourselves and sent
him off to the inn with Li.
This was our last night in Yünnan, and we had a wonderful
moonlight view over the valley, which, combined with a hard bed, led
me to spend much of the night beside the window, writing letters. It
was an unwonted pleasure to sleep upstairs and to have a view.
Next day in our escort we had a most friendly young policeman,
who was keen to help us pick flowers after assiduously dealing with
our luggage. We crossed several fine bridges and counted seven
varieties of roses, five varieties of azaleas, iris, Japanese anemones,
etc., etc. By midday we had climbed up to the dividing line between
the provinces of Yünnan and Kweichow: it was marked by a most
dilapidated archway leading into a little village. The usual tutelary
stone lions are on either side the pailou, but those facing into
Yünnan have dust and fishy scales carved on their backs, while
those facing into Kweichow have only scales. What is the meaning of
this symbolism? Dust stands for wind and scales for water, and truly
Yünnan has not only rain but also wind in full measure, while as for
Kweichow, we no sooner crossed the threshold than the sun
disappeared and down came the rain.
One day we asked a Kweichow man who had attached himself
uninvited to our company, when we might hope to see the sunshine!
He took a long time to answer the question, and appeared to have
been giving Li an exhaustive discourse on the nature of sunshine.
However, the summary of the discourse was that under the old
Imperial regime things were fixed, and you could count upon them—
but under a Republic you could be sure of nothing!
Chapter IV
The Province of Kweichow
“Methinks there’s a genius

Roams in the mountains.
...
But dark is the forest
Where now is my dwelling,
Never the light of day
Reaches its shadow.
Thither a perilous
Pathway meanders.
Lonely I stand
On the lonelier hill-top,
Cloudland beneath me
And cloudland around me.
Softly the wind bloweth,
Softly the rain falls,
Joy like a mist blots
The thoughts of my home out.”
—(Ch’ü Yüan: Fourth Century b.c.)

