Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Prof. K.P. Rao

University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad.

Dr. D. Dayalan
Ex. Director, Archaeological Survey of India.

Prof. R. N. Singh
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.
Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Principles and Methods of Archaeology

Module Name/Title Causes for Deterioration

Module Id IC / APM / 29

Pre requisites

 Many factors are responsible for the

deterioration of cultural properties.
 It is necessary to understand the
deterioration causes to take up any
Objectives
conservation work.
 Conservation methods are to be decided
on the basis of the nature of decay or
deterioration of the monument.

Climate Causes, Natural Calamities, Biological

Keywords
Causes, Man-made Causes

E-Text (Quadrant-I) :

1. Introduction

There are many factors responsible for the deterioration of cultural properties. The most
common and universal causes for the decay of cultural property is gravity. In addition to this,
the diverse climatic and environmental effect, biological and botanical causes, natural
disasters, man-made causes, defect in the design and material of its construction, and many
other factors are also generating much damage to the build heritages. Moreover, due to age,
the ancient structures are bound to face/suffer some minor or major defects.

2. Climatic Cause: Sun:

The raise of surface temperature of the building material due to the strong heat generated by
the sun ultimately resulting into weathering effect on the structure. The weathering is the
significant gradual natural destructive process due to warming up and cooling down
repeatedly in every day and this may cause many problems to the ancient monument
including decay of the building due to movements in masonry. The compressive strength,
tensile strength, and ultrasonic wave velocity are decreased with the increasing number of
this cycles. The wood may be gradually destroyed by the ultra violet rays in sun light. Due to
the weathering process, rock surface of the monument may break down or peel off. The
inscription or engraving on the rock surface get damaged due to this process. In the long
run, the effect of weathering may cause decay or loss of certain portion/portions of a
monument, sculpture or architectural members of the monument particularly excavated (i.e.,
caves) or built-in by using stones like basalt, sandstone, limestone, etc.
The unequal expansion of the core and veneering materials due to the rise of temperature
may also sometimes cause structural problems to the monument. The cracks noticed in the
veneering marble slabs of Taj Mahal, Agra are to some extent due to the unequal expansion
of the brick and mortar, the core materials and the marble, the veneering material.

2.1 Rain, Cyclone & Flood:

Rain is the most destructive if proper arrangement is not made for its disposal. Heavy rain
can wash away the building material or even the whole building itself occasionally. The rain
may create much damage to the structures built in mud, brick, wood and other easily eroded
materials, if necessary precautionary measures are not taken in time. The run-off of rain
water particularly on the surface of the monument built-in or excavated out of weak rock and
the water seepage may also cause much damage to the ancient monument. The façade
area of the caves excavated mainly in basalt or sandstone or limestone formations generally
gets deteriorated due to flow of water over the façade during the monsoon season. Suitable
measures have to be taken to divert the water flow at an appropriate point/points to avoid
this menace. Unless there is an effective top water management to arrest the seepage of
water from back hills particularly in the case of caves hewn out of basaltic formation known
as Deccan trap, there exists the problem of water percolation/leakage inside the caves.
These defects could be seen in the caves at Ajanta, Ellora and many other places. The
constant percolation of water may weaken the rock in the long run and ultimately resulting
into the deterioration of the monument. It may also spoil the ancient painting if existing in the
cave. Sometime the seepage water also brings along with it certain calcareous materials
which deposit as an incrustation over the monument. The calcareous accretion may be
removed by Clay Pack Technique. The wooden structure faces much damage because of
water seepage. The sagging of wooden beams and scantling, bulging and deflection of
wooden members like beam, rafter, planks, etc., due to intake of seepage water resulting
into decay of the wooden members. Rains can cause the relative humidity in the air to
increase and this will cause untreated timber members of the building to expand.

2.2 Frost, Snow and Ice:

Generally, the monuments located in the region close to the Himalayas may suffer due to
frost, snow and ice. The frost can cause damage to the masonry building, If the structure of
stone or brick is hydrophilic and the binder is not strong enough. Generally, the snow bears
on roof structure and may cause it to collapse if not strong enough. The ice can even
damage a building when it forms at the eaves in long icicles.

2.3 Wind:

Strong wind with high velocity can cause damage to the weak structures. The abrasive
impact owing to long-term action of wind can lead to significant changes to all exterior parts
of the structures. Large particles driven by strong wind can cause crack, erosion or
destruction of soft building materials. The strong breeze that carries sand particles may
cause defacing and disfiguring and rounding off the features of the sculptures and
architectural members due to its abrasive effect on the stone. The Shore temple at
Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, located on the foreshore, exhibits the destructive effect of
strong wind laden with sand particles on its sculptures and the architectural members. Due
to direct contact with the saline wind, the soluble salts from the atmosphere are being
deposited continuously on the surface of the stones. Attempts has been made to remove the
soluble salt from the monument by Paper Pulp Treatment followed by the application of
suitable preservatives. As a protective measure, the trees like casuarina and cashew-nut are
planted little away from the temple complex to create a shield against attrition and abrasion
effects to some extent.

2.4 Ground Water:

The change in the level of the ground water may create many structural problems. The
dropping of the ground water level owing to various reasons may lead to the structural
problems like differential settlement, cracking, etc. The sub-soil of the area of dehydration
becomes dry and shrink and this may affect the stability of the soil. Likewise, the rise of
ground water level also poses major threat to the monuments such as erosion, abrasion or
decay of the foundation or lower portion of the structure, disintegration and exfoliation of
stones, dissolution of building materials, destruction of mural paintings if any, white
efflorescence, decreasing the durability of structural material, blurring of the inner wall due to
saturation of the air moisture, etc. Through capillary action or by percolation, the water can
enter into the stones and other building materials, which have the capillary effect. The
constant moisture or dampness of the building for a long period may not only weaken the
structural material but also cause many other problems. If the area has relatively highly
salinity groundwater, the salt can be carried along with water to the foundation and upwards
of the monument by capillary action. Structural disturbance due to rise and fall of ground
water level can be in many of the ancient monuments in India.

2.5 Lightening:

Many structure were destroys due to the lightening effect. The lightning strike cause
cracking, breaking and even collapse of many monuments. From the inscriptions on the
minar, it appears that Qutb Minar at Delhi was damaged twice by lightening, in 1326 and
1368. Some of the ancient monuments suffered from the lightening are: the Mukunda
Maharishi temple at Markanda; the Mundesvara temple at Ramgarh; the Vijayalaya
Cholesvara temple at Narttamalai; the Madarasa of Muhammad Gawan at Gwalior; the
Dome of Humayun Shah at Bidar; the south-western minaret of Charminar at Hyderabad;
the Jami Masjid of Bijapur; Bibi-ka-masjid at Ahmedabad and others.

2.6 Earthquake:

Earthquakes are the major destructive force of cultural heritages, with the capacity to cause
irreparable damages or even turn ancient sites into piles of rubble. The secondary effects of
earthquakes like tsunamis, landslides, ground fractures, etc. also pose an equally great
danger to the structures. The earthquake commonly gives rise to a chain of events which
includes surface faulting, ground shaking, ground subsidence, soil liquification, land slide,
flood, avalanche, etc. Many historic buildings have witnessed these catastrophic happenings
in the past few centuries, and a few have managed to thrive while keeping their history
intact. To combat earthquake destruction, the ancient architects were adopted certain
construction techniques and also used seismic-resistant building materials in some
structures mainly in the earthquake prone area.
Severe earthquakes that caused damage to ancient structures are recorded mainly in
northern, western and eastern India. The major earthquake in Gujarat in 2001 damaged
many monuments in that region.

Landslides and similar phenomena (e.g. avalanches, mud flows, debris flows, rock falls)
cause major loss of historic objects and architectural heritages. Many monuments in
Uttarakhand state have suffered much damage due to heavy rain and massive landslide in
2013.

2.7 Fire:

Fires can be occurred by lightning, short-circuits, human error, or arson. Fire accident
causes damage not only to the wooden structures, but also stone and brick structures as
they are not totally fire resistant. The major effect of fire and high temperature on stone are:
change in colour, spalling, scaling, cracking, rounding off the edges and disintegration. The
crystalline variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks like granite and schist disintegrate
rapidly under the effect of fire. Lime stone become powder at 1400 o F and such temperature
is normally reached in fire accidents.

2.8 Air pollution & Acid Rain:

The atmospheric pollution is not only cause adverse effects to the living beings and the
ecosystem but also to the heritage buildings. The pollutant in the ambient air can be of solid
particles, liquid droplets, or gases and the pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made.

The effects of air pollution on ancient structure are both minor as well as major. It is often
observed that the dust, dirt, SPM and other substances in the ambient air are accumulating
on the surface of the monument, sculpture and architectural members. The organic
substances in the dust may sometimes react with the building material and create problem to
the ancient structure. The dust and dirt can be cleaned manually by using soft brushes if it is
not penetrated much into the building material or sculpture. The deposit of dust, dirt and
other matters on the monuments or sculptures or architectural members not only gives an
unpleasant look to them, but also responsible for the change in their appearance. The
surface of white marble structure getting decolourization or appear in different colour is
mainly due to the deposition of dirt, dust and SPM over them. This could be seen in Taj
Mahal, Agra and many other ancient marble structures. In some monuments, the deposition
of soot is also observed. This also adversely affect the monument in addition to gives an
ugly look to it. The painted surface in some of the monument is badly suffered due to thick
deposit of soot over it.

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. Acid rain has
been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and
aquatic life-forms, corrosion of steel structures, and weathering of stone buildings and
statues as well as having impacts on human health. Acid rain eats away at stone, metal,
paint-- almost any material exposed to the weather for a long period of time.

The acids in the ambient air creates severe problems to the monuments. Particularly, the
monuments made of marble, limestone and other calcareous stones are highly susceptible
to air pollution. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) causes severe damage to these monuments. The
Sulphur dioxide combines with Oxygen and water vapour to form Sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
The Sulphuric acid directly reacts with Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and form Calcium
Sulphate (CaSO4). The Calcium Sulphate also gets converted into Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O)
which has the expansion of about 40% with resultant to surface flaking. Marble may also
lose its translucent shining surface due to effect of Sulphuric acid (H 2SO4). Cracking, flaking
and loss of translucent surface are also bound to occur due to effect of Hydrochloric acid.

