Sofia Peppa, Written Assignment No3

School of Applied Arts and Sustainable Design

M.Sc. Protection of Cultural Heritage and Monuments of
Nature from the Effects of Climate Change

Written Assignment No. 3

Sofia Peppa

Course Module CCC52

Tutor: Dr. Anno Hein

Marousi, March 2023

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. iii

1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1
2. Degradation factors ........................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Intrinsic factors. ........................................................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Mineralogical profile. ........................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Pore system and hydric properties. ...................................................................... 3
2.1.3 Mechanical properties. ......................................................................................... 4
2.1.4 Thermal properties. .............................................................................................. 5
2.2 Extrinsic factors. ......................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1 Pollution ............................................................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Salt weathering. .................................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Frost deterioration. ............................................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Fire incidents. ..................................................................................................... 10
2.2.5 Biodeterioration.................................................................................................. 11
2.2.6 Earthquake-induced degradation. ....................................................................... 13
2.2.7 Aeolian corrosion. .............................................................................................. 15
2.2.8 Abrasion. ............................................................................................................ 15
3. Non Destructive Testing (NDTs) in stone monuments. .................................................. 16
3.1 Thermographic cameras. ........................................................................................... 16
3.2 Ground penetrating radar (GPR). .............................................................................. 17
3.3 Sonic and ultrasonic testing. ..................................................................................... 18
3.4 Seismic inteferometry. .............................................................................................. 19
3.5 Karsten tubes. ............................................................................................................ 20
3.5 Contract sponge test (CST). ...................................................................................... 20
3.6 Colourimetry measurements. .................................................................................... 21
4. Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 21
References ........................................................................................................................... 23

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1. Introduction

Throughout history, a variety of lithotypes have been utilized for the creation of numerous
cultural heritage sites. Notable examples include carbonate rocks, sandstones, granites,
tuffs, conglomerates, slates, marbles, and serpentines.

In Mediterranean regions, limestone and dolomitic rocks, both of which belong to the
carbonate rock family, were commonly employed for monument construction. Marble, on
the other hand, was frequently used as a decorative rock due to its aesthetically pleasing
appearance. In some regions, sandstones and granites were also prevalent for their durability
and resistance to weathering. Conversely, carbonate rocks were favoured for their ease of
workability and capacity to provide a smooth finish, while marbles were prized for their
distinct colouring and vein patterns.

The degradation and deterioration of stone used in Cultural Heritage sites is a complex
phenomenon that manifests in a variety of forms (Fig. 1), with attempts made to classify
these patterns. The ICOMOS glossary (2008) is one widely recognized classification
system.

This process is influenced by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors
relate to the inherent properties of the stone material, such as its mineralogical composition,
texture, and structure, while extrinsic factors are related to environmental and anthropogenic
factors that affect the stone's exposure and weathering.

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Figure 1 Examples of stone deterioration features a) flaking, b) contour scaling (≤1 cm depth), c) contour
scaling (1–3 cm depth), d) contour scaling(≥3 cm depth), e) granular disintegration, f) differential erosion
(≤1 cm depth), g) differential erosion (1–3 cm depth), h) differential erosion (≥3 cm depth), i) missing part,j)
efflorescence, k) superficial deposit, l) restoration stone. Source: Hatur, 2020

2. Degradation factors

2.1 Intrinsic factors.

The main intrinsic factors of stone degradation in monuments are those that are related to
the inherent properties and characteristics of the stone itself. For instance, the rate of decay
in limestone is influenced by its fabric and diagenesis. These elements determine various
technical properties. Typically, low mechanical strength and high porosity are linked with
high disintegration rates. However, the specifics of the microstructure and pore space, such
as the distribution, shape, tortuosity, and connectivity of pores, especially pore size and
connectivity, are also significant factors.

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2.1.1 Mineralogical profile.