Translated by Cranmer Byng.
Chapter IV
The Province of Kweichow
Not only is there a gateway leading out of Yünnan, but also one of
a quite different character leading into Kweichow, and situated at the
other end of the little frontier village. It is a solid stone gateway in a
stone wall.
We passed
along a short
bit of level
street at a
height of
6,200 feet
before we
came to the
wall, and
then we
plunged
down a steep
rocky path,
with a
wonderful
view of deep
valleys
surrounded
by abrupt
and jagged
mountains.
We found
A HAYSTACK.
that day
seven new
varieties of
roses, all very sweet-scented, also rhododendrons, azaleas and
irises. At our halting-place for the night (5,300 feet) we climbed a
little hill crowned with a Buddhist temple, and looked down on trees,
which formed a floor of delicate white blossom as light as
snowflakes, trees quite unknown to me, and no one there seemed
able to give us even a Chinese name for them. It is very difficult to
get information, and we had not the time for making collections.
I tried to learn about them when I came home, and found that
there is in existence a large folio of manuscript of descriptions and
specimens of plants collected by French fathers in this province; but
as no one visits Kweichow there was no demand for such a work,
and there is no hope of it being published. The collection is at the
Edinburgh Botanical Gardens. It was the same with other things: the
mountains often had the strangest forms, and I made careful
drawings of their outlines. Photos were usually out of the question,
as the mountains were too close; they rose up like walls all round us,
and the light was always in the wrong quarter. On my return home I
went cheerfully to learned societies with confident hope of slaking
my thirst for knowledge, but alas! No books on such an unknown
part, the very name of course unknown. When my drawings had
been duly inspected, the remark made was, “I must compliment you
on your sketches, I have never seen mountains like that!” Was there
a touch of irony in the remark?
Truly Kweichow is a wonderful country and beautiful in the
extreme, as the late Dr. Morrison (adviser to the Chinese
Government) told me when I went to get his advice before starting.
“You could not have chosen a more interesting part to travel in,” he
said, “nor a more beautiful one”; and he had travelled in almost every
part of China. It is full of different aboriginal races of whom very little
is known, its flora is remarkably rich and varied, and its geology a
continual surprise.
The second day across the border we crossed a small plain from
which rise a series of round low mounds, like pudding-basins, from
the flat ricefields—an extraordinary contrast to the lofty, jagged
mountains from which we had just descended. In the midst of it all
was a curious tumbled heap of lava-like appearance, looking as if it
had been ejected from the earth by some colossal earthworms. Sir
Alexander Hosie says[21] that there is a parallel row of these mounds
about ten miles to the south: they run east and west. In the ricefields
I saw a brilliant kingfisher, hanging poised in mid-air in search of
prey, while a heron stalked away at our approach.
The rain grew more and more persistent, and the roads were
muddy and slippery to the last degree. Even the sure-footed Chinese
kept tumbling down, and it was almost less trying to walk than to be
bumped down in our chairs. As we advanced into the province the
culture of the opium poppy (papaver somniferum) increased till it was
as much as ninety-nine per cent. of the crops, and the appearance of
the inhabitants showed only too plainly its disastrous effects. In
some of the villages the children were naked, although it was still
cold weather, being only the beginning of April. In the markets the
goods were of the meanest and cheapest description, and the
people looked abject. They rushed out to beg from us. The main
industry of the district was evidently the making of coal balls. The
coal lies actually on the surface, and has only to be scraped
together, mixed with a little earth and water, and then dried: it burns
quite well. Some of the coal is used for fertilizing the ground, being
reduced to ash by being burnt in pits with stones piled on it. Lime
also is used for the poppy fields. Sometimes the coal holes by the
wayside are a couple of yards in diameter. The coir palm is to be
seen in every village, and loquats and walnut trees are cultivated for
their fruit.
We struggled along through a thick mist one day, and one after
another went down like ninepins on the slippery path. One of my
bearers cut his ankle, and was thankful for the doctor’s attentions.
Suddenly I heard an ominous roaring sound, and looked in vain for
the cause. It proved to be produced by a big stream, which
disappeared into a hole in the earth; this appears to be quite a
common phenomenon, and later on we saw one bubble out of the
ground in the same strange fashion.
Another shape of hill attracted my attention, and as I tried to
reproduce it accurately on paper it became obvious that this was one
of the Chinese mountain forms with which one has been familiar
from childhood in their pictures, and which one had supposed to be a
work of imagination. As they always hold in their canons of art that
“form” is quite subsidiary to “spirit,” I imagined that it was not inability
to imitate form accurately, but a deliberate intention of ignoring it in
order to express some more important truth that was the cause of
their drawing, what seemed to me, such unnatural mountains. But
here one discovered that these forms are natural in China, and it is
after all only our ignorance that makes us so misjudge them.
There were hedges by the roadside all bursting into leaf and
blossom, and I never saw such a wealth of ferns of many kinds.
There was material for a whole volume on ferns alone. Lofty trees of
catalpa bungei with their purple blossom, and Boehmeria nivea grew
by the roadside, and rhea grass in the village gardens.
We generally started the day in a damp mist, and were happy
when it cleared away, even though there was no sunshine. We
scanned the hedges for roses, and felt quite aggrieved if we failed to