The staining and pitting of the marble may occur due to the effect of Chlorides. This would
lead to a reduction in the luster of the marble surface. The nature of deterioration of marble
owing to Nitric acid attack are the binding material at the surface may get dissolved and the
quartz particles may also be exposed. Thus, the original smooth translucent surface become
rough and sandy and the crystals can be easily removed from the surface.

Sandstone and other sedimentary stones have many forms of deterioration mainly due to
sedimentary characteristic of its stratified structure and the present of salts like Chlorides,
Nitrates, Carbonates and Sodium Sulphate. The sandstone is affected by atmospheric
pollution mainly because of alteration of feldspar. The sandstone may also get deteriorated
due to loss of cementing material in it. The possible effects on sedimentary stones due to the
atmospheric pollution are the weight loss, excess water absorption and loss of compressive
strength, etc.

2.9 Sea Erosion and Submersion:

The monuments situated on the coastal line are always in danger of being destroyed by
marine erosion of the coast, isostatic subsidence, incursion of sea and coastal collapse. Due
to the erosion of the sides of the river valleys, the monuments located on that area are also
subject to collapse or damage. Many monuments on the coastal line of India are affected
due to sea erosion. The partial disruption of the Buddhist complex and the religious life in
Kaveripumpattinam in the early period due to the incursion of the sea was observed in the
excavations held at Pallavanesvaram, a suburban of Kaveripumpattinam. The disturbance of
the ancient brick structure at Saluvankuppam (near Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu) at many
times owing to the intrusion of sea in the early period is also observed in the excavations
held there. The Masilamani temple of 13th century at Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu), the principal
port during the Danish regime (1620-1845 CE), was partly collapsed due to the
encroachment of the sea and the remains of it are found scattered in the inter-tidal zone.
The Shore temple at Mamallapuram (Tamil Nadu) situated closely to the sea has facing
many structural problems like widening of joints, development of cracks, saline action,
defacing and disfiguring of sculptures and architectural features, etc., in addition to the
menace of lashing of sea waves, particularly during high tides and sea erosion. The temple
is virtually saturated with sea-salts due to the direct beating of waves which has been going
on for centuries. The groyne wall has been constructed adjacent to the Shore temple to
safeguard the monument from sea erosion and battering of sea waves.

Many monuments and archaeological sites are affected, submerged or lost by the
implementation of major irrigation and Hydro-Power projects and Dam constructions. The
valley of Nagarjunakonda had rich archaeological relics right from Pre-historic times spread
over a vast area. The valley is now completely submerged under water as a result of the
construction of Nagarjunasagar dam. When the plan to convert the valley into a water basin
was decided, the Archaeological Survey of India has made an effort to salvage the
archaeological remains before the submergence and major excavations were carried out in
the valley for many years and exposed more than hundred sites ranging in dates from Early
Stone Age to the Late Medieval period. Notwithstanding the need of water for irrigation in the
region gave no scope to avert the archaeological tragedy, the event gave birth to a new
approach to combating the total destruction of the cultural heritage by the reconstruction or
transplantation of ruins of monuments. Thus, the ruins of structures of ancient
Nagarjunakonda are now represented by the salvaged monuments reconstructed in the
areas above the submerged-level. While the main concentration of such monuments,
including the open-air replicas of the excavated remains are on the island, the other groups
are to be seen near Anupu, on the eastern bank of the reservoir.

The reservoir of Srisailam Hydro-Electric project submerges hundreds of archaeological

sites. The Kudali Sangamesvara temple, originally located at the confluence of Krishna and
Tungabhadra rivers at Kudavelli village was transplanted to Alampur, about 20 kms from
Kudavelli to protect it from submergence by the Srisailam Hydro-Electric project. Many
archaeological monuments and sites are affected by the Narmada Valley Project and many
other such major projects. The Choubis Avatar Temple at Panthia near Onkareswar is saved
from submergence under the Narmada Valley Project by transplanting it to a higher place,
about 5 km away from its original location.

2.10 Accumulation of drift-sand

The monuments, located mainly in the coastal area or rivers side, are facing multifarious
problems. The breeze blowing with considerable velocity fills the entire area of the
monument with heaps of wind-borne sand which conceals a part or major portion of the
monument. The accumulation of drift-sand all around the Shore temple complex and other
monuments at Mamallapuram and around the Tiger cave at Saluvankuppam was removed
from time to time in order to expose the hidden portion of the monument. The removal of
sand is necessary to prevent the monument from the direct contact of salt-laden sand. The
clearance of sand and stone in and around the Sun temple at Konarak (Odisha) brought to
light many parts of the structure. Large-scale plantation of the casuarina and poonang trees
in the direction of the sea was done to check the advance of the drifting sand and thereby to
minimize the effect of the abrasive action of the sand-laden wind.

The best example of river sand accumulation in and around the monuments can be seen at
Talkad (Karnataka). The Keertinarayana temple and other ancient temples at Talkad,
located in the close vicinity of Kaveri river, are partly buried beneath the river sand dune,
accumulated periodically.

Some of the monuments are facing problems because of the rising of the ground level
around them for various reasons. Due to the raising of the level, it is obvious, that the water
stagnates in and around the monument and drainages also get choking. Ultimately this may
create problem not only to the flooring but also the foundation of the monument itself.

2.11 Vegetation Growth:

A major problem that the conservator has to fight against in most parts of India is the growth
of vegetation over the structure and the damage caused by them to the structure due to the
penetration of root within structure. It is difficult to effectively remove the vegetation without
harming either to the form or fabric of the monument over which it is grown. Many
monuments have perished in the past as a result of negligence in the eradication of
vegetation.

India has diverse kinds of climate and ecological conditions and thus the flora grown over
the monument also vary suitable to the climatic condition of the area. Generally, the plants,
basing on the means of reproduction, can be divided into two categories namely cryptogams
(seedless) and phanerogams (seed bearing). The common type of plants grown over the
monuments are: Algae, Moss, Lichen, Liverwort, Fern, Flowering Plants, etc.

The Algae and Moss grow on buildings, especially in humid climates. The algae, which are
generally the sub-aerial forms, are often met with on monuments in the heavy monsoon
regions. The growth of algae and other cryptogams on the monuments may either discolour
the monument or conceal the full details of the ornamentation and inscription from the
spectators’ view. Algae is considered corrosive as some spices produce organic acids,
which although relatively small in quantity make pits on the monument.

Lichens found on the monuments are usually in the crustaceous form and they found closely
adhering to the surface of the monument. When the lichens are in isolated patches, they
may disfigure the monument by their contrastive colours, and when they are large numbers,
they may obscure the fine details of the sculptures or carvings. The lichen can even
contribute to weathering when they grow on the surface of the stone. Interestingly the
Lichens can also provide bio-protection for stone surfaces, acting as a barrier against
weathering, retaining moisture, increasing waterproofing, reducing thermal stress and
erosion, and absorbing pollutants.

Mosses and Liverworts are gregarious soft-bodied green-plants (non-vascular) flourishing in

humid and cooler localities. Due to its absorbent power, the moss may add to the
desiccating effect of the dry weather and by retaining moisture keep the sub-stratum
oversoaked during wet weather or humid nights. Therefore, it can set up not only constant
variations in the humidity, but also movements of water through the pores of the sub-
stratum. This action may affect the fabric of building material on which they thrive. The thick
and extensive growth of moss over the lime plaster may not only destroy the cohesive
properties of it but also make it more porous and fragile.

The trees generally have penetrating, enlarging and ramifying stouter root-system. When
they grow over the monument, their tendrils may penetrate into the fissures and disorganize
the structure of the monument. They may either distort the shape of the structure or loosen
and dislodge its stones or other building materials particularly of the weak structure. The
huge trees that grown over the monument may disturb the structural stability of the
monument due to their significantly high load that act vertically and horizontally on the
monument.

The growth of tree close to the monument is also cause problem to the structure. The fall of
big trees grown on or close to the monuments due to gale wind or cyclone can cause
immense damage to the structures. When the tree starts growing, it is a well-known fact, that
the roots may penetrate into the foundation of the structure and ultimately resulting into
disintegration or uproot of the monument.
Various methods have been followed to eradicate or control the thick vegetation growth over
the monument in India.

2.12 Animals:

Animals contribute to the ground salts in the soil by urinating and defecating nearby the
monument. Animals also cause abrasion to the building fabric and deposit grease and
detritus. Monkeys can create destruction to the monument by removing tiles and also takes
away anything of their fancy.

Strictly speaking, the bats are mammals and so they are animals. Notwithstanding, they are
harmless, they can cause mess and smell. The dark stain can be seen on the surface near
and below the places where the bats roost. These stains are basically formed because of the
bats excreta. If the bats, in huge group, inhabit in the monument for quite a long period,
there can be seen the accumulation of sizable piles of their drooping. This creates a lot of
nuisance to the monument.

Normally the bats roosts are found in a dark and undisturbed area of the monument.
Providing, preferably, LED lights or Fiber Optic Lights at appropriate points may to some
extant control the bats habitation. The frequent visitors’ movement in the area of bats roost
may also reduce their inhabitation. The bat-proof mesh can be provided, without causing
damage/puncture in any part of the monument, at the openings of the monument to avoid
the entry of bats. But the bat-proof mesh should not be an eyesore and also should not
cause inconvenient to the visitors.

2.13 Birds:

The birds can create nuisance in the monument by building nest and their waste. Among the
birds, the pigeons are especially responsible for causing much harm to the monuments. The
birds drooping on the wall and floor of the monument not only spoil the view but also give
foul odour. Apart from the unsightliness, the main problem is the acids released from their
excrement. These may cause harm to building surfaces in different forms such as the
scarring of the building fabric, damaging appearance and many other problems. There are
many methods to eliminate birds from the monuments. The commonly used methods are:
Anti-perching wire; Anti-perching spikes; Anti-perching gel; providing suitable net to prevent
entry of birds, etc.

2.14 Insects:

The insects and termites that subsist on wood or cellulose may cause much damage to the
timber works in historical building. A few insects such as masonry bees may attack brick
work and mortar. The insect activities may also play important role in deteriorating the
paintings in the monument.