The mineral composition of the stone can influence its susceptibility to certain types of
deterioration. The presence of calcite in stones like limestone and marble makes them
vulnerable to deterioration, as they are more hydrophilic. This can result in the formation of
cracks and fissures in the stone. On the other hand, rocks with high levels of quartz, like
granite, are typically more durable. Stones that are rich in quartz, micas, and feldspars are
highly resistant to dissolution by rainwater run-off, owing to the fact that quartz is
significantly more durable than calcite. Iron-containing stones can also deteriorate due to
oxidation of the iron, resulting in the formation of iron oxide minerals that weaken the stone.
Finally, stones with a high silica content, such as chert, tend to be highly resistant to
weathering and erosion.

2.1.2 Pore system and hydric properties.

• Open porosity. Open porosity refers to the amount of pore space within a stone that
is available for water to enter. It reflects the maximum water content that the stone can hold,
which is typically close to the total void space within the stone. On the other hand, water
absorption measures the stone's natural ability to take in water when submerged without
being subjected to external pressure. This factor is more affected by the characteristics of
the pore space, as the accessible pores can be easily penetrated by water under normal
atmospheric pressure. Stones with high connectivity and tortuosity of the pore system are
more susceptible to water penetration (Sena da Fonseca et al., 2021).

• Water absorption: Water absorption is a measure of how much water a stone can
absorb. Stones with high water absorption are more susceptible to freeze-thaw cycles, which
can cause spalling and cracking. Water absorption can also lead to the growth of algae,
moss, and other organic matter, which can further deteriorate the stone.

• Saturation coefficient: The saturation coefficient is a measure of how much water a

stone can hold relative to its dry weight. Stones with a high saturation coefficient can absorb
more water and are therefore more susceptible to water-related deterioration.

• Capillary coefficient: The capillary coefficient is a measure of how easily water can
move through the stone's pores. Stones with high capillary coefficients can absorb water
quickly and are therefore more susceptible to water-related deterioration.

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• Asymptotic value: The asymptotic value is a measure of how quickly a stone reaches
saturation when exposed to water. Stones with a low asymptotic value absorb water quickly
and are more susceptible to water-related deterioration.

• Hydric expansion. Clay minerals act as cementing agents that hold sand particles
together in sandstones. When these clay minerals come into contact with water, they absorb
it and expand, causing the expansion of the sandstone element. This process is known as
hydric expansion. Over time, repeated cycles of wetting and drying with the subsequent
expanding and shrinking, may lead to cracking, spalling and other forms of damage. These
damages occur both at the surface and at the interior of the stone (Fig. 2).

Figure 2 Forms of decay of the sandstone: (a) crumbling, (b) flakes, (c) contour scaling, (d) fracturing. Source:
Sebastian et al., 2007

2.1.3 Mechanical properties.

• Mechanical compressive strength. In general, distinct patterns of degradation on
stone monuments, such as the fragmentation observed at the upper part of monolithic
columns, can be attributed to compressive loads that exceed the stone's compressive
strength. When stones are impacted by projectiles, their response is determined by
both their compressive strength, which affects the penetration of the projectile, and
their tensile strength, which influences the resulting shock wave. The impact of such

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projectiles on stone surfaces typically results in conical cavities, often with the
projectile visible within the cavity.
• Elastic dynamic modulus. Stones with high elastic moduli are less likely to undergo
significant deformation when exposed to heavy loads or external forces.
• Superficial hardness: The superficial hardness of a stone refers to its ability to resist
surface wear, abrasion, and scratching.
• Drilling resistance: Drilling resistance is a measure of a stone's resistance to drilling
and cutting.