find fresh varieties every single day. A lovely blush rose filled us with
delight, but pink moss-roses were only seen on one occasion. We
decided that nowhere else could a greater variety of roses be found:
we counted twenty-three varieties before we left the province, and
felt sure we should have found many more had we stayed longer, for
they were hardly in full bloom by the end of April. One day I picked
up a broken branch on the road, thrown away by some passer-by no
doubt because it had no blossoms on it, but the bright green leaves
were a lovely violet on the under side, and I searched in vain to find
a bush of it growing, in order to see what the flowers were like.
Then, too, the birds were reminiscent of home—magpies, larks,
woodpeckers, wagtails, and even the aggravating cuckoo. But there
was one elusive little fellow, known to all dwellers in Kweichow,
though no one could tell me his name: he had a long shrill note with
a short tut-tut-tut at the end. We both watched for him daily, as he
seemed to haunt our path continually, but never could we catch a
sight of him, so dexterously did he hide himself. Occasionally we
thought we saw him, but it was so momentary a glimpse that we
were never sure; the bird we saw looked about the size and shape
and colour of a linnet.
The fourth day in Kweichow we came to a splendid three-arch
bridge in a fertile valley, and spent the night in a very different village
from most—Kuan Tzu Yao. A number of fine new houses were in
course of construction, built largely of stone; amongst others, a post
office next door to our inn. The postal system in China is really
wonderful, even in this backward province, and we had a most
charming surprise at the first post town we entered. Our interpreter
went to the post office, and was surprised at being asked if he were
travelling with English ladies. On admitting this, he was asked to
inform us that if we were in need of money we could draw as much
as was necessary at any office we came to, by order of the postal
commissioner at Kwei Yang. The reason for this delightful
arrangement was that the English Commissioner at Taiyuanfu,
whose advice we had asked about transmitting money, said he
would write to his Chinese colleague and ask him to help us if we got
into difficulties, because of the prevalent highway robberies. This
gentleman was ill at the time the letter reached him, but he
telegraphed to Taiyuanfu as soon as he was fit, that he would do
what he could—and this was his splendid way of meeting the
difficulty. No finer testimony could be wanted of the way the Chinese
trust our people.
The postal system is a fine piece of organization: it reaches to the
utmost bounds of the empire, and although the mails are mainly
carried by runners on foot, they travel very rapidly. The stages are
not long, and there is no delay when the bags are handed from one
runner to the next. For instance, we were told that on this particular
road, what we did in seventeen days the mails would do in four, and
we did an average of eighteen miles a day. We had postal maps
given us of the provinces we were going to visit. On them are
marked all the postal stations, with the distances from one to
another; the line of route; the various grades of offices; the limit of
the district; daily or bi-daily day and night service; daily, bi-daily or tri-
daily service; less frequent ones; postal connexion by boat;
telegraphic connexion; rural box offices, etc. The names of the main
towns are in both Chinese and English, the others only in Chinese.
On the whole, letters travel wonderfully safely. The old postal system
was quite hopeless, and in the interior the missionaries used to
organize their own. Even Peking used to be closed to the rest of the
world yearly for several months. I remember six months when we
had no letters from my sister in Shansi, due to a misunderstanding at
a transmitting station, and there was no telegraphic communication
in those days. Now the old Chinese system has practically died out.
We had another proof of the thoughtfulness of the Chinese
commissioner later. Having heard from one of the missionaries that
we were going into the Miao country before coming to the capital, he
sent up all our letters, a tremendous boon after being weeks without
any. The postal service is under international control, having been
originated in 1896 and built up by Sir Robert Hart in connexion with
the customs: in each province there is a commissioner; nearly all are
Europeans.
As we got further into the province the vegetation grew more and
more luxuriant. The banks were carpeted with lycopodium and
primula and the hedges were full of roses, white and yellow jasmine,
hawthorn, clematis montana, Akebia lobata—a very curious creeper
with wine-coloured blossom, both male and female. The brilliant
yellow-blossomed cassia forms a most impenetrable hedge, with
upstanding thorns, like nails, all along its tough stems. We tied water
jars into our chairs, so as to keep the flowers fresh, and by the end
of the day the chairs were perfect bowers, our men vying with one
another to get us the choicest blossoms. Perhaps the most beautiful
of any was the large white, sweet-scented rhododendron, the
Hymenocallis. This is rare; we only found it once.
The scenery was very grand; long ranges of jagged mountains
and precipitous cliffs, but the road was not in the least dangerous
from that point of view. It was extremely slippery and a heavy mist
lay over everything in the early hours of most days: our men kept
tumbling down. The only one who seemed always steady was Yao,
and he constituted himself my guardian on slippery days, holding my
elbow with a relentless grip, which certainly prevented my tumbling
down and gave me confidence.
At Kuan Tzu Yao we found a nice clean new inn, courtyard behind
courtyard, and each raised a step or two above the last: ours was
the innermost, and we felt unusually secluded. The next night our
immediate neighbours were two fine water buffaloes with their
calves. They are the most valuable domestic animals throughout this
country, as they plough the ricefields quite happily when they are
under water. These two were taken out to work in the early morning,