The termites are most common in the tropic and sub-tropic regions because they require
high temperature and humidity. They often hollow out the soft non-resistant timbers
completely, leaving a thin outer shell of wood undamaged. There are hundreds of different
species of termites in India that cause problems to the cultural properties. The main groups
of them are: Subterranean Termite; Dry wood Termite; Damp wood Termite; Formosan
Termite; Cone-head Termite and Desert Termite.

The insects are normally use wood as a nutrient source, for shelter and egg deposit. There
are many methods to control or eradicate the termites. Fumigation is one such method of
eradication.

The adverse effect of insects on some of the monuments like Ajanta, Taj Mahal and others
are often reported in the recent years. In fact, the interiors of the Ajanta caves are
embellished with masterpieces of murals executed in tempera techniques on mud/lime
plaster. The ground of the paintings is composed of mud plaster having organic matters such
as cow dung, vegetable fibres, paddy husk, grass and other fibrous materials along with rock
grit or sand. The paintings were done by preparing outlines and then filling with colours in
accordance with the colour scheme of the artists. Deterioration of paintings by insect activity
is a major conservation problem at Ajanta caves. The Spiders, Honey Bees, Wasps and
Silver fishes are some of the insects causing nuisance to the painting layer and the ground
of the painting. To control the activity of silver fish, insecticide pyrethrum extract (2%) in
kerosene oil/MTO is regularly sprayed on unpainted area.

Several black spots and green marks have been observed on the white marble surface of
Taj Mahal at Agra, particularly towards the Yamuna riverside. These spots are due to the
impact of the insects. The increasingly dirty Yamuna river near the Taj has served as a
breeding ground for the insects.

2.14 Saline Action:

The monuments located on or close to the sea-shore or in the saline environment are
normally impregnated with salt in a long run. The direct battering of sea-waves, particularly
during high tides and the strong blow of salt-laden wind can deposit the soluble salt
continuously on the surface of the monument. The salinity in the ground soil or water may
also enter into the monument through capillary action. The soluble salt absorbed by the
stone/masonry, recrystallize at the point of evaporation. This can appear visually as
efflorescence, a bloom of salts on the surface of the stone. Where crystallization occurs just
below the surface, the growth of the crystals exerts pressure on the pores of the masonry
causing the fabric to crumble. The repeated action of dissolution and crystallization of
soluble salt constantly for quite a long-time due to heat and cold at alternate intervals
creates stress which leading to the exfoliation of the upper surface. This resulting into a
fragile, porous and even powdery outer matrix. The other action of soluble salt is that it
attracts water and produce the phenomena of osmosis, causing an increase in the moisture
content. Thus, the surface of the masonry becomes always wet/damp.

2.16 War:

The war has caused much damage to the cultural properties. The evidences of such
devastation can be seen at many parts of India. The destruction can be categorized as
follows: (1) the monuments totally razed to ground by war; (2) the main idols or sculptures
are totally broken or mutilated and the structure is partly damaged; (3) converting the
monument/ temple from its originally dedicated religious faith to other faith by modifying it as
per the requirement of that faith. The ancient city of Vijayanagara (Hampi) is the best
example exhibiting the devastation of structures by war. It was told that the famous Buddhist
University complex at Nalanda (Bihar) received strong blow in the 13 th century with the
invasion of Bakhtiyar Khalji, who destroyed it by fire.

The loss of cultural properties by war was felt very seriously throughout the world and an
international treaty called The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in
the Event of Armed Conflict was adopted in 1954 which focuses exclusively on the
protection of cultural property in armed conflict.

2.17 Alteration, Addition and Modification:

The addition, alteration and modification to the original fabric of the structure were made
even in the historical period. These additions/ alterations in time (i.e., layers of history) are to
be respected as they have contributed to the development or evolution of the structure.
However, the inappropriate modern additions/alterations made to the monument in the
recent past have a direct impact on the integrity of the original fabric of the monument.
Hence it is desirable to remove or undo such interventions.

Often the alterations, additions and modifications occur to the historical building without
caring the value of their heritage and also drastically modifying or camouflaging the historical
appearance of the heritage structures. This makes the monument to lose its historical and
aesthetic value or significance. The general principle is that the reuse of the historical
building, if at all required, it should be put in to use for the same purpose the historical
building meant for originally. This may minimize the intervention and loss of cultural value
and also to some extant help to maintain the historical value of the heritage building. If the
reoccupation of the historical building requires any minor alteration or addition, it should be
done very meticulously and no tampering or intrusion should be done to the historical fabric
of the structure. Moreover, the alteration or addition should be of temporary nature and
should not be an eyesore.

Some of the modern accretion usually seen in the monuments are: lime or ochre coating;
enamel paintings; erecting structures in and around the monument without aesthetically
matching with the monument and also intervening the original fabric of the ancient structure;
providing tiles or marble or polished granite slabs on the floor and wall of the monument;
absurd electrical and sanitary fittings; proving unpleasing grill-gates and other unmatched
doors in the name of security; besmearing of sculptures and architectural members with
vermilion and oil, etc. The lime coating can be removed gradually by using 1% vinegar
solution repeatedly. White vinegar is an excellent cleaning agent to clean the greasy portion
of the monument. White vinegar is also a very good natural agent that can fight stains
created by smoke.

The misuse or human interference has adversely affected many monuments in India. It is
observed that the people lived in the monuments and did cooking activities within the
monuments. The thick deposit of soot could be seen in many monuments. The heat
produced while cooking has created lot of structural problems to the historical buildings. The
cooking activities within the ancient wooden structures almost made the building to perish.
The Aihole village in Karnataka state is a striking example where almost all the monuments
there are once occupied by the local community and used as bath-room, kitchen and living
apartments after making necessary alteration and additions. This phenomenon was noticed
at many places. Deplorably, the monuments are suffering a lot at the hands of people of
slaphappy behaviour who consider them little more than canvases to be abused at will.
Many of the historic structures are rife with graffiti etched by visitors’ due to lack of
awareness. Certainly, the beauty of monuments is sullied by such wanton acts.

Negligence is also one of the main factor responsible for the collapse and ultimate losing of
the monuments and sites. The rehabilitation without disturbing or, minimal or temporary
interference to the historical fabric of the ancient structures can be encouraged in certain
cases rather than neglect or demolition of them. In certain countries, the rehabilitation of
historic structures is legally admitted and they also laid down specific standards and
guidelines for rehabilitation.

2.17 Despoliation and Human vandalism:

Despoliation of ancient monuments on a large scale for the building materials and for
treasure hunting was apparent in the 19th and the early part of the 20th centuries. The bricks
of the Harappan sites at Harappa (now in Pakistan) and Kalibangan (Rajasthan) were used
for laying railway lines. The bricks of the Stupas, Monasteries and other ancient structures in
the Gandhara region and at Gudivada, Salihundam, Kotilingala (all in Andhra Pradesh) and
other places were utilized for building constructions and road laying. The casing slabs of
Bhattiprolu Stupa were used for the construction of a sluice of a canal, and the casing slabs
of Bhattiprolu and Amaravati Stupas were burnt for lime. The Dharmarajika Stupa of Asoka
at Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh) was pulled down by Jagat Singh, Dewan of Raja Chet Singh of
Banaras, as part of his depredation for building materials. During the dismantling of the
Stupa, his workmen exposed a casket of green marble inside a stone box. Much destruction
was caused to the Sun temple at Konarak (Odisha) by the Raja of Khurda. The compound-
wall of this temple was found greatly robbed for its stones. The monolithic pillar of Ashoka at
Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) was broken into pieces by a local Zamindar, to be utilized as a
sugar-cane press. The stone slabs and boulders of Megalithic burials in South India were
used as road material, boundary stones and many other purposes. Many of the Megalithic
burials, stupas, temples and palaces were disturbed for hidden treasures. Many monuments
(mainly Megalithic burials) and ancient sites were destroyed by agriculture operations. The
stones of an ancient temple complex at Nagari (Rajasthan) were used for building
constructions in nearby Chitorgarh and other villages. The gopura (main gateway) of the
Cola temple at Gangaikondacolapuram (Tamil Nadu) was blasted with gun powder and the
prakara (walled enclosure) wall was pulled away to supply stone for construction of a dam
nearby.

The administration of Lord Willam Bentinck, the first Governor-General of India had
contemplated to demolish the Mughal monuments at Delhi and Agra including Taj Mahal for
selling of the marble. It is said that the East India Company once proposed to send the
beautiful Kalyanamandapa in Jalakanthesvara temple complex at Vellore (Tamil Nadu) to
the Prince Regent to be erected at Brighton. In fact, it is believed that a ship was sent from
the coast of England to India for this purpose. Fortunately, the ship sank on the way. Thus,
the mandapa was saved from dismantling and shifting. It is generally believed that many
sculptures excavated from the Buddhist site at Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh) were lost while
they were transporting from India to England. The fortification walls of Khammam and
Kondapalli (both in Andhra Pradesh) and many other places were dismantled by the local
community for building material. The glazed tiles of Muslim monuments at Padua and Gaur
(West Bengal) were removed by local people during the Colonial period.

During the Colonial period, the monuments also suffered immensely in the hands of amateur
archaeologists and treasure-hunters.

2.18 Vibration:

Structural instability or damage to the historical buildings may occur due to vibration caused
by the heavy vehicular movement. The ancient archways, gates, bridges, gopuras, minars
and the monuments located close to national highways or busy traffic area are often affected
because of the vibration generated by heavy traffic of vehicles. Sometimes the vehicles may
hit the monument and cause damage to it. The quarrying and mining operation conducted
near the ancient monuments may also adversely affect them in many ways. The quarrying
executed with the help of blasting gives strong vibrations that shake the monument. Due to
this, crack may be developed in the load bearing architectural members and the masonry
may also show dislodgement.

2.19 Urbanization and Encroachment:

The urbanization processes as a result of population growth, migration and infrastructure

initiatives have a direct impact on cultural heritages. Rapid industrialization and population
growth especially in the recent years have adversely affected not only heritage buildings but
also the urban climate, air quality and caused imbalances in the regional climate at large.
The monuments located in the thickly populated cities like Ahmadabad, Delhi, Kolkata,
Mumbai, Chennai, Agra, Hyderabad, Kanchipuram and other cities in India are facing
problems one way or other. Often the RCC jungles came up around the ancient monuments
have completely hide or concealed them from the public view. Sometimes the monument
premises become the dumping yard for all garbage and waste materials of nearby
inhabitants. There are also cases where the drainages of the nearby inhabitants are let out
in the monument premises, if the monument is not taken care by someone or by any
institution. There are also many instances that the open area around the monument or even
a part of the monument is encroached upon by the people living close to it. Due to the
absence of proper vigil, the approaches to many uncared or unprotected monuments are
also blocked by constructing modern buildings or hutments.