2.1.4 Thermal properties.

The thermal properties of stones are influenced by the behaviour of their minerals when
subjected to thermal changes. In contrast to calcite, quartz expands uniformly in both
directions when exposed to high temperatures, and a significant expansion is observed when
it transforms from "low-temperature quartz" to "high-temperature quartz" at around 580°C.
This expansion can cause rapid cracking on the surface of stones containing high amounts
of quartz, such as quartzitic sandstones, when exposed to fire. On the other hand, calcite
expands in the same way as quartz, but only parallel to its c-axis. In calcitic crystalline
marbles with low porosity, this anisotropy can induce stresses that initiate specific
microfractures, even at temperatures below 100°C. When subjected to a fire, the surface
layer of the stone containing calcite transforms into quick lime (CaO) at 800°C, which acts
as an insulator against excessive temperature increase. However, this layer is easily
solubilized and eliminated by water after hydration and transformation into portlandite
[Ca(OH)2]. Iron, which is present in almost all stones in the form of oxides, hydroxides,
and/or carbonates, undergoes an irreversible colour change during a fire due to the formation
of hematite (Fe2O3).

2.2 Extrinsic factors.

2.2.1 Pollution
The anthropogenic air pollutants that are responsible for the material deterioration of stone
heritage monuments are Sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), Carbon dioxide
(CO2), Ozone (O3) and particulate matter (PM).

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• CO2 When CO2 from the air dissolves in rainwater it makes it slightly acidic
(carbonic acid, H2CO3). The rainwater reacts with materials that are made of calcium
carbonates (CaCO3), e.g. limestone, transforming the calcium carbonate into calcium
bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2), which is much more soluble. The material then is washed away
and weathered (karst effect).

• SO2 SO2 is a corrosive gas and its main anthropogenic origin is the combustion of
sulphur-containing fossil fuels. It is responsible both for the corrosion of metallic objects
(steel, copper and bronze included) and monuments made of calcareous rocks, i.e. marble
and limestone. In wet conditions, it dissolves in water to form acid rain and the damage from
this process is called sugaring. Sugaring affects the grains of the outer surface of marble,
resulting in a loss of cohesion. SO2 in dry conditions, deposits in surfaces along with other
particles resulting in the sulfation of the marble. During the process of this type of ware, the
calcium carbonate is turned into gypsum. When the surface is eventually wetted, the damage
is further extended (Fig. 3).

• NOx Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen, NO and NO2, are mainly produced from the
combustion of fossil fuels (e.g. vehicle emissions). Similarly to SO2, they dissolve in
precipitation and form acid rain and have a great impact on the degradation of limestone
(Fig. 3).

• O3 Ozon (O3) is a major component of photochemical smog and leads the oxidizing
features of the photochemical atmosphere. It is produced when O2 react with NO and NO2
in circular mode. The sources of NOx , as mentioned above are traffic and industry
emissions. It is responsible for the degradation of metals, mainly copper and its alloys.

• Particulate Matter (PM) Anthropogenic sources of particulates are mainly vehicle

emissions, domestic coal combustion (fireplaces) and industries. PM are characterised by
their size distribution and chemical composition. The most common categories are PM10,
PM2.5, PM1 and ultrafine particles, with every one of them having a different origin and
therefore different properties. They are responsible for the soiling (blackening) of the
surfaces (Fig. 3).

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Figure 3 Above: Sugaring in the surface of a marble component directly exposed to acid rain. Middle:
Sulfation of marble. Below: Soiling due to particulate material. Source: YSMA website.

2.2.2 Salt weathering.

Salt weathering poses a significant threat to the preservation of stone materials in cultural
heritage. Most commonly, salt weathering occurs due to repeated cycles of salt dissolution
and crystallization in porous materials. These cycles of salt crystallization/dissolution and

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hydration/dehydration cause repeated volume variations and confined mechanical stresses

that are transmitted to the stone. Over time, this can result in material loss and detachments.

The way the climatic variables, namely air temperature and relative humidity, affect the salt
crystallization process is described by Martinez (2021) in combination with the behaviour
of the hydrated phases the salts have. For instance, non-hydrated salts like sodium chloride
crystalize at a fixed humidity level that's mostly unaffected by temperature.

Salt weathering is a multifaceted issue that is influenced by various factors beyond just
climate conditions. The characteristics of the stone, such as its mineral composition, level
of cementation, grain size, and microstructure, as well as its pore system's size and
connectivity, and potential sources of salts, such as underground water, neighbouring
mortars, and atmospheric pollution, all play a role. Additionally, the stone's location in the
building, including its orientation and height, and local meteorological conditions like
insolation and wind direction, are also significant factors. It is essential to consider all of
these factors when examining a specific monument (Menendez, 2018).