and we were amused to see a little tatterdemalion bringing them
back in a perfect fury to fetch their calves, which had been left in the
shed. The buffaloes seem to be generally left in the care of boys,
who manage them with much skill, and love to disport themselves on
their broad backs, often lying negligently at ease along them, looking
as much at home as if they were an integral part of the creature.
They are sluggish animals, coming originally from the Philippines.
Leaving Tu Tien our men seemed possessed of a sudden energy,
and went at a great rate, doing nearly seven miles in two hours.
Sometimes we thought we were lacking in humanity to give them
such heavy loads; but then again our scruples seemed foolish in the
light of certain experiences. For instance, one man carried two heavy
suit-cases and a chair, another two large carved window-frames and
a bed, but it didn’t prevent them taking a steep bank at a run, or
having a race at the end of a thirty-mile stage to see who would be in
first. The Chinese coolie is really an amusing creature, and even if
he is clad in rags he finds life a cheerful business. I used to try and
count the patches on the coat of one of my coolies, and never made
them less than forty-six between the neck and waistband, not
including those on the sleeves!
Then the incidents of travel have a humorous side, even on a wet
day in a dangerous neighbourhood. Instead of having our light
midday meal as usual by the roadside near the village, where the
men get theirs, one is obliged to have it in the chairs, placed side by
side in the main street of a busy town. Our escort draws an
imaginary cordon round us, and no one dares approach within two
yards as long as they mount guard. It was a thrilling sight for the
assembled crowd to watch the barbarians wielding knives and forks,
instead of the dear, familiar chopsticks. I must say they behaved
beautifully.
When I sat down to sketch a lovely river scene outside a village
gateway, though many came to look on they did not jostle. These
entrance gates are often quite imposing and of infinite variety. Just
inside was a fine litter of pigs, with a most important-looking sow,
and it was amusing to watch their antics. On a doorstep, extended at
full length lay a large hairy black pig. Its face wore a beatific
expression, with half-closed eyes of rapt enjoyment, while a woman
vigorously groomed it with her brush.
The mountains of Kweichow give shelter to many wild animals,
and even tigers, as well as leopards, are to be found, which cause
great havoc in some of the villages. One story we heard throws an
interesting light on the way the natives look at them. A tiger had
been doing so much damage that the peasantry determined to have
a battue, having tracked it to a certain hill, from which they thought it
would be impossible for it to escape. They formed a cordon round
the hill and gradually drove it to the top. The tiger, in search of
refuge, looked into a shrine, and its pursuers saw this: they
exclaimed, “It is certainly the God of the Hill”; so they turned tail and
fled. Naturally, the tiger seeing this took the opportunity of attacking
them in the rear, and several were badly mauled.[22]
Some of the mountains are very barren, others wonderfully
cultivated, on terraces right up to the very top, and in rocky hollows
only about a foot in diameter, with a mere handful of soil in them.
How the scanty population can do such a vast amount of cultivation
was a mystery we could never solve. One day we started from an
altitude of eighteen hundred feet and climbed over a pass of forty-
eight hundred, whence there was a wonderful panoramic view; our
road could be seen for many miles, winding along the mountainside
above a narrow valley; then diving down into it and up the opposite
side. Our men said the last part of that day’s march, ten li (three
miles), would be on the level, which sounded pleasant news. In point
of fact we dropped nine hundred feet. A fine entrance gate led into
Lang Tai Fung. Just outside the wall were the ruins of an old temple
with a handsome stone carved bridge in front of it, enclosed within a
wall. The inn was a good one, and the weather having suddenly
turned cold we were glad of a brazier. The town seemed much more
prosperous than most. There were large cotton looms, where
weaving was going on in the open air, as well as in a disused temple.
Handsome carved window-frames delighted me so much that I
determined to have some made for the women’s institute at
Taiyuanfu. They were about a yard square in size with a good deal of
carving, so the sum named (twenty dollars including carriage to
Anshun, about fifty-five miles distant) did not seem excessive! It took
us three days to get to Anshun, and the windows arrived within the
fortnight stipulated. We picked them up later, and they formed rather
a large item of our luggage, requiring an extra coolie.
As we neared Anshun the road was less mountainous and the
villages better built. Many of the houses are of grey stone, some built
with mortar, some without. There was a fine waterfall, a hundred and
sixty feet in depth, into the Rhinoceros Pool, near the town of Chen
Lun, and above it a five-span bridge of noble proportions. A busy
market was going on in the town; and a funeral, with the usual paper
horses and servants for burning at the grave, formed an additional
interest to the gay crowd. There were a number of picturesque
tribeswomen, looking as usual very sulky, and not mixing with the
Chinese. From afar we saw the lofty turrets of a Roman Catholic
Church, so we went to see what it was like. The architecture and
fittings were entirely Western, and we had no sooner entered the
church than the fine-looking old French priest came forward and
greeted us. He invited us into his room and we had an interesting,
long talk. He had been thirty-two years in China, but only two in this
district, and seemed very discouraged. I asked about the numbers of
converts, and he said there were about sixteen hundred, but added
dejectedly that they were not at all satisfactory. How hard it must be
to go on working under such circumstances, and with no hope of
return to his own country.
“Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve,