Recently the Government of India has taken initiatives to stop such unlawful activities
through Act. The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Amendment
and Validation) Act, 2010 (10 of 2010) makes the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological
Sites and Remains Act, 1958 more effective to safeguard the ambience of the protected
monuments and sites of national importance from the threat of modern constructions.

This Amendment Act is only to take care the monuments and sites of national importance.
There should be a strong public awareness to safeguard the unprotected monuments and
sites and the monuments under the custody of various other organizations from destruction
and modernization and from unruly and haphazard modern constructions in their close
vicinity.
2.20 Poor Quality of Material and Workmanship:

In the ancient times, the nature and style of any building construction is mainly governed by
the environment and topographical features of the area and the availability of raw-materials
for construction. Of course, the local tradition and belief, the religious principles and canons,
nature of utilization, economic status and other factors are also responsible for determining
the building construction. Our ancestors had tried their level best to choose the best
materials for construction, but often they had to compromise with the available raw-materials
in the area of their settlement for building construction. However, they shrewdly adopted
many remedial methods to overcome these complications.

Most of the ancient caves in western India are wrought out of basalt rock (called as Deccan
trap), which has many inherent weaknesses like leakage problem, cracking, etc. Majority of
the monuments in Kerala, Goa and few other parts located in the coastal region were
constructed using laterite as it is easily available in those areas. The pores in this rock
absorb moisture and water which in turn attract the vegetation to grow over the rock.
Moreover, it is difficult carve sculptures and minute and intricate carving in this rock due to
its rough and porous nature. To overcome this problem, majority of the ancient temples in
Kerala are plastered and paintings are executed over the plaster in the place of relief
sculptures. The roof of the ancient structures in Kerala is made of wooden members and
covered with metal sheets or tiles or even thatch in extremely humble cases. Again, the
wood is locally available in abundance. However, the load bearing members of the structure
i.e., basement or adhishtana is usually of granite stone. Since the Kerala region gets heavy
rains, the roof of the ancient structure is preferably in conical shape so that the rain water
can drain out freely.

The stone temples of early medieval and medieval periods in India are normally constructed
without using binding material. The stones in these structure stand in position due to the self-
load of stone and inter-locking system. In the case of huge prakara wall/fortification wall the
veneering stones are used on the faces and core is filled with stone rubbles or brick-bats. If
the stones of the structure are dislodged from their position owing to some natural and man-
made causes and also due to the undulated settlement of the foundation, the cracks may
develop in the structure and finally resultant into the collapse of the structure. The
Kakanmath Temple (c.1015-1035 CE) at Suhania (Sihoniya) in Madhya Pradesh is the best
example to display how the temple can looks like if the veneering stones on the facing are
missing or fallen.

The faulty material originally used in the construction of a monument may also often act
against the longevity of the structure. The stones used for construction may sometimes have
inherent hairline crack or flaking tendency or any other defects which may affect the
monument in long run. In some cases, the original stone may have the salt and acid
contents, impurities, etc.

The iron dowels, clamps, brackets, etc., used to join or fix the stones, found in the mediaeval
temples of Central India, Odisha and other regions are also crate many structural problems.
The creaks may develop in the stone if the iron dowels got rusting. Wherever the iron
dowels/ clamps, used for fixing the marble slabs in position in Taj Mahal at Agra, get
exposed or in contact with moisture, they may subject to rusting and this rust may flow down
with rain water and deposit on the marble surface. The marble used for Taj Mahal
construction is of varied typed with differences in colour, shade and grains. The spot or
streaks of different natural colour are found on the marble slabs mainly because of the
presence of mineral impurities. It is observed at certain places that the mineral impurities
present in the marble slabs have got preferentially leached by rain water and thus leading to
the formation of cracks.

In the name of water tightening the roof of a structure, the water tightening materials or
course of materials were laid, even in the historical times, over the decomposed earlier layer,
instead of removing the dead roof materials and relaying afresh. The accumulated dead load
is an unnecessary stress on the monument that may even pose danger to the monument in
long run. The Kakatiya temples in the Telangana state have a typical box-type foundation
trench filled with sand. Due to the disturbance of the sand bedding, the foundation has been
disturbed in many monuments which resulted into the breaking of the base slabs and
settlement of the structure.

The aging of the materials used in the constitution may also contribute to the cause of
concern for the longevity of the monument. According to the recent studies, the tensile
strength of stone may also be reduced considerably if it is subjected to long term loading.

2.21 Unsustainable Tourism:

If there is no proper system to regulate or manage the tourist flow to the monument, this may
also turn to be a threat to the historical buildings. The main problem is wear and tear to the
monument due to movement of visitors in large numbers. Over-crowding in the monument
may leads to misuse or sabotage.

Nowadays tourism is one of the most important economic sectors worldwide. It is apparent
that the cultural heritage is the driving force for development of tourism industry.
Notwithstanding tourism is a source of revenue for the government, it has to be promoted to
the extent that it should not generate any negative impacts on the historical monuments and
sites. There should be an adequate tourist management system to regulate the tourist.
Proper awareness has to be generated among the public and make them to understand how
to behave in the monument premises.

Over-crowding leads to vandalism and also to a stampede. It is to mention here that

unfortunately many people died in the tragedy of stampede occurred in 1981 when panicked
visitors stampeded down the narrow staircase of the Qutab Minar at Delhi. Steps have been
taken to regulate the over-crowd and congestion particularly in some of the monuments
frequented by large number of visitors. The queue system has been followed for the entry
and exit of the main mausoleum of Taj Mahal, the most visited monument in India, to avoid
congestion and suffocation in that narrow chamber. To maintain optimum level of humidity
and temperature, the visitors inside the caves at Ajanta are restricted to 40 persons at a
time.

To avoid the problem of wear and tear and other issues due to the movement of large
number of visitors, some of the monuments and sites in few foreign countries are closed for
visitors permanently or the number of visitor’s entry is restricted.
10/9/23, 11:02 AM Conservation: History and Future of Conservationism | EnvironmentalScience.org

Conservation: History and Future

What is Conservation? Defining Conservationism

We define conservation as a broad approach to preserving what is already there and the due care and attention to protecting it for the future (1). It is also dedicated to restorin
natural state and maintaining equilibrium. It is a practice and a philosophy, utilizing scientific tools and methods with applied ethics, and, where necessary, regulation and en
limit the use of certain materials. It can apply to many areas, not just the natural environment. Typically, it covers three broad areas:

Cultural heritage and the built environment of archaeological monuments, buildings of historic importance, and landscapes. This promotes cultural awareness and respec
heritage for future generations to enjoy
Conservation of ecology, maintaining the delicate balance of an ecosystem or set of wildlife to ensure population numbers of threatened or endangered species are not pu
landscape for study or enjoyment, or for biodiversity
Resource conservation is the active ways in which we seek to limit the use of resources to reduce the strain put on supply. This can be developing energy-efficient homes
materials burnt to produce electricity or efficiency savings of water resources

Conservation is important for many reasons, not least of all to the health of the planet. However, the study of the subject goes merely beyond health and ecosystems; helps u
world around us and present problems for environmental engineers, archaeologists, ecologists and others to solve to improve how we use land and by extension, our lives. C
conservation also benefits local economies through tourism and academic grants for study.

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1 Degree Completed

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3 Program of Interest

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Conservation, Ethics, Philosophy

Most sciences are about looking for answers to problems within the data generated and devising tests to solve them. Conservationism is slightly different. It does all of this,
philosophy of ethics behind its founding idea. Specifically, conservation ethics work from the idea of respect for the things we are protecting, preserving for future generatio
be exploited. It seeks to present the consequences. One of its most important modern papers on resource exploitation and the damage it can cause is called “Tragedy of the C

Conservation ethics simply protects a resource and believes there should be minimal impact on the community - both human and ecosystem, in using it. This applies to food
a mark of respect for their human interest. Conservation is not preservation, however, and the two are often mixed (3). The key difference according to the US National Park
resources while preservation seeks to protect nature against any kind of use. Working to maintain biodiversity is conservation (regulate), making it illegal to build in a design

Conservation as Restoration
Another area of conservation, although more related to preservation as discussed previously is the restoration of something to a former state. This typically applies to cultura
become damaged. However, it's recently become applied to natural landscapes too. This idea behind restoration is simply to restore it to a former state. This can be the repair
in a tapestry with new material to restore it to a former state) or the restoration of woodland to plains or swamp/wetlands that may have previously been drained for agricultu
to the land issues (4).

A History of Conservation
The history of conservation is generally tied to the industrial age, as a kind of backlash against exploitation of uncontrolled industrial growth and unfettered capitalism of the
more years before this.

Natural Conservation
Enlightenment and Early Industrial Age
Many argue that the conservation movement did not begin in the industrial era, but in a slightly earlier time. In 1662, John Evelyn presented a work called “Sylva or a discou
dominions” to the Royal Society (5). Two years later, a printed book version followed and it became one of the most important early works in forestry. Unlike many other w
problem of deforestation in England. Way ahead of its time, it called for preservation of existing forests and the replenishment of new tree canopy with each that was cut dow
the Royal Society, increasingly concerned at the destruction of trees for Charles II building projects. The book was hugely successful although the concern was more about t
concepts as biodiversity, ecology, or even the climate.

But true modern conservationism grew during the industrial era, and relatively early on too. It's generally believed that the industrial revolution began in the late 18th century
began the process of industrialization. In Prussia and France in the 18th century, there was a development (as there was in many European powers) of intensive agriculture an
India of the British Empire. Management covered aspects to maximize production but also to reduce the risk of wildfire devastating crops and resources - particularly of the
during the Napoleonic Wars when the resource was being plundered to build ships regarding today what we would call “sustainability” (6, p36). The first conservation laws
this measure failed mostly due to laissez-faire economics and inability to enforce the law. But conservation was not dead - in fact, it was only just getting started.