There are several types of salts that can form and contribute to the deterioration of stone
monuments. The most common are:
• Sulfates: Calcium sulfate (CaSO4) - aka gypsum- that forms when sulfate ions
combine with calcium ions in the stone. Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), forms when
magnesium ions combine with sulfate ions in the stone. Iron sulfate (FeSO4) - aka
melanterite or copperas- is often formed through biological activity and can
contribute to the discolouration of stone. It forms when iron ions combine with
sulfate ions in the stone.
• Halides: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), and Calcium
chloride (CaCl2).
• Carbonates: Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), and iron
carbonate (FeCO3). These salts can be present in the stone or can be formed by
reactions with atmospheric pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides,
which can form acidic compounds that react with the stone to produce carbonate
salts.

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• Andnitrates: Potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium nitrate (NaNO3), and calcium nitrate
(Ca(NO3)2). These salts can be formed by the reaction of nitrogen oxides from the
atmosphere with the stone or by the decomposition of organic matter on or near the
stone.

2.2.3 Frost deterioration.

Stone monuments during colder seasons undergo multiple freeze-thaw (F-T) cycles from
liquid water to ice. This process can result in mechanical damage within the pores due to in-
pore fatigue. The extent of rock damage is reliant on various factors such as temperature,
rock type, and moisture content. Among these factors, temperature conditions like the
minimum temperature and cooling rate hold significant importance. Moreover, rock
characteristics such as initial porosity, pore size distribution, and mineral content also play
a crucial role in causing rock failure in colder regions (Chen et al., 2004).

Pore water influences rock damage through three mechanisms. The first one is the failure
mechanism that involves the cyclic stress generated by the expansion of ice into the pores.
This leads to the cracking of the material and structural components (Fig. 4). This type of
stress resembles the cyclic tensile loads that occur on the surface of the material.

Figure 4 A diagram illustrating the effects of freeze-thaw cycles on stone foundations. When the temperature
is above 0°C, water enters the stone pores in its liquid form. During freezing temperatures below 0°C, this
water expands and causes fractures and cracks in the stone due to the resulting pressure being higher than the
tensile of the material. Source: Bertolin & Cavazzani, 2022.

Another mechanism described by Setzer (1997) is when a crystal grows continuously and
becomes big enough to disrupt the rock by drawing in water to fuel further growth, it results

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in the formation of an ice lens or wedge. In the case of a porous material like welded tuff,
the pore water cannot freeze right below 0°C and tends to migrate while freezing due to the
presence of dissolved chemicals and small pore sizes.

The third mechanism, as described thoroughly by Chen et al. (2004), is due to hydraulic
pressure as a result of the ice growth in a pore or a confined space due to the expansion
caused by freezing. During this process, unfrozen water is pushed out of the space, and this
can create internal pressure through three different mechanisms. Firstly, when unfrozen
water is forced into smaller spaces, the resistance to flow increases hydrostatic pressure.
Secondly, since freezing typically happens at the outer surface, the remaining water is forced
inward to create saturated flow hydraulic pressure. This leads to the development of pressure
due to resistance to rapid water flow through the capillaries. Thirdly, when an ice front
advances in saturated materials, it results in hydrostatic compression that generates a tensile
force within the constraining rock.

2.2.4 Fire incidents.

When a fire damages the rocks of heritage monuments, it can have a severe impact on both
their aesthetic appearance and structural integrity (Fig. 5). These degradation effects were
summed up by Delegou et al. (2019). When a material is exposed to high temperatures, its
compressive strength decreases due to the development of microcracks and/or an increase
in porosity. Porosity tends to rise while density declines due to material loss and the
breakdown, dehydration, and dehydroxylation of compounds.

Figure 5 Discolouration and scaling of beige limestone after fire incident. Source: Delegou et al., 2019.