And hope without an object cannot live.”
Generally missionaries seem a wonderfully hopeful set of people,

even under very adverse circumstances, and we came to a most
cheerful group at Anshunfu, where we had a few days of welcome
rest in their hospitable house.
Anshun is a very pretty town, with its shady trees, its winding
waterways and handsome stone balustrades along them. On a
picturesque bridge were shrines, which made a subject to delight an
artist’s eye: indeed it was a continual trial to me to have so little time
for drawing when there was such a wealth of material. Facing the
house where we stayed was a temple transformed into a
government school, and it had an ornamental wall such as I had not
seen elsewhere. There were panels at intervals, about three and a
half feet from the ground, of various sizes, with open stucco work,
looking like designs from Æsop’s fables. They lent a great charm to
the garden, in which the wall seemed to be only of decorative value.
Throughout China the human figure and animals are used in all sorts
of architectural ways which would never occur to us. Anshun is
situated in a small plain, and a fine road leads to it with pailous
(memorial arches) at intervals. We walked across the fields one day
and climbed a neighbouring hill, surmounted by the usual temple;
from it there was a magnificent view of all the country round. A lurid
thunderstorm heightened the effect. There were oleanders in full
bloom in the courtyard, and the priests were polite and friendly,
bringing tea to us, while we waited for the storm to clear away.
“Lonely I stand
On the loneliest hill top.”
Page 98
There is a hospital at Anshun built by the Arthington Fund, but as

