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Petroleum Refining Design and Applications
Handbook
Volume 4
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
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Publishers at Scrivener
Scrivener Publishing
and Applications Handbook
Petroleum Refining Design
• Process Safety Incidents
A. Kayode Coker
Volume 4
• Pinch Analysis
• Heat Transfer
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v
In Loving Memory of
My Parents
Gabriel Shodipo Coker
and
Modupe Ajibike Coker
For their fortitude and kindness in paving the path for being a worthwhile person. Wishing
them the Almighty Father's mercy, grace and blessings, the most wonderful and beautiful
journey in the Luminous Realm of joyful activities in the beyond.
Gratitude to the Elemental and Created beings in higher realms, faithfully fulfilling the Will of
the Almighty father.
“God wills that His Laws working in Creation should be quite familiar to man, so that
he can adjust himself accordingly, and with their help can complete and fulfill his course
through the world more easily and without ignorantly going astray.”
Abd-ru-shin
(In the Light of Truth)
The Laws of Creation
The Law of Motion

The Law of the Attraction of Homogeneous Species
The Law of Gravitation
The Law of Reciprocal Action
“What is Truth?”
Pilate (John 18, 38)
“Only the truth is simple.”
Sebastian Haffner
“Woe to the people to whom the truth is no longer sacred!”
Friedrich Christoph Schlosser
“Truth does not conform to us, dear son but we have to conform with it.”
Matthias Claudius
“Nothing will give safety except truth. Nothing will give peace except the serious
search for truth.”
Blaise Pascal
“Truth is the summit of being; justice is the application of it to affairs.”
Ralph Waldo Emerson
“The ideals which have lighted my way, and time after time have given me new courage
to face life cheerfully, have been Kindness, Beauty and Truth.”
Albert Einstein
“It irritates people that the truth is so simple.”

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
“Aglow with the Light of the Divine, I surrender my whole attention to the Presence
of Truth that guides my path.”
Michael Bernard Beckwith
“Truth means the congruence of a concept with its reality.”

G.W. Friedrich Hegel
“Truth is the revealing gloss of reality.”

Simone Well
“We are the Multi-dimensional Universe becoming aware of Itself. Live in this One
Truth – That God is Real As your very Life!”
Michael Bernard Beckwith
“Truth is a torch, but a tremendous one. That is why we hurry past it, shielding our
eyes, even terrified of getting burnt.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
“Truth is the spirit’s sun.”

Marquis de Vauvenargues
You will recognise the Truth, and the truth will set you free
John, 8:32
“Truth is the Eternal – Unchangeable! Which never changes in its form, but is as
it has been eternally and will ever remain, as it is now. Which can therefore never
be subjected to any development either, because it has been perfect from the very
beginning. Truth is real, it is ‘being’! Only being is true life. The entire Universe is
“supported” by this Truth!”
Abd-ru-shin
Truth
To honour God in all things and to perform everything solely to the glory of God
Abd-ru-shin
Awake!
Keep the heart of your thoughts pure, by so doing you will bring peace and be happy.
Love thy neighbour, which means honour him as such!
Therein lies the adamantine command: You must never consciously harm him, either in his body
or in his soul, either in his earthly possessions or in his reputation!
He who does not keep this commandment and acts otherwise, serves not God but the darkness,
to which he gives himself as a tool!
Honour be to God Who only sows Love! Love also in the The Law of the destruction of the darkness!
Abd-ru-shin
Love & Gratitude

Crystal Images © Office Masaru Emoto, LLC
Contents
Prefacexix
Acknowledgmentsxxii
21 Heat Transfer 1
21.1 Introduction 1
21.1.1 Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology 2
21.2 Details of Exchange Equipment 19
Assembly and Arrangement 19
Construction Codes 19
Thermal Rating Standards 19
Details of Stationary Heads 19
Exchanger Shell Types 20
21.3 Factors Affecting Shell Selection 24
21.3.1 Details of Rear End Heads 25
21.4 Common Combinations of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 26
AES 26
BEM 26
AEP 27
CFU 28
AKT 28
AJW 28
Tubes 29
21.5 Bending of Tubing 56
Baffles 56
Tube Side Baffles (TEMA uses Pass Partition Plates) 56
21.6 Shell-Side Baffles and Tube Supports 57
Tie Rods 67
Tubesheets 67
Tube Joints in Tubesheets 69
Seal Strips 72
Example 21.1 Determine Outside Heat Transfer Area of Heat Exchanger Bundle 73
Tubesheets Layouts 73
21.7 Tube Counts in Shells 73
Applications of Tube Pitch Arrangements 93
21.8 Exchanger Surface Area 93
Number of Tubes 93
Exact Distance Between Faces of Tubesheets 94
Net Effective Tube Length 94
Exact Baffle Spacing 94
Impingement Baffle Location 94
Effective Tube Surface 94
x
Contents xi
Effective Tube Length for U-Tube Heat Exchangers 107