The Birth of Natural Conservation in the Industrial Age

https://www.environmentalscience.org/conservation 1/3
Armed with the new scientific concepts and tools, the conservation movement recommenced during the industrial age (7). Earlier concerns about forestry exploitation morph
10/9/23, 11:02 AM Conservation: History and Future of Conservationism | EnvironmentalScience.org
lifestyle of the Native Americans in most cases. Over-hunting of bison and buffalo by both European settlers and Native Americans who started using horses for hunting, and
and industrialization all came together to demonstrate just how fragile our land was. This is why so many national parks were founded in the US in the late 19th century. But
conservationists such as Henry David Thoreau (11) who believed humans had a duty to live more in tune with nature. His work and others inspired many of the early forestry

The War Between Preservation and Conservation

Naturalists in the developed countries were largely split between conservationists (good practice in the management of resources) and preservationists (those who felt land s
US than during the Progressive Era of 1890-1920. While the existing economic paradigm was one of laissez-faire economics that many felt was damaging the natural enviro
by Theodore Roosevelt (12) was deeply concerned about the wastage and harm it was doing to the land, leading to a large number of game species in the US on the brink of
argued that the proposals of the emerging conservationists did not go far enough. This was certainly the view of John Muir who believed that there was still too much concer
pristine landscapes. Muir's Sierra Club (13) is still around today and they made a stand with the development of the Hetch Hetchy Dam in Yosemite, arguing that the land sh

As president, Roosevelt pushed strongly for conservation issues which may be the reason they eventually won the day. During his term in office, around 230m acres of land
created five national parks, and several national forests. That's not to say that preservationists did not have their victories. In the 1960s, the Wilderness Act (14) set aside larg
scientific, or natural interest. In these areas, logging, mining and other industrial activities are prohibited and there are strong protections in place to maintain the integrity of
commercial developments downstream of the water flow.

The 1960s and Beyond

The current trend of conservationism - of protecting the environment for future generations using scientific data and backed up with legislation goes back to the 1960s. Rach
industrial and commercial activity was doing to our world. President John F Kennedy introduced the Clean Air Act in the US as one of many introduced in developed nation
the executive order creating the Environmental Protection Agency. Although their remit was (and remains) one of environmental health and public safety, a number of laws g
secure their safety for the ecological environment. Globally, the natural conservation movement was growing armed with data suggesting climate change, the understanding
Effect, depletion of the ozone layer, toxic spillages and nuclear testing all came to public mind as issues for conservation in the latter half of the 20th century. Also, with man
extinction to the extent that there soon became an official list (16), conservation won out with the same elements of preservation. Many people today believe there is a need
damaging the economy of resources for the future.

Archaeological Conservation
In all the debate about conservation of natural landscapes, we must not forget that the 19th century also saw the development of interest in the cultural past. Although archaeo
was largely an exercise in treasure hunting - digging up the treasures of the past as curiosities for museums or for the private collections of those who funded the dig. Chang
and artefacts were becoming part of the study of the past, no longer merely trinkets and curiosities, but indicators of a culture's development and identity. Modern archaeolog
archaeological landscape is younger still. The first laws to protect and conserve cultural heritage came into place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the developed cou
1906 (18) which gave the office of president the power to set aside areas of land as protected cultural assets, known as “National Monuments”. This law was in place until 1
but several other laws came into place before then that required archaeologists to label and give proper contexts to monuments and artefacts.

There was also a global movement to protect by law and provide resources and funds for monuments that were nationally important, but also those deemed significant to hum
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) has many responsibilities, one of the most important as far as archaeological conservation is concerned is the World Herit
sites. The first 12 added on that first day included: L'Anse Aux Meadows in Canada (the site of a Viking settlement), The Galapagos Islands, Quito in Ecuador, Krakow, and
monuments and natural landscapes on this list.

In the 21st century, it is common for countries to have laws in place to protect monuments, sites, and landscapes of cultural or historical importance and government-establis
upkeep or conservation. The threats to them and their conservation go beyond the issues of the 19th century (plunder and theft). See the section on conservation areas of conc

Archaeology and the Study of Collapsing Societies

One aspect of particular note and a niche area of archaeological curiosity is the study of how and why past societies collapsed. Most studies examine the artefacts and monum
“Golden Age” or high point, but the study of how societies fall is one area that often overlaps natural conservation. There are several seminal works on this with Jared Diam
Survive considered the most important. His studies take him all over the world as he examines the archaeological data for long-departed cultures. Often, evidence suggests th
to their culture such as environmental malpractice and overexploitation of resources. Diamond perceives that that is exactly what happened to the people of Easter Island (20
is not the only theory. Others have suggested that invasive rat species brought aboard their rafts travelling across the Pacific also contributed to the tree canopy's decline and
fall:

https://www.environmentalscience.org/conservation 2/3with the

Natural climate change such as the medieval warm period (MWP) or the little ice age (LIA) changing the climate of an area meaning that crops no longer grow
The hostility of neighbors and other competing groups putting pressure on the society meaning a strain on the resources or conquest by another culture
10/9/23, 11:02 AM Conservation: History and Future of Conservationism | EnvironmentalScience.org

Conservation Economics
Economics is a vital link in any political system as there is a need to provide employment and funding for public services and investment and to ensure markets function. Co
costs and financial benefits of everything related to conservation - laws, protections, limits on resource acquisition and so on. It also looks at the economic benefits of setting
such models, progress and conservation are not in opposition or a battle of wits, but complementary with both seeing the other as vital in their systems (22).

https://www.environmentalscience.org/conservation 3/3
 The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XL-5/W7, 2015
25th International CIPA Symposium 2015, 31 August – 04 September 2015, Taipei, Taiwan

DOCUMENTATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE

TECHNIQUES, POTENTIALS AND CONSTRAINTS
F. Hassani a
a
Faculty of Architecture, World Heritage Studies, BTU Cottbus, Germany, hamisheh.65@gmail.com

KEY WORDS: Cultural Heritage, Conservation Process, Documentation, Digital Technology

ABSTRACT:

Cultural Heritage is known as an invaluable asset of human being, which portrays his achievements over centuries. The need for
identification and preservation of cultural heritage is well understood and experts‟ attempt is to exploit any possible method to fulfill
this aim. There are several published literatures and documents, which emphasize on the importance of the documentation of the
cultural heritage such as Burra Charter. However, with the development of human and invention of new tools and technologies, the
concept of the conservation of cultural heritage has changed considerably. The new technologies such as computers and digital tools
have opened new windows and bestowed new opportunities in the process of conservation of cultural heritage. In this regard, it is
important to review different technologies in order to make the best advantage of these tools in the cultural heritage field. The focus
of this paper would be on the non-technical users who need to gain an overall comprehension of these new emerging tools. The
foundation of this paper will be on the existing literatures published by various experts in addition to the author‟s experience and
research in the conservation field.

1. INTRODUCTION heritage experts should update their knowledge in order get to

According to the Burra Charter and in view of the fact that
conservation process of cultural heritage is composed of three
phases of „understanding the significance, developing policy,
and managing in accordance with the policy‟. (Burra Charter,
2013) the fundamental need of any conservation project is
understanding the object and gathering data about its physical
condition prior to any action and intervention that might change
the object. Furthermore, cultural heritage is threatened by
various factors such as natural hazards, vandalism, development
of cities, and aging, which in a pragmatic view, one cannot
guarantee their eternality and each moment there is the
possibility of their loss. Thus, we should make sure that they are
well documented, which in case of their loss we could pass the
documentation and recording archives to the future generations
or if needed use them for reconstruction purposes.
In this regard, the use of digital technologies in data acquisition
and recording the object condition could be very substantial.
Digital technologies can considerably ease and expedite the
documentation process, while ensuring a precise result and an
accurate output for establishing the conservation phase.
Nevertheless, the documentation stage cannot be terminated
only in the first phase of conservation process; on the contrary,
since keeping the archives up-to date and monitoring the object
needs gathering more data, it goes hand in hand with other
phases of the project. In fact, in any phase of conservation
process, there is an essential need for documentation and in
each attempt digital technologies can assist the conservation
team by providing appropriate data according to the project
needs.
The applicability of digital technologies in the conservation
process of cultural heritage has been studied, experimented and
analyzed by numerous scholars and experts. However, there is
still a knowledge gap between cultural heritage experts and
surveyors, IT and computer experts, especially in developing
countries. Moreover, the rapid advancement of the electronic
means has made the process more complicated since cultural
know the new achievements, which are efficacious in preparing
conservation plan and developing policy.
In order to cope with this problem there have been published
many different literatures, especially by surveyors.
Nevertheless, the problem as yet exists and Cultural Heritage
experts are not well familiar with the fast emerging technologies
that can help them in the process of documentation and
conservation of cultural heritage. „In certain cases large
amounts of money are invested without first considering the
purposes and aims of a project at hand. Subsequently large
amounts of records are produced, which may end up stored in
an archival room and forgotten.‟ (Quintero, 2003:3) To this
effect, there is this need to afresh point out this problem by
studying and bringing newfound technologies to notice and
establish a foundation for cultural heritage experts‟
understanding. This can help heritage experts and managers to
communicate with surveyors and information specialists using a
„technical language‟ (Letellier et al., 2007: xiv), which will lead
them to better prioritize the project needs and ameliorate the
output of their conservation measures. To this purpose, this
paper aims at studying different techniques of documentation
and reviewing their pros and cons.
2. CATEGORIZATION OF DOCUMENTATION
TECHNIQUES
Each object has its own unique characteristics and it is
according to the its physical condition, time, and the amount of
accuracy needed and other requirements of the project that the
conservation team decides what specific documentation
approach or tool is more applicable. To this end, a classification
of these techniques can aid to better understand and deal with
their characteristics. The variety of documentation techniques in
the process of recording cultural heritage has caused different
classifications to be offered by the survey experts. In this paper,
the categorization is based on the metric data and acquisition of
points‟ coordinates of the targeted object with or without taking

This contribution has been peer-reviewed.

doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-207-2015 207
 The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XL-5/W7, 2015
25th International CIPA Symposium 2015, 31 August – 04 September 2015, Taipei, Taiwan
images. In this regard, based on the following diagram, three
categories will be studied in the following chapters: Image-
based, non-image-based, and combinative methods.
Figure 1. The categorization of documentation techniques
2.1 Image-based Techniques
Photography is a basic tool for documentation of cultural
heritage in a certain point of time. Production and archiving of
these data are crucial for the future needs in the preservation
and conservation process. In this category, image is the base for
data acquisition of the targeted object and the coordinates can
be accessible after the processing phase. Here, photogrammetry
and IR camera are reviewed as the most important examples of
the image-based techniques.
2.1.1 Photogrammetry: Photogrammetry consists of
techniques for interpreting, measuring, and modeling the
objects based on their acquired images.
2.1.1.1 Panorama: Panorama photography multi-image
photogrammetric methods. This method is a an excellent
example of rendering based on image in contrast to rendering
based on model, which overcomes the problems of 3d
modeling. Panorama images are useful for measuring.
Moreover, these images can be used for analyzing the
dimensions if adjustment and camera calibration is operated
properly. Nowadays, panoramic cameras have increased the
reliability of this method, and removed the problems relating to
the stitching and overlapping process of images. Panoramic
photography can be used in documentation, education, tourism,
and presenting the historic buildings and sites. The most
important advantage of this method is its capability in storing
the data of a large object with the help of low number of
pictures. Low cost, less time, ease of use in geographical
information systems, the ability of presentation in web pages,
high attraction for users are among the other advantages of this
method. On the contrary, large image size which needs large
memory, the need for viewer softwares, the limitation for
movement in the interior spaces, limitation in the camera angle
are some the disadvantages of this technique.
2.1.1.2 Close-range Photogrammetry: Photogrammetry is an
independent method in the documentation process. This method
is based on at least two images with overlapped data, which
guarantee the triangulation process. The aim of digital close-
range photogrammetry is making the process of recording and
processing data simpler and faster. This method is an accurate
technique for documenting color and texture, and providing
metric data of objects with different size and complexity in a
This contribution has been peer-reviewed.
doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-207-2015
relatively short time. This technique can be used when the
access to the object is limited, or when the direct measuring on
the object would threaten it.
Today, using of-the-shelf cameras with high accuracy has made
the close-range photogrammetric process much easier and more
cost-effective to apply. Close-range photogrammetry has also a
high applicability in generating 3D models of the targeted
objects. These models can be useful in creating a 3D archive
and answering to different aims of documentation. In short,
Productions of photogrammetry can be rectified photos, ortho-
photos, and 3D models. Although the usability of
photogrammetry can be classified according to the required
accuracy and detail, generally, its application in archeology and
heritage conservation can be enumerated as follows:
 Documentation of historic buildings and small
artifacts, measuring the facades
 Providing color and texture data
 Measuring the deformation of buildings,
analyzing the changes, and predicting the future
changes, for example cracks and fissures. for this
purpose, a cloud point model of the object should be
generated in different periods of time in order to be
able to perform a continuous comparison between
models and analyse the changes.
 Surveying the excavation sites
 3D modeling of historic cities
 Reconstruction of destroyed objects
 Creating an accurate metric archive for analysis
and future needs
In photogrammetry, the results can be quickly presented, before
other operational measures in the preservation process. In
comparison with hand survey, this method is more secure due to
its nonintrusive and non-contact nature, and provides a large
amount of data. The advantages of photogrammetry can be
summarized as follows:
 Ease in creating an archive for future needs
 Large amount of data (Patias, 2006)
 High accuracy depending on the needs of the
project
 Providing 3D models from small objects to
large complex objects such as archaeological sites
 Providing metric and vector data of the texture
of the object due to its image-based nature, which
increases the understanding of the user.
 Geographical data, which can be indirectly
extracted from the images at any time and according
to the needs of project
 Low-cost and portable equipment
In contrast, the disadvantages of this technique are:
 Sophisticated to be applied by non-expert users
 influenced by and dependent on the accuracy
and resolution of the camera
 Its applicability is limited by lack of proper
points for photography or hindrance. In this case, it
should be combined with or replaced by other
techniques.
2.1.1.3 UAV: UAV or Unmanned Aerial Vehicle as it can be
understood form its name operates without an on-board pilot.
(Remondino et. al., 2011) Other terms such as Remotely Piloted
Vehicle (RPV), Remotely Operated Aircraft (ROA) Remote
Controlled Helicopter (RC-Helicopter), Unmanned Vehicle
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Systems (UVS) and model helicopter (Eisenbeiß, 2004) are also
used for this system. Different types of UAV are categorized
according to their weight, size, endurance, flying attitude.
(Remondino et al. 2011) This system is composed of a light
low-cost aerial vehicle such as a small helicopter, a digital
camera, and GNSS/INS systems for identifying the position and
navigating the system.
The initial motivation for developing UAV systems was for
military purposes. However, in the recent years, the application
of UAV has expanded considerably so that it is used for
documentation and surveying purposes. This low-cost system
can be an approperiate alternative to the classical manned aerial
photogrammetry (Colomina et al., 2008; Remondino et al.,
2011).
This method has indeed proved its efficacy in the
documentation of cultural heritage and archaeological sites.
Documentation and 3D modeling and surveying of historic sites
and structures can be performed using low-altitude flight. Using
UAVs, we are able to produce panoramic images, Digital
Surface Model (DSM), ortho-photo, and three-dimensional
models with high accuracy of the surveyed objects. Some
advantages of this non-intrusive system are:
 Real-time capability (Eisenbeiß, 2009), fast
image acquisition, and short interruption times
which make it suitable for archaeological field-work
(Sauerbier & Eisenbeiß, 2010)
 Small areas can easily be covered by this system
so that images from different sides of the targeted
object can be provided. (Eisenbeiss, 2004)
 UAVs provide the opportunity to survey
inaccessible and/or dangerous areas which cannot be
accessed directly using other systems or piloted aerial
systems. (Everaerts, 2008; Eisenbeiß, 2009)
In contrast, vibration due to their relatively low weight and the
impact of wind, the maximum load they can carry and the
integration of different sensors are some of the problems we are
dealing with in UAVs.
2.1.2. IR Camera: IR is the part of the electromagnetic
spectrum that we perceive as heat. Thermal or infrared energy is
not visible to the naked eyes because its wavelength is too long
to be detected by the human eye. In the spectrum of
electromagnetic waves, we generally work with visible light.
Standard CCD/ CMOS cameras for example, are sensitive to
visible light spectrum. However, nowadays with the help of
advanced technologies, we are able to acquire data in ultraviolet
(UV), and infrared (IR) portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Everything with a temperature above absolute zero emits heat.
In thermography or infrared light, an infrared imaging and
measurement camera is used to observe and measure the emitted
thermal energy from a target. This capability can be highly
useful in the documentation of cultural heritage and studying
the art work (Pelagotti et al., 2007) for deeper analysis
(Voltolini et al., 2007) particularly for monitoring and
conservation of historic monuments (Moropoulo et al., 2001).
These cameras are able to show thermal distribution of the
surface in an image. Some physical conditions such as relative
humidity, atmospheric temperature, reflected apparent
temperature and material properties of an object like the degree
of emissivity affect this distribution. (Kordatos et. al., 2012)
This contribution has been peer-reviewed.
doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-207-2015
Modern IR imagers are highly sensitive temperature differences
of 0.1ºC or less, which enables them to evaluate and present
subtle thermal phenomena, in the form of slight temperature
gradients. (Rizzi et al., 2007) IR camera provides the capability
of observing and documenting back structure of frescoes and
paintings, padding, older layers, hidden structures, pentimento
and preparatory drawing. It also helps analyse the composition
of objects and buildings, and the state of conservation of
façades, vaults and architectural structures (Moropoulo et al.,
2001; Pelagotti et al, 2007; Voltolini et al., 2007) This non-
destructive tool (Rizzi et al, 2007; Voltolini et al., 2007;
Mercuri et al., 2011; Kordatos et al., 2012) can be used in
detection of moisture and rising damp in buildings and masonry
structures (Kordatos et. al., 2012), identification of cracks
(Rizzi et al., 2007). IR images can also be integrated with and
mapped on digital images and 3D models. With this capability a
quantitative analysis of damages is possible as we access to the
metric data. (Voltolini et al., 2007)
2.2 Non-image-based Techniques
Here, images are not the base of the surveying process and the
coordinates of the different points can be accessible directly
using range-based tools.
2.2.1 Traditional Terrestrial Survey: In this category, and
survey and theodolite measurement will be reviewed in
2.2.1.1 Hand Survey: In this technique hand
measurements are performed using a simple tape or a laser
distance measurer, „spirit level or plumb line‟(MacDonald,
2006). The measures are recorded onto a sketch which is drawn
prior to survey. The results of the measurements can be drawn
in CAD software. This method can be used for producing the
detailed drawings of buildings when modern techniques are not
accessible or expensive to apply. The unavoidable physical
interaction with the targeted object during the survey process
helps achieve an accurate result which is limited only by the
visual acuity of the surveyor. (MacDonald ,2006) In comparison
to other methods, hand measurement, is particularly helpful
where visibility is limited. (Haddad, 2011) Its low-cost and non-
complex nature, which can be performed by non-expert
operators with basic knowledge of surveying, is the major
reason for its frequent application in cultural heritage
documentation. In contrast, some disadvantages of this
technique, which limit its application, are as follows:
 It is time- consuming and needs hard field-work
 Curved and high detailed surface cannot be
measured with the help of this method
 High accuracy cannot be guaranteed in this
method even though the final production is similar to
the real object
 Inaccessible features cannot be surveyed
 If data are not recorded on field, the survey is
incomplete and cannot be complemented in office
(Daneshpour, 2009)
2.2.1.2 Theodolite Measurement: Theodolites can be used in
topographic survey, determining the coordinates of points, and
providing the outline of the targeted objects –even with curved
surface- (Harrison, 2002) since they can generate both angle
and distance measurements simultaneously (MacDonald ,2006).
A wireframe model can also be generated, which with further
process and using modelling software such as CAD Software,
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can be the base for production of a solid 3D model.
Accordingly, these instruments are applicable and multi-
purpose means for cultural heritage documentation. This low-
cost method provides accurate measurement of the target.
However, this method needs skilled operators, is time-
consuming, and in dealing with complex forms with a large
number of points is not quite efficient. (Haddad, 2011) Similar
to hand survey technique, if data are not recorded on field, the
survey is incomplete and cannot be complemented in office.
(Daneshpour, 2009)
2.2.2 Laser Scanner
2.2.2.1 Terrestrial Laser Scanner: 3D scanning technique has
been available since the 1980s. (MacDonald, 2006) Laser
scanner is in fact a robotic total station, which can acquire data
from the target at a high speed and in a short time. Distance
measuring is performed in regular networks without the need
for reflector. The fundamental basic in the operation of this
instrument is based on the two elements of distance and angle.
Laser scanners have a field of view similar to human eyes.
They can be controlled by computer and integrated with a GPS.
Laser scanners can have a wide range of applications in cultural
heritage documentation from small objects to large complex
buildings. The application and capabilities of this modern
technique is continuously developing. Real-time data acquiring
in a real scale, high accuracy, high speed and producing large
amount of points are among the major capabilities of laser
scanners. The acquired point cloud can be used for different
purposes. Generally, three steps in the documentation process
with laser scanner:
 Field survey and data acquisition
 Editing and data processing including
eliminating redundant data and noises, transferring
the information into a coordination system,
integration of the point clouds, integration of the
scanned data with images
 Production of final output including
measurements, sections, texture and 2D drawings,
Solid 3D model
The most important advantage of this technique compared to
theodolites is its high speed in data acquisition which decreases
the field work considerably. In contrast to image-based
techniques, the surface form can cause no limitation in laser
scanning. In fact, laser scanners can provide better results in
regards to detailed irregular objects. This technique can be used
independently or in combination with other techniques (Rüther
et al., 2003) according to the needs of the project.
Despite the multitude advantages of laser scanner, its limitation
in documenting surfaces with sharp edges (Rüther et al., 2003;
Lerma et al., 2008) and color and texture data of is unanimously
approved. Though laser scanners are recently integrated with
digital cameras, the integration of scanning result with the
image data complicates the process. The areas with obstacles or