there is only one doctor attached to it, and he was away on furlough,
the place was closed. As it is the only hospital for hundreds of miles,
indeed there is only one other hospital in the province, for
11,300,000 people, this seemed a dreadful pity. The coming of my
doctor was quite an event, especially for a lady who badly needed
her advice. In the whole province there are only these two European
hospitals, as far as I heard, and no Chinese ones.
We made Anshunfu our starting-point for a trip into the
unfrequented mountains, where aboriginal tribes are to be found in
great numbers. No census can be taken of them, and it is only by
years of unremitting toil, in the face of continual danger, that
missionaries have succeeded in making friends with them. Mr.
Slichter, of the C.I.M., was our guide, and as soon as we left the city
we struck up a pathway into the hills to the north of it. After several
hours’ travelling we came to a river, which until recent years was the
boundary, beyond which no foreigner was allowed to go because of
the acute hostility felt by the tribes-people against all strangers. It
was a rapid, swirling river, lying in a deep narrow gorge, and we
were ferried across.
We climbed up a long hot ascent on the further side, and reached
a Keh-lao village,[23] where a fair was going on. The contrast was
extraordinary, quite as great as if we had gone from one European
country into another. It was only with difficulty, and because he was
known, that Mr. Slichter could persuade some one to boil water for
us, and then it was only very little, whereas in any Chinese village
you could get as much as you wanted. We spent about twelve hours
reaching our destination—a village perched up on a steep hill-side.
Seeing us from afar, a laughing group of Miao boys and girls came
running down the path to greet us, looking a most picturesque group
in their red, white and blue clothes.
In another chapter I shall try and give a detailed account of these
people, so will for the present only say a little about the country.
From the top of the crag on which the village of Ten-ten is situated
there may be counted fourteen ranges stretching away into the far
distance, and in such hollows as are practicable for agriculture,
wheat, poppy, rice and hemp are grown. There are most curious
trees, which we saw for the first time, called Rhus vernicifera, from
which varnish is obtained. They are plentiful in the district, and
itinerant tappers come round from time to time to hire their services
to the owners, for the varnish is a valuable crop, but must be
carefully handled. It is most poisonous, and people even lose their
lives by handling it carelessly. We found Mrs. Slichter at Ten-ten; she
had been seriously ill as the result of using a branch of the tree for a
walking-stick. The varnish causes terrible pains in the head, loss of
sight for several days, and an eruption of the hands rendering them
useless for a time.
The first Miao church was built at Ten-ten, and would hardly be
recognized as such, I fear, by the orthodox: it looked like a cross
between a goods shed and a hall, with a ladder at each end leading
to a couple of rooms to accommodate visitors. The only clerical
detail was a pulpit, but close beside it was a cooking-stove, and in
vain I protested that our meals were not to be prepared while service
was going on. The people seemed to find it quite natural, and when
Yao was not too concerned in his cooking he lent an interested ear
to what was being said. One thing was clear, and that was that the
congregation was thoroughly in earnest, and gave undivided
attention to the service. It meant so much to them and especially to
the women, who took part in the prayer-meeting quite simply and
fervently. On the Sunday morning we were about one hundred
people, who attended a baptismal service, which was performed in a
dammed-up stream in the ricefields. It was extraordinarily
picturesque to see the Miao in their short full-kilted skirts, trooping
down the zigzag path to the spot, where twenty-five received
baptism. They have names given them, as many, if not most of them,
have none.
After spending a few days at Ten-ten we continued our journey
northwards, but were somewhat tried by the difficulty of getting any
guide. One of the tribes-people took us a certain distance across the
mountains, but the path was not only steep and rough, but the lanes
were so narrow and thorny that we thought our chairs would be torn
to pieces, and our clothes to ribbons: the thorns and brambles
overhanging the path made it difficult to get the chairs along. We
found it decidedly preferable to walk, and enjoyed the glorious
scenery up hill and down dale, the air laden with the scent of roses
and sweetbrier, and the hill-sides carpeted with mauve-coloured
orchids and primulas.
We soon lost our way, and there was no one to be seen in all the
wide landscape to set us right. We wandered on for hours till we
came to a tiny hamlet, where we found a pottery in full swing. With
much persuasion and the promise of a good tip, we barely
succeeded in coaxing a boy to show us the way to the village of I-
mei, where we proposed spending the night. We set off again in
more cheerful mood, but alas! for our hopes: after about two hours
the lad admitted that he didn’t know the way. We wandered on down
a tiny valley, watered by a charming stream, where countless
wagtails and other little birds beguiled us by their chatter. As we
emerged from the valley into some fields the lad suggested this must
be I-mei, but when we asked some women at work in the fields they
said “Oh no! it is far away.” They went on to tell us that if we
succeeded in reaching it that night, we should probably find no
accommodation. There was a comfortable-looking farm-house within
sight, and they thought we might get put up there, so we sent to
inquire. They were friendly folk, who were willing to vacate a room
for us and to lodge the rest of the party somewhere; so we were
quite pleased to have this new experience. I had never slept in a
Chinese farm-house before, and in point of fact we did not get a
great deal of sleep, as the partitions were thin and there was plenty
of animal life, both large and small, to share the building, all living on
the most intimate terms with the owners. A cat was very put out
about it, and hurried to and fro in our room in the middle of the night.
We tried to shoo her away, and then heard a reproachful voice from
the other side of the partition calling gently “Mimi, Mimi!” upon which
the pussy-cat quickly sidled away to her master.
Next day we were up betimes, and our host said his white-haired
brother would act as our guide. These two old gentlemen still wore
attenuated queues, almost the only ones we saw on the journey. We
found the whole family kind and interested in their visitors. I feel sure
no other Europeans had ever visited the little valley. We gave the