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Petrographically, when a material is exposed to high temperatures, it can cause both

intergranular and intragranular effects. Intergranular effects occur when microcracks
develop in the material matrix, usually due to differences in the constituents of the material.
Intragranular effects occur when microcracks develop in the grains themselves. Thermal
stresses can cause inherent anisotropy in materials, which can lead to degradation.

Chemically, several changes can occur in a material when exposed to heat, such as
oxidation, dehydration, dehydroxylation, calcination, and other processes. These changes
can be due to alterations in the rock matrix or changes in colour, such as reddening, caused
by the presence of iron minerals in the material.
From a mineralogical aspect, if a compound is found to be absent or reduced after a fire
event, it suggests that the temperature reached during the fire caused the compound's
structure to irreversibly break down or transformed it into an amorphous compound that
cannot be detected anymore.

2.2.5 Biodeterioration.
The biodeterioration of stone monuments refers to the process by which living organisms,
such as bacteria, fungi, algae, and lichens, cause physical, chemical, and biological changes
in the surface of the stone, leading to its degradation and deterioration over time.

Damages to stone monuments that are linked to biofilms include discolouration and
physical, chemical, and mechanical changes (Fig. 6). These are caused by encrustation,
corrosion by biogenic acids, cation complexation and release, secondary mineralization and
(re)crystallization, and internal stress and delamination.

Figure 6 Formation of micro karst on marble and the scanning electron microscopy image of its weathered
surface colonized by microorganisms. Source: Shilova et al., 2022.

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The degree of biochemical weathering is reliant on both the species composition and
quantity of microorganisms in the litho-biotic community, along with external factors. The
organic acids released by microorganisms play a significant role in this process, as they can
extract cations like Ca, Al, Si, Fe, Mn, and Mg from minerals and create stable
organometallic complexes or chelates that can affect the stone.

Biofilms can display different colours depending on their composition (Shilova et al., 2022).
Green-coloured biofilms contain photosynthetic pigments from algae and cyanobacteria.
Yellow, orange, and brown biofilms contain carotenes, carotenoids, and products that arise
from the breakdown of chloroplasts and the destruction of chlorophyll, such as
phycobiliproteins. Bright orange, pink, and reddish biofilms contain bacterial pigments or
degradation products of iron-enriched algae and cyanobacteria. Dark-coloured biofilms are
a result of the presence of melanins and melanoids from the breakdown of chloroplasts, the
destruction of chlorophyll, or the existence of various minerals such as iron or manganese.
It is possible for dark-coloured biofilms to contain any of the components mentioned above.

There is a debate in the literature (Liu et al., 2022) regarding the bioprotective effects of the
epilithic, i.e. surface stone-inhabiting, microorganisms. Biofilms can play a beneficial role
in managing the effects of temperature and humidity changes, which can cause stone
monuments to expand and contract. They do this by providing a protective shield against
direct impacts from wind abrasion and raindrops, as shown in Fig. 7. In addition, the process
of biomineralization induced by fungi or lichens can lead to the formation of secondary
mineral precipitates such as carbonates and oxalates. These substances can serve as a
strengthening agent and a protective coating for stone monuments and are not unlike some
of the protective coatings applied to the exterior of buildings (Gadd & Dyer, 2017).

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Figure 7 Mechanisms of (a) Biodeterioration and (b) bioprotection processes in stone monuments. Source:
Liu et al., 2022.

2.2.6 Earthquake-induced degradation.

Stone elements of ancient structures may tilt, bend, rotate, turn over, crack, collapse, etc.
during coseismic ground motion (Fig. 8).

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Figure 8 Typology of earthquake-induced damages in ancient buildings: a. Cracks due to the hammering
effect of the vertical component of the seismic wave, b. Sharp chipped edges, c.Cut-through fractures oriented
close to vertical, this being theweakest plane to resist bending forces., d. Gaps between shifted blocks,
produced by lasting vibrations acting parallel to the wall., e. Dropped ashlars formed during horizontal
shaking., f. Broken lintels., g. Rotated blocks whose angle or rotation (clockwise or counter clockwise) reflects
the direction of strong motion and the friction between adjacent blocks., h. Displaced drums in rows of
masonry columns either from in-plane or out-of-plane seismic loads., i. Extruded blocks indicate loads at a
high angle to a wall. Source: Kazmer, 2014.