hidden points are another problem, which limits the capability
of laser scanner as it impedes a thorough survey. In this case,
more stations are needed to fill the gaps. Nevertheless, in some
cases, even more stations cannot solve the problem and it is
required to use other surveying methods. Objects with reflective
surface are another example from which laser scanner fails to
provide accurate data. Since water absorbs the rays near IR
This contribution has been peer-reviewed.
doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-207-2015
spectrum, while there is moisture on the surface, the reflection
of laser beam cannot perform properly. Accordingly, rainy
condition and moist surface affect the quality of the data
acquisition and degrade the accuracy of the result. Due to its
large size and the minimum range of laser beam, the application
of laser scanner is limited in small interior spaces. High cost,
the need for skilled operators, time-consuming post processing
are another limitations of laser scanners.
2.2.2.2 LIDAR: Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) system
which was first introduced by NASA in 1970. (Haala &
Brenner, 1999) is a developing technology for producing digital
surface model (DSM) at a high speed (Flood & Gutelius, 1997).
LIDAR can scan a region in a stripe pattern so that the
integration of the scanned stripes provides a point cloud model
of the region. This data acquisition system functions based on
measuring the distance with laser beam.
The components of LIDAR are Differential Global Positioning
System (DGPS) for identifying the coordinates of the laser
pulse transmission location; Inertial Measurement Unit for
measuring the laser transmission angle; and Laser scanning
system for measuring the distance between laser pulse
transmission point and earth surface. These components are
installed on a plane or helicopter. The time for returning a
transmitted laser pulse from the features located on the earth is
calculated to determine distance between transmission point and
earth surface and finally the coordinates of the targeted point.
However, when a laser pulse is transmitted to earth, it might hit
various obstacles. This will affect the accuracy of the survey.
Modern systems have the capability of recording at least two
signals, first pulse and second pulse. This characteristic
differentiates LIDAR from normal photogrammetry systems
since in regions covered by vegetation, in addition to the digital
model of the earth surface, vegetation can be surveyed as well.
High speed of data acquisition is a major advantage of LIDAR.
However, laser pulse transmitted from LIDAR might change
considerably due to the fact that laser can be spread by air
molecules and dust particles. This problem will cause a shift in
the wavelength and affects the accuracy.
LIDAR sensors have the capability of surveying hundreds of
points in a second, which makes it an ideal tool for surveying
archaeological sites and systematic research on historic
buildings and excavation areas. The integration of data from
LIDAR with photogrammetry using GIS would create a
reference base for archaeologists in conducting their research.
2.3 Combinative Methods
Tools that are introduced in this section have the structure and
characteristics of both previous categories, which means they
take advantage of image-based methods with photogrammetry
base, and non-image-based techniques, which survey the target
by transmitting beam to the surface. To this effect, these tools
try to overcome the weaknesses and problems of two other
categories.
2.3.1. Photo-laser scanner: Photo-laser scanners combine
close-range photogrammetry with the point cloud produced by
laser scanning. The reflectors used in this technique have more
reflective nature than other objects. Thus, automatically they
can be recognized in the software process. Since all reflectors
have distinct coordinates, transformation of laser points to the
standard coordinate system can be performed automatically.
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After scanning the whole target using the laser scanner part, the
digital camera mounted on the scanner starts taking image.
Afterwards, images will be integrated with the point cloud and
points find their actual color and texture.
This tool is highly applicable in documentation of cultural
heritage and is particularly useful in surveying inscriptions and
reliefs. Ortho-photo can easily be produced with the help of
photo-laser scanner and 3D model can be processed with a
single image. High speed of this instrument is a great advantage,
which decreases the fieldwork load considerably. Since laser
scanner operates weakly in surveying the edges, images taken
with the camera obviate this problem so that edges and cracks
are easily recognizable and the accuracy of the final product
would be more reliable.
2.3.1 Structured Light: Structured light, Kinect and David
laser scanner are placed in this category since all of these
methods use the same logic in documenting the target.
2.3.1.1 Structured Light: In the coded structured light or
topometric technique (Akca et al., 2006) projection of a single
pattern or a set of patterns onto targeted object shapes the
fundamental basic of coded structured light. A single camera or
a set of cameras should also image the target. This coded pattern
helps correspond between image points and projected pattern
points and perform the triangulation process. (Salvi et al., 2004)
Using this process a 3D model of the surveyed object can be
generated. The aim of structured light technique is increasing
the corresponding points in each image, which in turn expedites
and eases the modeling process. In fact, this technique operate
with a similar method to photogrammetry while finding and
matching points from different images forms the foundation for
producing a 3D model. However, colored light pattern sent out
to the surface of target so that the matching operation can be
performed automatically with a high accuracy and in a relatively
high speed.
With the help of the generated 3D model of the target, measures
and coordinates of points can be extracted easily. Accordingly,
this technique is an ideal tool for documenting cultural heritage
objects in particular inscriptions, reliefs, statues and
decorations. Nevertheless, this method cannot be operated
easily and requires skilled operator and complex software
system.
2.3.2.2 Kinect: With the help of this developed depth/range
sensors, direct generation a rough 3D geometry of surfaces is
possible. (Comb`es et al., 2011) RGB-D cameras are examples
of this category of sensors, which are mostly designed for
computer gaming and entertainment applications. (Henry et al.,
2012) Kinect is in fact a game-oriented RGB-D camera which is
known as the first general consumer-grade structured-light
camera. (orrego, 2012) This structured-light-based sensor is
composed of RGB and IR sensors with an IR pattern projector.
(Comb`es et al., 2011) and provides „real-time colour and depth
data‟ (Joubert & Brink, 2011) Kinect field of view is 60° and
its capability in providing depth data is limited to a distance of
about 3.5 meters. (Bonnal P.E., 2011: 4)
Low cost, small size, low weight, and portability of this system
in addition to possibility of its utilization while moving from
one point to another are the properties, which make Kinect a
proper tool for documenting indoor spaces of cultural heritage.
This contribution has been peer-reviewed.
doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-207-2015
In fact, in small spaces where the application of other tools such
as laser scanner and total station is not possible can be scanned
and documented with the help of Kinect. For example, in the
documentation of historic buildings while we are facing with
narrow staircase and corridors, this tool can be moved in the
space to survey the space and acquire the coordinates of the
points. Kinect can also be applied in the documentation of small
objects and statues for generating point cloud and subsequently
a 3D model. The major disadvantage of the Kinect is its
limitation in scanning outdoor spaces. (Bajpai & Perelman,
2012) Moreover, the application of this tool is relatively easy
and can be performed by a non-expert user, the post processing
phase needs a high skilled user for achieving the desired result.
2.3.1.2 David Laser Scanner: DAVID laser scanner is a
low-cost three-dimensional documentation method, which is
composed of a computer, video camera, a background
containing control points and a line laser source. (Aydar et al.,
2011) This technology is in fact a software package based on
triangulation method. The components of David laser scanner
are: Plain board in the background; hand-held line laser;
Camera; and DAVID-laser scanner software. Its self-calibration
capability is major advantage preventing further expenses.
(Bajpai & Perelman, 2012)
In the scanning process, the user manually moves the laser
source around the object. (Aydar et al., 2011) The accompanied
software of this tool provides the possibility of mapping the
texture and color data on the generated 3D model. Low cost and
the user friendly characteristics of DAVID laser scanner give it
a popular tool for documenting small objects.
3. CONCLUSION
The application of a wide spectrum of technologies for metric
documentation of cultural heritage confirms the multiplicity of
appropriate choices for documentation of an object. However, a
single method cannot guarantee the desired accuracy and there
are always obstacles and problems, which limit the capabilities
of a technique. Cost, time, complexity and size of the object
itself, accessibility, the skill of the survey team etc. play an
important role in selecting a survey method. Each single method
has its own particular characteristics. Nevertheless, in most
cases, a single method cannot be responsive to the requirement
of a project and it is needed to exploit a combination of
different techniques to achieve the desired result. This hybrid
approach –if the allocated budget allows- is the best possible
method for documenting cultural heritage.
Thereupon, in the documentation process of valuable objects
and sites, studying and planning the needs of the project and
other influential factors have to be done to guarantee the
usefulness of the project. To this purpose, a knowledgeable
cultural heritage expert can manage to grasp the needs and the
requirements of the project and be a reliable and trustworthy
counselor for surveyor and IT specialist. The result of this
cooperation is of a great importance inasmuch it decreases the
risk of wasting time and budget and assures the usability of the
output. The following table is designed based on the previous
chapters to provide a summary of the discussion and help
cultural heritage experts to gain a better insight on the recent
technologies used in the documentation Process of Cultural
Heritage.
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Technique Pros
Quick data capture, simple, low-cost, free
Panorama accessible software, effective presentation of
Photography objects, color and texture data, ease of use in
GIS, the ability of presentation in web pages,
high attraction for users
Photogrammetry
Short field-work period, cost-effective,
Image-based Techniques
Close-range accurate, non-intrusive, texture and colour data,
Photogrammetry cheap portable equipment, output can be
processed in common CAD software, ease in
generating an archive
UAV Real-time capability, fast image acquisition,
cost-effective, short interruption times, texture
and colour data, proper coverage of target,
proper for inaccessible and dangerous areas
Non-destructive, appropriate for damage
IR Camera evaluation such as moisture and rising damp,
identification of hidden structure and older
layers, high accuracy, capability of combining
with RGB images and 3D models
Low cost, simple to apply by non-experts,
Hand Survey requires low cost and accessible equipment,
helpful where visibility is limited
Traditional Terrestrial Survey
Cost-effective when number of surveyed points
Theodolite are limited, ease of use, appropriate accuracy
Measurement
Non-image-based Techniques
Provides location coordinates in global
geographical system, highly useful in
GPS combination with other techniques, appropriate
in documenting mass targets and structural
deformation
High accuracy, high speed, non-intrusive, large
amount of data, documenting complex surfaces
Terrestrial Laser and objects, can be applied in dark spaces and
Scanner at nights
Laser Scanner
High accuracy, high speed, non-intrusive,
LIDAR appropriate in documenting mass targets and
large-scale sites, data acquisition in vegetated
areas, large amount of data
High accuracy, short fieldwork period, cost-
Photo Laser Scanner effective, large amount of data, texture and
color, appropriate for complex surfaces
Combinative Techniques
High accuracy data, automatic process, high
Structured Light accuracy in matching process
Structured-light
Low-cost, low field-work period, applicable in Time consuming processing, high
Kinect documenting small objects and interior spaces, skilled operator for programming (if
texture and color data needed) and data processing
Low-cost, quick, ease of use, accessible high skilled operator for programming
DAVID Laser equipment, appropriate in documenting small (if needed) and data processing
Scanner objects, texture and color data
Table 1. Documentation Techniques; Pros and Cons
This contribution has been peer-reviewed.
doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-5-W7-207-2015
Cons
Requires pre-planning for photography,
needs processing and viewer software,
limitation of movement in the interior
spaces
requires network design and pre-
planning for ideal photography,
influenced by the accuracy and
resolution of the camera, obstacles limit
the integrity and accuracy, requires high
skilled operator for data processing
requires skilled experts for processing
data, dependant on the wind condition
due to its low weight, obstacles limit the
integrity and accuracy
Requires high skilled expert to integrate
data with other sensors and techniques
Low accuracy, time-consuming, hard
and long field-work period, problem in
documenting curved and high-detailed
objects, difficulty in documenting
inaccessible features, influenced by
human errors
long field-work period, color and
texture data cannot be documented,
dependant on the climate condition,
need for skilled operator
Expensive in data acquisition with high
accuracy (The cost is dependent on the
accuracy of the GPS type), not
applicable in indoor spaces
Expensive, requires high-skilled
operator and special software, difficulty
in processing and storing data due to
high density and low memory, time-
consuming data processing, influenced
by obstacles, dust reflective features of
the object, sunlight and rainy weather,
difficulty in recording small spaces,
weak in documenting edges and cracks
Expensive, requires high-skilled
operators, weak in documenting edges,
noise and gaps, difficulty in processing
and storing data due to high density and
low memory
Expensive, requires high-skilled
operator and special software, time-
consuming data processing,
Requires high skilled operator and
special software
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September 2009