21.9 Tube Vibration 107
21.9.1 Vibration Mechanisms 109
21.9.2 Treatment of Vibration Problems 110
21.9.3 Corrective Measures 110
Example 21.2 Use of U-Tube Area Chart 111
Nozzle Connections to Shell and Heads 112
21.10 Types of Heat Exchange Operations 112
21.10.1 Thermal Design 112
21.10.2 Temperature Difference: Two Fluid Transfer 116
Example 21.3 One Shell Pass, Two Tubes Passes Parallel-Counterflow Exchanger Cross,
After Murty 117
21.10.3 Mean Temperature Difference or Log Mean Temperature Difference 120
21.10.4 Log Mean Temperature Difference Correction Factor, F 123
21.10.5 Correction for Multipass Flow Through Heat Exchangers 133
Example 21.4 Performance Examination for Exit Temperature of Fluids 134
Example 21.5 Calculation of Weighted MTD 136
Example 21.6 Calculation of LMTD and Correction 137
Example 21.7 Calculate the LMTD 140
Solution 140
Temperature for Fluid Properties Evaluation–Caloric Temperature 142
Tube Wall Temperature 142
Example 21.8 Heating of Glycerin in a Multipass Heat Exchanger 145
Solution 145
21.11 The Effectiveness—NTU Method 148
Example 21.9 Heating Water in a Counter Current Flow Heat Exchanger 148
Solution 152
Example 21.10 LMTD and ε-NTU Methods 154
Solution 154
Example 21.11 156
Solution 156
21.12 Pressure Drop, Δp 158
21.12.1 Frictional Pressure Drop 164
21.12.2 Factors Affecting Pressure Drop (Δp) 168
Tube-Side Pressure Drop, Δpf169
Shell-Side Pressure Drop Δpf170
Shell Nozzle Pressure Drop (Δpnoz)172
Total Shell-Side Pressure Drop, Δptotal172
21.13 Heat Balance 173
Heat Load or Duty 173
Example 21.12 Heat Duty of a Condenser with Liquid Subcooling 174
21.14 Transfer Area 174
Over Surface and Over Design 174
21.15 Fouling of Tube Surface 175
21.15.1 Crude Oil Fouling In Pre-Heat Train Exchangers 199
Crude Type 199
Crude Blending 199
Crude Oil Fouling Models 202
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers’ Association (TEMA) and Model Approach
for Fouling Resistance, Rf of Crude Oil Pre-Heat Trains 208
Fouling Mitigation and Monitoring 209
xii Contents
HIS smartPM Software 213

Effect of Fouling on Exchanger Heat Transfer Performance 216
Example 21.13 216
Solution 216
Example 21.14 217
Solution 217
Prevention and Control of Liquid-Side Fouling 218
Prevention and Control of Gas-Side Fouling 219
UnSim Design HEX Network Digital Twin Model 219
Selecting Tube Pass Arrangement 220
Super Clean System Technology 221
21.16 Exchanger Design 223
21.16.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Plain or Bare Tubes 224
Example 21.15 Calculation of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
from Individual Components 235
Approximate Values for Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 235
Simplified Equations 247
Film Coefficients With Fluids Outside Tubes Forced Convection 253
Viscosity Correction Factor (μ/μw)0.14255
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Water, hi257
Shell-Side Equivalent Tube Diameter 258
Shell-Side Velocities 265
Design and Rating of Heat Exchangers 265
Rating of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 266
Design of a Heat Exchanger 270
Design Procedure for Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Exchanger Design 272
Design Programs for a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 273
Example 21.16 Convection Heat Transfer Exchanger Design 274
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design Procedure (S.I. units) 286
Tubes 288
Tube Side Pass Partition Plate 288
Calculations of Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient 288
Example 21.17 Design of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (S.I. units) Kern’s Model 291
Solution 292
Modified Design 298
Shell-Side Pressure Drop, Δps298
Pressure Drop for Plain Tube Exchangers 300
Tube Size 300
Tube-Side Condensation Pressure Drop 304
Shell-Side 305
Unbaffled Shells 305
Segmental Baffles in Shell 306
Alternate: Segmental Baffles Pressure Drop 307
A Case Study Using UniSim® Shell-Tube Exchanger (STE) Modeler 310
Solution 311
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers: Single Phase 329
Effect of Manufacturing Clearances on the Shell-Side Flow 329
Bell-Delaware Method 331
Ideal Shell-Side Film Heat Transfer Coefficient 332
Shell-Side Film Heat Transfer Coefficient Correction Factors 333
Baffle Cut and Spacing, Jc333
Contents xiii
Baffle Leakage Effects, JL335