The probability of damage to stone monuments depends on many factors (Kazmer, 2014):
• The probability of seismic damage increases with the age of a building.
• Finely crafted stone constructions offer more detailed documentation compared to
those with rough stonework.
• Buildings that have not undergone repairs since an earthquake may provide more
comprehensive records than those that have been fixed, but the repairs themselves
can also offer insight into prior structural damage.
• Prior to seismic analysis, it is crucial to comprehend the history of renovations and
alterations in a building.

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Another factor is the type of structure. For instance, when compared to regular buildings,
medieval churches tend to have a higher seismic vulnerability due to various reasons.
Firstly, their architectural design typically lacks rigid diaphragms, resulting in slender load-
bearing walls. Additionally, the masonry structure is less likely to exhibit box-like
behaviour, and the horizontal and vertical structural components are not firmly connected
in several instances. The initial design of these churches primarily focused on creating
impressive, tall structures with spacious interiors, rather than taking into account seismic
loads.

2.2.7 Aeolian corrosion.

In semiarid and desert regions, the movement and impact of sand particles on the surface of
stones are common causes of deterioration. This occurs when sand is carried by the wind
and strikes the surface, causing micro-cracks and material loss over time. This phenomenon
is known as aeolian corrosion, and its severity is affected by various factors such as the size,
shape, and hardness of the particles, wind speed and direction, and the material composition,
mechanical strength, morphology, and moisture content of the surface (Striani et al., 2022).
Moisture is particularly crucial as it plays a significant role in the electrochemical and inter-
particle surface forces, and aeolian corrosion is more pronounced on windy days when the
material has lower water absorption and cohesion forces, resulting in visible detachment of
granules.

2.2.8 Abrasion.
Abrasion is a form of degradation that may occur in stone monuments (Fig. 9). It is a
mechanical process in which the surface of the stone is worn down by friction, typically due
to use. The abrasion wear rate depends mainly on the contact load. Another factor affecting
the rate is the direction of the surface cut in accordance with the bedding plane of the stone.
It was found that the abrasion rate of travertines that have surfaces cut parallel to the bedding
plane was higher than those with a perpendicular cut (Gokse, 2015). In another study's
findings (Mohamed et al., 2021) it is suggested that porosity is a crucial factor to consider
when predicting the abrasion resistance of natural building stones. Stones with high porosity
are found to have lower abrasion resistance. Additionally, water absorption by weight is an
important parameter to determine the abrasion resistance of natural building stones, with its
significance varying depending on the porosity of the stone.

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Figure 9 Forms of abrasion on stone flooring. Source: Mohamed et al., 2021.

3. Non Destructive Testing (NDTs) in stone monuments.

3.1 Thermographic cameras.

Given that masonry is a composite material with varying thermal properties, it is possible
to differentiate between different areas of a wall based on their distinct thermal signatures,
or levels of infrared radiation. Using a sensor such as an infrared camera, this technique can
produce an image of the wall in which each pixel corresponds to a specific temperature level
and heterogeneity.

A great advantage of this technique is that it is also a non-contact technique and even
extremely weathered samples could be characterized without touching and furthering the
damage. It also allows the examination of large surfaces with a high degree of resolution,
making it helpful in detecting various issues such as cracks or voids, variation in moisture
content, flaws concealed by plaster, disconnected elements, shallow damage, and different
materials (Fig. 10).

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Figure 10 On the left, is the deterioration of the wall near the gutter under the roof. On the right, is the
temperature profile of the wall. The colour of the location near the visibly damaged area shows that the
temperature is low in this region and that the water content there is higher than in the surrounding region due
to rainwater penetration. Source: Ishizaki & Takami, 2015.