History of Conservation in India

Conservation in India found its roots when the killing of animals were
strictly prohibited in and around the Ashramas (hermitages) allotted to
Brahmanas. Around the third century BC, the founder of the Mauryan
empire—Chandragupta Maurya, appointed a Kupyadhyaksha or Forest
Department Head. This officer was in charge of implementing the Game
Laws laid down in the manuscript known as the Arhtashastra written by
Kautilya, the then Prime Minister of the Mauryan Empire. This in effect
became the first official administrative document to spell out wildlife
conservation measures.

Chandragupta’s grandson Ashoka, besides implementing the written laws

on wildlife conservation in letter, went one step further and implemented it
in spirit too. He is known to have done much for the promulgation of
Buddhism during his reign, ahimsa and the non violence against all beings,
animals included, is well known. His penchant for wildlife also extended to
art and aesthetics, evident from examples such as the Lion Capital of
Ashoka pillar in the present day Uttar Pradesh, where four lions with their
back to each other can be found atop the pillar.

Unfortunately, the streak of good fortune that wildlife had enjoyed until then
did not persist through the centuries. Fast forward a couple of centuries to
the Mughal dynasty. When the founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, was
at the helm, records indicate that rhinoceros were found spread across the
Gogra River and across Peshawar. Wild elephants were found in
abundance in the Karrah region, the present day Allahabad district. The
number of wildlife were not to grow exponentially. Emperor
Akbar, his grandson, was an avid game hunter. He introduced a
special kind of hunting known as the ‘Gamargha Hunt’. The hunt
would involve hundreds of beaters with drums being sent out over a large
distance to literally drive all the wild animals of the region into a circle.
Once rounded up, the King and noblemen would then move around the
periphery of this circle and hunt the animals with guns, spears and arrows.
Akbar bred tigers and leopards for hunting purposes in specific menageries
in Fatehpur and Agra.

Akbar’s son and heir, Jahangir, enforced strict laws prohibiting the hunting
of wild animals as a sport, and prior official sanction was required—granted
only to professionals—to shoot man-eating animals. Hunting leopards aka
cheetahs, which were nearly driven to extinction during the reign of Akbar,
were successfully bred in captivity by Jahangir. However, royal hunting by
the ruling family did not cease. In his memoirs, Jahangir has noted that
over 36 years he hunted a total 17,167 big and small game.

Around the time of his death in 1627, just when the East India Company
began gaining their foothold in India, wildlife started loosing theirs. The
imperialists disregarded all provincial laws set aside to protect wildlife in
India. Shikars were organized to denote chivalry, bravery, and a certain
status symbol among the British.

Some Maharajas and Nawabs maintained an entire corp of shikaris mainly

comprised of local tribal’s with an intricate knowledge of the jungle and its
inhabitants. A Mir-Shikari or expert hunter would often head this group. An
invitation by the provincial ruler to hunt game within their district was seen
as a bonhomous gesture towards the colonists. This misplaced
camaraderie between the colonist and the princes resulted in
irreversible damage to India’s wildlife.

It was then that several animals were pushed towards their last existing
refuge examples of which are the sole surviving Asiatic lions population in
Gujarat and the one horned rhinoceros in North-East India. It was under
these circumstances that India’s first National Park, the Hailey National
Park (Jim Corbett National Park) was founded in 1936, in no small measure
due to the efforts of hunter turned conservationist and naturalist-Jim
Corbett.

Post-independence, the first genuine need to protect wildlife in India was

realized. In 1952, the Indian Wildlife Board was constituted to centralize all
the rules and regulations pertinent to wildlife conservation in India, which
until then deferred from state to state. In 1956, this Board passed a
landmark decree that accorded all existing Game Parks the status of a
Sanctuary or a National Park.

The 1960’s expose by Rakesh Sankhla and Razia for the Indian Express
detailed the appalling abyss that wildlife conservation had sunk to when
they exposed the trade in several hundred skins of endangered species.
The need for wildlife conservation now made the shift from the government
and policy makers to the general public at large.

The 1970’s bought with it two landmark events that were to influence
wildlife conservation in India for decades to come. The first was the
introduction of the stringent Wildlife Protection Act in 1972 and
the second being Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India,
doing everything within her power to protect wildlife in India.
Project Tiger, the largest wildlife conservation project of its time, was
initiated in 1973 under her watch.

In the 1980’s, the Chipko Andolan movement by the Bishnois gained

worldwide recognition for its simplicity and non-violent approach. What the
Bishnois did was to surround their trees, literally hugging them, in order to
protect them from anyone who came to fell them. Until today, they are
involved in actively protecting blackbucks and other wildlife found in their
region.

The last two decades since the 1990’s have witnessed the application of
technology and science to conservation on a large scale. Wildlife forensics,
telemetry, remote sensing techniques and geographic information systems
were all integrated into the practice of wildlife conservation in India.

Conservation has evolved from an informal practice providing arbitrary

protection to wildlife to its present avatar as a practiced art and science. If
ever the need to evolve and expand it beyond its present realms was of
prime necessity-then the time is now.
10/9/23, 11:38 AM World Heritage Site - Wikipedia

World Heritage Site

A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for having
cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritage around the
world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity".[1]

To be selected, a World Heritage Site must be a somehow unique landmark which is

geographically and historically identifiable and has special cultural or physical significance. For
example, World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings,
cities,[a] deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains, or wilderness areas.[5][6] A
World Heritage Site may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as
evidence of our intellectual history on the planet, or it might be a place of great natural
beauty.[7] As of September 2023, a total of 1,199 World Heritage Sites (933 cultural, 227
natural, and 39 mixed properties) exist across 168 countries. With 59 selected areas, Italy is the
country with the most sites; followed by China with 57, then France and Germany with 52
each.[8]

The World Heritage emblem is used to

identify properties protected by
the World Heritage Convention and
inscribed on the official World Heritage
List.[2]

The graph represents the amount of UNESCO sites inscribed

on the World Heritage List each year for each continent.[9][10]

The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be
subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored, uncontrolled or unrestricted
access, or threat from local administrative negligence. Sites are demarcated by UNESCO as
protected zones.[1] The World Heritage Sites list is maintained by the international World
Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21
"states parties" that are elected by their General Assembly.[11] The programme catalogues,
names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common
culture and heritage of humanity. The programme began with the "Convention Concerning the
UNESCO World Heritage plaque
Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage",[12] which was adopted by the General
at Þingvellir National Park in Iceland
Conference of UNESCO on 16 November 1972. Since then, 195 states have ratified the
convention,[13] making it one of the most widely recognised international agreements and the
world's most popular cultural programme.[14]

UNESCO World Heritage plaque

at Sanahin Monastery in Armenia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site 1/1