lady a piece of soap, evidently quite a novelty to her: it seems
strange to have to explain the use of such a thing. But this province
has curious natural resources in the way of soap. One tree, the
Sapindus mukorossi, has round fruit, which have only to be shaken
in water to make it quite soapy, and the pods of the Gleditschia
sinensis are to be found for sale in most of the markets: they are
used in washing clothes. European firms have started the soap
industry in China, and there is certainly a good opening for the trade.
We had a long climb up a lovely mountain pass, well named in
Chinese “Climbing to the Heavens,” and came across magnolia and
other delicious shrubs. After a stage of about fourteen miles we
reached the town of Pingüan, and stayed there till next day, as it was
such a pleasant, clean-looking place. Our room had varnished walls
—quite a novelty—and small panes of glass among the paper ones.
We had a larger crowd of interested spectators than usual, but at
intervals Yao came out like a whirlwind and scattered the chaff. Our
hostess brought us a bunch of camellias and peonies as an excuse
for consulting the doctor about her cough!
We left Pingüan early next morning, and facing the gateway by
which we went out was a typical bit of landscape—in the foreground
a bridge leading to a little poppy-covered plain, out of the centre of
which rose a steep rock crowned with a pagoda and a temple. At the
foot of the rock were several shrines. It seemed impossible for the
Chinese to miss making use of any such natural feature of the
landscape for a religious purpose in past days; though now the
shrines are so neglected, except under the stress of plague, famine
or rapine, which incites the worshippers to devotion. The crops in
this district were entirely opium poppy.
At our next halting-place, Ch’a-tien, we had to put up with
miserable quarters: our tiny room looked on to the street, so that we
had a large and interested audience all the time; they lined up on the
window-sill across the road, a good point of vantage, while the small
fry discovered quite a unique point of observation. There was a
hiatus at the bottom of the woodwork of the wall about a yard long
and six inches deep, so by lying with their faces flat on the ground
and close to the opening they could get a fair view of our doings. The
row of bright eyes and gleaming teeth was quite uncanny. Our
thermometer registered 66°, so we felt it rather stuffy with every
breath of air excluded.
During the day we had passed most attractive newly-built houses
in lath and plaster. They had small oval windows in the gable ends
with simple but effective designs in them. The contrast was very
striking with the other villages in this district, where the inhabitants
wore the filthiest-looking rags I have ever seen, and had a most
degraded look.
At the entrance to every village is at least one little shrine, which
generally has a god and goddess sitting side by side in it; but in this
neighbourhood we noticed a good many shrines without images.
They had inscriptions instead, such as “The only true God, from
ancient to present times.” They looked very neglected as a rule, and
hardly ever did we see a newly-erected one.
Our next inn at Ch’a Tsang had a highly decorated wall about
eighteen feet high, facing the chief guest-rooms. There was a large
parti-coloured mosaic made out of broken crockery at the top, below
which were two hares rampant in stucco, supporting a shield
between them; they were flanked by ornamental plants in pots. It
was interesting to find so elaborate a decoration in so humble an inn,
but that is one of the charming surprises on the road, even in the by-
ways of China.
Ta-ting was our next important stopping-place, as word had been
sent to the mission there, requesting them to summon as many
tribes-people as possible to meet us. It is the centre of work among
them, and there is a flourishing boys’ school and also a training
school for evangelists. The whole school had turned out in our
honour, and made a gay show on the hill-side, waving boughs of
crimson rhododendrons, which contrasted with their bright blue
gowns. They had come by a winding road two or three miles outside
the city wall, headed by one of the ladies on horseback: the welcome
was as picturesque as it was cordial, and they had learned an
English greeting for us, which they gave in great style, as soon as
we got out of our chairs. Then they turned back, and we brought up
the rear of their procession in single file, passing through a fine
gateway before we reached the entrance to the city.
Ta-ting is a Chinese town, although it is in the centre of a district
full of tribes-people, with whom they have always been in conflict. A
mission station was opened there many years ago especially for
work amongst the aborigines, and at the present time is manned by
four German ladies, of whom two were on furlough at the time of our
visit. When the order came from the Chinese Government that all
Germans were to leave the country, as China was joining the Allies,
the magistrate of Ta-ting begged that these ladies be allowed to
remain, as there had been so much less trouble with the tribesmen
since they had come under their influence. This request was
granted, and I take this opportunity of stating my firm conviction that
the direct result of mission work is to bring these warring races into
friendly relations with one another and with the Chinese. The
Chinese despise them on account of their illiteracy and low morality,
and both these objections are changed by Christian teaching.
We spent a few days very happily at Ta-ting, but it was long
enough to see how isolated a life the missionaries must lead, and
under most trying climatic conditions. The city lies in a hollow
surrounded by mountains at an altitude of 5,100 feet, continually
shrouded in mist. The sun is only visible one day in four all the year
round, and then perhaps only for a few minutes. We did not see the
complete outline of the mountains while we were there, and we were
constantly reminded of Scotch mists, rolling up for a few moments
and then obliterating everything again. This was the only place
where we heard so dismal a report of the weather.
Some Chinese ladies came to call on us and brought us charming
embroidered spectacle-cases and puffed rice as gifts, but practically
all our time was devoted to studying the aborigines and hearing
about them. They were extraordinarily friendly, and one old hunch-
back, who came from a village more than thirty miles away, had
brought two fine fowls as gifts to the ladies and ourselves. I
presented her with a woollen jacket, as the people suffer much from
the cold, and when she next came to service on a broiling August
day she was still wearing it with great pride!
I should like to have spent months making studies of these people,
and tried in vain to make notes of all the details possible of such