3.2 Ground penetrating radar (GPR).

Radar scanning is a non-destructive technique commonly used in geophysics for examining
subsurface structures. It works by transmitting high-frequency electromagnetic pulses,
typically between 500 MHz and 3000 MHz, using an antenna, and studying the reflections,
attenuations, and altered phases produced at the interfaces of materials with different
electromagnetic properties. The transmitter and receiver are positioned on the surface of the
element being studied, without the need for direct contact, making it useful for inspecting
delicate surfaces.

This technique is capable of identifying various aspects of the subsurface (Fig. 11). This is
one of the key advantages of radar scanning, i.e. the ability to reveal the location of voids,
because they can affect the dynamic behaviour of monuments, as well as the presence of
cracks or separation between elements that may impact boundary conditions. Additionally,
it can provide information on moisture distribution, the thickness of internal layers, and the
homogeneity of the masonry.

Figure 11 Radar evaluation of a pillar. Source: Perez-Grazia et al., 2013

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3.3 Sonic and ultrasonic testing.

Sonic testing involves generating short pulses of sonic or ultrasonic waves, typically ranging
between 20 Hz to 20 kHz for sonic pulses and up to 20 MHz for ultrasonic pulses, using a
transmitter and receiver. The wave's travel time between the sensors is recorded, allowing
for deviations from the anticipated arrival time to indicate the type of material being
penetrated. Low velocities can indicate damage, while the pulse velocity is associated with
the material's density and elastic modulus, especially in homogenous and isotropic
materials.

A sonic tomography yields a velocity distribution map of a plane section of a structure being
investigated (Fig. 12). To achieve this, the method requires travel times of elastic waves
crossing the structure from various directions that uniformly cover the investigation section.
The section of the masonry is defined by a mesh grid, with its size determined by the
anticipated resolution and distance between transmission or receiving points.

Figure 12 Sonic tomography of (a)a column, (b) a wall. Source: Paralles et al., 2021

In the work of Chen et al. (2020) a dual phase of the ultrasonic CT test is described. Initially,
in situ, the ultrasonic waves penetrate selected stone elements of the monument. The waves
are recorded as formelastic wave CT images of the internal P-wave velocity distribution of
the elements. Then, samples of similar stones are carefully selected to represent various

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stages of deterioration. These samples are tested in the laboratory to obtain their P-wave
velocity, density, compressive strength and elastic modulus. The weathered degree of the
monument is determined, according to Code for Investigation of Geotechnical Engineering
(GB 50021–2001) by the velocity ratio of in situ P-wave velocity to the lab P-wave velocity.
In addition, the relation between the P-wave velocity and uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS), and elastic modulus is acquired by the lab test results. Finally, the internal UCS and
elastic modulus distribution of the stones are obtained.

3.4 Seismic inteferometry.

Ambient vibration seismic interferometry evaluates wave phase velocity using the impulse
response function (IRF) across various floors of a building. In recent years, this technique
has been used to predict building responses to moderately-sized earthquakes by estimating
the IRF through ambient vibration measurements (Fig. 13). Additionally, seismic
interferometry has been applied to investigate the dispersion of seismic waves to determine
the structural nature (bending-shear beam) of a building and, subsequently, the degree of
soil-system interaction.

Figure 13 Position and height from the ground of seismic stations in Giotto’s bell tower (left) broadband
frequency waveforms obtained (right). Source: Lacanna et al. 2019.

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3.5 Karsten tubes.

The Karsten tube test is a surface water absorption test that is used to assess the porosity
and permeability of stone. The test is named after the German mineralogist Gustav Karsten,
who developed it in the 19th century.

To conduct a Karsten tube test, a small hole is drilled into the stone, into which a glass tube
is inserted and then sealed with a waterproof sealant. Following this, the tube is filled with
water and observed over a certain period of time. The water level in the tube can indicate
the stone's porosity and permeability based on the speed of its absorption. Stones that are
highly permeable will quickly absorb the water, resulting in a rapid drop in the water level
in the tube, whereas those that are less porous or denser will absorb water at a slower rate,
causing a slower drop in the water level. The Karsten tube test can provide valuable insights
into the stone's durability, susceptibility to salt weathering, and resistance to other types of
deterioration by analyzing its rate of water absorption (Fig. 14).

