MACE40051

Question 1

(a) (i) What is the mathematical expression for the rate of heat transfer per unit area qW
into a fluid layer that is immediately adjacent to a surface and why?

(ii) How does the fluid motion influence the rate of heat exchange between a fluid
and a solid surface qW?
(iii) Which physical laws are used to derive the differential heat convection
equation?
[6 Marks]

(b) A cylindrical heating element of radius Ri=15mm and length 1m

is surrounded by an outer cylinder of radius Ro=30mm, which
can be assumed to be thermally insulated. The heat generated by
the element is transferred to the cooling fluid at a uniform rate
of 600 W/m2.The coolant is pressurised carbon dioxide pumped
through the annular passage which surrounds the heating
element, as shown in Figure Q3.1. Data for fully developed
turbulent heat transfer in annular passages with a heated inner
and insulated annular wall suggest that in a passage of radius
ratio Ri/Ro of 0.5 with carbon dioxide as the cooling fluid, the
Nusselt number can be approximated through the following
equation.
Nu = 0.0175 Re0.8

where Nu/2h(Ro-Ri)/k, Re/ 2UB(Ro-Ri)/< and UB the fluid bulk

velocity.

(i) Use the above equation to produce an expression for the

heat flux coefficient h, in terms of Ri, Ro, the coolant
mass flow rate m, and coolant physical properties such
as the density D, the viscosity < and the thermal
conductivity k. [6 Marks]

(ii) If the coolant mass flow rate is 0.005 kg/s, calculate the
Figure Q3.1 maximum inlet temperature needed to ensure that the
maximum surface temperature of the heating element
remains below 500oC. [8 Marks]

For the pressurised coolant, (CO2) kinematic viscosity < = 2 x 10-5 m2/s, thermal conductivity
k = 0.029 W/m.K, the specific heat capacity cP=960 J/kg.K, the density D=15 kg/m3
 MACE40051
Question 2
As shown in Figure Q1.1 below, when a fluid stream flows over a surface that is at a different
temperature, both a hydrodynamic and a thermal boundary layer start to develop.

Figure Q1.1

In a steady laminar boundary layer flow over a heated flat plate with zero pressure gradient,
the momentum and heat transport equations are as follows :

with : the dynamic viscosity, Pr(/:c/k) the Prandtl number, k the thermal conductivity
and c the specific heat capacity of the fluid..

(i) Provide the precise definition of the thicknesses of the hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers, * and *T respectively. [3 Marks]
(ii) Use the above equations to explain how the ratio between the thermal and
hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness, *T/*, changes with the Prandtl number.
[7 Marks]

Question 3
Dry air at a temperature of 25 oC enters a pipe with a wet inner surface, which is 3 m long
and 10 mm in diameter. The air bulk velocity is 13 m/s.
(i) Assuming conditions to be fully developed, use the Heat-Mass Transfer Analogy
to calculate the mass flux coefficient hm. [5 Marks]
For Fully developed forced convection in a straight pipe, the Nusselt number can
be obtained from.
NuD = 0.021ReD0.8Pr0.4

The relevant physical properties are:

For air, < = 1.15x10-5 m2/s, D = 1.15 kg/m3 and Pr=0.71
For an air-vapour mixture, D = 2.6 x 10-5 m2 /s and Sc = 0.60

(ii) Then calculate the vapour density at the pipe exit and also the overall rate of
vapourisation. The saturation density of water vapour at 25 oC can be taken as
0.02559 kg/m3. [5 Marks]
In mass transfer analysis:
- the rate of transfer of species 1 across a boundary is denoted by gw1,
- the coefficient of mass transfer hm is defined as hm = gw1/[D(C1W-C14)], with D the
mixture density, C1W the concentration of species 1 at the boundary and C14the free stream
concentration of species 1
- hm is non-dimensionalised through the Sherwood number, Sh, where Sh/ hmd / L
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Question 4
(a) Consider the phenomenon of natural convection in a rectangular cavity, such as the one
shown below, with one of its long sides held at a constant high temperature, the other at
a constant low temperature and the two other sides thermally insulated. With the angle
2 defined as zero when the two constant temperature surfaces are horizontal and the cold
side is the upper side, the Nusselt number, defined as Nu / qw L / {k(TH-TC)},varies with
2 according to the graph shown in Figure Q2.1 below.

Figure Q2.1

With the aid of suitable diagrams describe the flow field that develops within the cavity
as 2 changes from 180o to 0o and explain how the flow influences the rate of heat
exchange across the cavity. [12 Marks]
(b) As shown in Figure Q2.2, a horizontal solar panel is 1.5 m long, 0.7m wide and 0.1m
high. Its lower surface is at 85 oC and the upper surface at 25 oC. The cavity formed by
the panel is filled with air. Calculate the rate of heat loss through convection, from the
lower panel. [8 Marks]

For air density D=1.177 kg/m3, thermal conductivity k=0.0262 W/m.K, kinematic
viscosity <=1.578x10-5 m2/s and Prandtl number Pr=0.7
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Question 5
(a) When a water-filled electric kettle is switched on, after an initial quiet period the kettle
starts to generate considerable noise. This noise subsequently dies and it is replaced by the
sound of bubbles reaching the free surface of water. Describe the processes involved and
identify the source of the noise. [7 Marks]

(b) As shown in Figure silicon chip of thickness L=2.5 mm and thermal conductivity k=135
W/m.K is cooled by boiling a saturated fluorocarbon liquid with saturation temperature,
TSAT = 57 oC, on its surface. The electronic circuits on the other side of the chip produce
a uniform heat flux of qo’= 5x104 W/m2. The two vertical sides of the chip are thermally
insulated. The saturated fluorocarbon has the following properties. cP,L=1100 J/kg.K, hƒg
=84,400 J/kg, DL=1629.2 kg/m3, Dv=13.4 kg/m3, F = 8.1x10-3 N/m, :L=440x10-6 kg/m.s and
PrL=9.01. For nucleate boiling Cs,f =0.005 and n=1.7.

(i) Find the steady state temperature at the lower side of the chip, To.
[5 Marks]

(ii) If qo’ is increased to 85% of the critical heat flux, for an infinitely large horizontal
surface, calculate the new value of To. [5 Marks]

(iii) State what will happen to the temperature of the chip if the heat generation rate,
qo’, exceeds the value of the critical heat flux and explain why. [3 Marks]

Figure Q5.1
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Question 6

(a) For film condensation over a vertical surface, the flow of the liquid in the vertical
direction, x, within the film of thickness * is described by the boundary-
layer form of the momentum equation shown below, where DL denotes
the density of the liquid.

(i) List the assumptions that are normally made in the analysis of
laminar film condensation and show how they simplify the above
equation [3 Marks]

(ii) Sketch, including boundary values, the variation of the velocity

and temperature in the wall normal y direction
. [3 Marks]
Figure Q6.1
(iii) State which other principles need to be introduced in order to
derive expressions for the Nusselt number and boundary layer
thickness. [2 Marks]

(b) A plane vertical wall of temperature TW faces a space filled with stagnant saturated steam
at atmospheric pressure. The height of the wall is H=0.1 m. Calculate the overall
condensation rate, per unit width, at the bottom of the wall, when TW= 90 oC
[12 Marks]

You can assume that the liquid properties within the condensation film have the following values.
cP,L = 4.211 kJ/kg.K, DL=963.9 kg/m3, kL= 0.677 W/m.K & <L=3.11x10-7m2/s

At 100 oC, hfg=2257 kJ/kg and Dv=0.6 kg/m3

If an iterative solution is necessary, do not carry out more than 2 iterations.