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A First Course in the Finite Element

Method 6 Enhanced SI Edition Daryl L.

(Moment of inertia of an area)

(Moment of inertia of a mass)

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Preface to the SI Edition ix

2 Introduction to the Stiffness (Displacement) Method 31

3 Development of Truss Equations 72

3.2 Selecting a Displacement Function in Step 2 of the Derivation

4 Development of Beam Equations 169

5 Frame and Grid Equations 239

5.5 Beam Element Arbitrarily Oriented in Space 280

6 Development of the Plane Stress and Plane Strain

7 Practical Considerations in Modeling; Interpreting Results;

8 Development of the Linear-Strain Triangle Equations 437

9 Axisymmetric Elements 451

10 Isoparametric Formulation 486

11 Three-Dimensional Stress Analysis 536

12 Plate Bending Element 572

13 Heat Transfer and Mass Transport 599

14 Fluid Flow in Porous Media and through

15 Thermal Stress 727

16 Structural Dynamics and Time-Dependent

Appendix A Matrix Algebra 827

Appendix B Methods for Solution of Simultaneous

Appendix C Equations from Elasticity Theory 865

Appendix D Equivalent Nodal Forces 873

Appendix E Principle of Virtual Work 876

Appendix F Geometric Properties of Structural Steel Wide-Flange

Answers to Selected Problems 908

Le Système International d’Unités

Using SI Units in this Book

Features and Approach

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m maximum difference in node numbers in an element

At the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:

Typical fixed node

(a) Fixed nodes along bottom of dam (b)

1.1 Brief History

1.2 Introduction to Matrix Notation

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 K11 K12  K1n 

“Methinks there’s a genius

—(Ch’ü Yüan: Fourth Century b.c.)

“Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve,

Generally missionaries seem a wonderfully hopeful set of people,

There is a hospital at Anshun built by the Arthington Fund, but as

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Appendix B Methods for Solution of Simultaneous

Appendix F Geometric Properties of Structural Steel Wide-Flange

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