Figure 14 Karsten tube in situ set up and typical water absorption map occurred. Source: Alexakis et al., 2018.

3.5 Contract sponge test (CST).

This test gives information about the behaviour of the surface and the immediate subsurface
layer of the analysed material and therefore is suitable to reconstruct the capillary absorption
coefficient. The methodology involves placing small sponges (dry or saturated, depending
the methodology) in contact with the surface of the stone, securing them in place, and
leaving them in position for a set period, from minutes to even weeks or months. During
this time, the sponges absorb moisture and salt from the stone, allowing for analysis of the

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levels of these materials. After the designated time, the sponges are carefully removed and
analysed using various techniques, such as weighing or chemical analysis, to determine the
moisture and salt content.

3.6 Colourimetry measurements.

The use of a spectrophotometer enables the detection of possible colour changes of stone
surfaces due to long-term weathering. Surface colour is measured quantitatively by the
device and is represented in a colour space in which each visible colour is defined by three
coordinates. To identify optical changes on the surface due to weathering, the Euclidean
value of the total colour difference (ΔE*) between the weathered and reference sides of each
sample is calculated.

4. Conclusion.

A stone’s durability against extrinsic factors depends both on its intrinsic properties (e.g.
mineralogy, porosity, etc), the environment to which it is exposed and also the position of
the stone element in the structure, leading to different patterns of deterioration.

For instance, salt weathering is more severe the smaller the porosity of the stone. In Cardell
et al. (2003) it was demonstrated that in a smaller-sized pore stone, the pressure developed
by crystal growth is higher than in larger pores. This means that the excess pressure built
during crystallisation surpasses easier the tensile strength of smaller-sized pore stones
leading to the fracture of the material.

Another demonstration is that NOx gaseous pollutants indeed cause discolouration and
produce gypsum via the interaction with stone components. But. in addition to this
weathering process, microbes interact with the same pollutant agents and produce acidic and
pigmented compounds that further stone degradation (Fig. 15).

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Figure 15 FE-SEM showing cyanobacterial filaments (black dotted arrow) with deposited newly formed
gypsum (solid black arrow) within the granitic stone. Source: Ortega-Morales et al., 2019.

Stone deterioration is manifested in many forms and it is usually a result of more than one
interacting factor mentioned above. For better management and conservation of stone
monuments, it is necessary to understand the processes of stone weathering. This should
include a thorough knowledge of the physicochemical profile of stone, as well as the
mechanism of the extrinsic conditions that are suspected to lead to deterioration, primarily
by the use of NDTs. The complexity of the deterioration factors lead science to the
interoperability of NDTs, HBIM and ANNS.

Non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques and Historic Building Information Modeling

(HBIM) may collaborate to make better heritage preservation by providing a comprehensive
understanding of the condition of heritage structures and developing effective strategies for
their preservation. The integration of NDT data with HBIM models can provide a more
accurate and detailed representation of the condition of a structure and help to identify areas
that require attention.

A very promising perspective is the interoperability between artificial neural networks

(ANN) and NDTs. ANNs are a form of artificial intelligence that can be trained to recognize
patterns in data, and NDT techniques provide valuable data for the training and
implementation of ANNs. The results enhance the accuracy and reliability of NDT data
analysis, making it possible to achieve more effective evaluation of structural integrity and
damage assessment.

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Author’s Statement:
I hereby expressly declare that, according to the article 8 of Law 1559/1986, this essay is solely the product of
my personal work, does not infringe any intellectual property, personality and personal data rights of third
parties, does not contain works/contributions from third parties for which the permission of the
authors/beneficiaries is required, is not the product of partial or total plagiarism, and that the sources used are
limited to the literature references alone and meet the rules of scientific citations.

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