Bundle and Partition Bypass Effects, Jb337
Variations in Baffle Spacing, Js338
Temperature Gradient for Laminar Flow Regime, Jr338
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U 338
Shell-Side Pressure (Δp) 339
Tube Pattern 341
Accuracy of Correlations Between Kern’s Method and the Bell-Delaware’s Method 341
Specification Process Data Sheet, Design, and Construction of Heat Exchangers 341
Rapid Design Algorithms for Shell and Tube and Compact Heat Exchangers:
Polley et al. [173]344
Fluids in the Annulus of Tube-in-Pipe or Double Pipe Heat Exchanger, Forced Convection 347
Finned Tube Exchangers 348
Low Finned Tubes, 16 and 19 Fins/In. 348
Finned Surface Heat Transfer 348
Economics of Finned Tubes 353
Tubing Dimensions 353
Design for Heat Transfer Coefficients by Forced Convection Using Radial Low-Fin
Tubes in Heat Exchanger Bundles 355
Pressure Drop in Exchanger Shells Using Bundles of Low Fin Tubes 357
Tube-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop 358
Design Procedure for Shell-Side Condensers and Shell-Side Condensation
With Gas Cooling of Condensables, Fluid–Fluid Convection Heat Exchange 358
Vertical Condensation on Low Fin Tubes 358
Nucleate Boiling Outside Horizontal or Vertical Tubes 358
Design Procedure for Boiling, Using Experimental Data 360
Double Pipe Finned Tube Heat Exchangers 362
Finned Side-Heat Transfer 364
Tube Wall Resistance 370
Tube-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop 370
Fouling Factor 371
Finned Side Pressure Drop 371
Design Equations for The Rating of A Double Pipe Heat Exchanger 372
Inner Pipe 374
Annulus 375
Vapor Service 376
Shell-Side Bare Tube 376
Shell-Side (Finned Tube) 377
Tube Side Pressure Drop, Δpt378
Annulus 378
Calculation of the Pressure Drop 379
Effect of Pressure Drop (Δp) on the Original Design 380
Nomenclature 381
Example 21.19 382
Solution 383
Heat Balance 383
Pressure Drop Calculations 389
Tube-Side Δp 390
Shell-Side Δp 390
Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers 393
Design Charts for Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers 397
xiv Contents
Selection 400
Advantages 400
Disadvantages 400
Example 21.20 401
Solution 401
Pressure Drop Calculations 408
Cooling Water Side Pressure Drop 410
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 412
Induced Draft 412
Forced Draft 413
General Application 422
Advantages-Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 422
Disadvantages 423
Bid Evaluation 424
Design Consideration (Continuous Service) 428
Mean Temperature Difference 433
Design Procedure for Approximation 435
Tube Side Fluid Temperature Control 440
Rating Method for Air Cooler Exchangers 441
The Equations 441
The Air Side Pressure Drop, Δpa (in. H2O)447
Example 21.26 448
Solution 448
Operations of Air Cooled Heat Exchangers 448
Monitoring of Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers 450
Boiling and Vaporization 450
Boiling 450
Vaporization 455
Vaporization During Flow 455
Vaporization in Horizontal Shell; Natural Circulation 470
Pool and Nucleate Boiling—General Correlation for Heat Flux and Critical Temperature
Difference472
Example 21.27 474
Solution 475
Reboiler Heat Balance 480
Example 21.28 Reboiler Heat Duty after Kern 480
Solution 481
Kettle Horizontal Reboilers 482
Maximum Bundle Heat Flux 483
Nucleate or Alternate Designs Procedure 489
Kettle Reboiler—Horizontal Shells 490
Horizontal Kettle Reboiler Disengaging Space 491
Kettle Horizontal Reboilers, Alternate Design 491
Boiling: Nucleate Natural Circulation (Thermosyphon) Inside Vertical Tubes or Outside
Horizontal Tubes 493
Gilmour Method Modified 493
Suggested Procedure for Vaporization with Sensible Heat Transfer 496
Procedure for Horizontal Natural Circulation Thermosyphon Reboiler 499
Kern Method 499
Vaporization Inside Vertical Tubes; Natural Thermosyphon Action 499
Fair’s Method 500
Contents xv
Process Requirements 505

Preliminary Design 506
Circulation Rate 506
Heat Transfer—Stepwise Method 507
Heat Transfer: Simplified Method 516
Design Comments 516
Example 21.29 C3 Splitter Reboiler 518
Solution 519
Heat Transfer Rate—Stepwise Method 520
Heat Transfer Rate—Simplified Method 522
Example 21.30 Cyclohexane Column Reboiler 522
Solution 523
Heat Transfer Rate—Simplified Method 524
Kern’s Method Stepwise 525
Design Considerations 527
Other Design Methods 530
Example 21.31 Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler, Kern’s Method 530
Solution 531
Calculation of Tube Side Film Coefficient 538
Simplified Hajek Method—Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler 539
General Guides for Vertical Thermosyphon Reboilers Design 540
Example 21.32 Hajek’s Method—Vertical Thermosyphon Reboiler 542
Physical Data Required 542
Variables to be Determined 542
Determine Overall Coefficient at Maximum Flux 543
Determine Overall ΔT at Maximum Flux 543
Maximum Flat 545
Flux at Operating Levels Below Maximum 545
Fouled ΔT at Maximum Flux 547
Fouled ΔT, To Maintain Plus for 10°F Clean ΔT 548
Analysis of Data in Figure 21.225 548
Surface Area Required 548
Vapor Nozzle Diameter 549
Liquid Inlet Nozzle Diameter 549
Design Notes 549
Reboiling Piping 550
Film Boiling 550
Vertical Tubes, Boiling Outside, Submerged 550
Horizontal Tubes: Boiling Outside, Submerged 550
Common Reboiler Problems 554
Heat Exchanger Design with Computers 555
Functionality 557
Physical Properties 558
UniSim Heat Exchanger Model Formulations 559
Case Study 1: Kettle Reboiler Simulation Using UniSim STE 559
Nozzle Data 564
xvi Contents
Process Data 564

Case Study 2: Thermosyphon Reboiler Simulation Using UniSim STE 572
Process Data (SI Units) 574
Solution 580
Troubleshooting of Shell and Tube Exchanger 580
Maintenance of Heat Exchangers 580
Disassembly for Inspection or Cleaning 580
Locating Tube Leaks 580
Hydrocarbon Leaks 596
Pass Partition Failure 596
Water Hammer 596
General Symptoms in Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 598
Case Studies of Heat Exchanger Explosion Hazard Incidents 599
A Case Study (Courtesy of U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board) 599
TESORO ANACORTES REFINERY, ANACORTES, WASHINGTON 599
Process Conditions of the B and E Heat Exchangers 602
US Chemical Safety Board (CBS) Findings 602
Recommendations 606
Maintenance Procedures 607
References 612
22 Energy Management and Pinch Technology 621
22.1 Introduction 621
22.2 Waste Heat Recovery 624
22.2.1 Steam Distribution 625
22.2.2 Design for Energy Efficiency 626
22.2.3 Energy Management Opportunities 628
22.3 Process Integration and Heat Exchanger Networks 631
22.3.1 Application of Process Integration 638
22.4 Pinch Technology 639
22.4.1 Heat Exchanger Network Design 640
22.4.2 Energy and Capital Targeting and Optimization 643
22.4.3 Optimization Variables 643
22.4.4 Optimization of the Use of Utilities (Utility Placement) 645
22.4.5 Heat Exchanger Network Revamp 645
22.5 Energy Targets 649
22.5.1 Heat Recovery for Multiple Systems 650
Example 22.1: Setting Energy Targets and Heat Exchanger Network 650
Solution 650
22.6 The Heat Recovery Pinch and Its Significance 655
22.7 The Significance of the Pinch 656
22.8 A Targeting Procedure: The Problem Table Algorithm 658
22.9 The Grand Composite Curve 661
22.9.1 Placing Utilities Using the Grand Composite Curve 663
22.10 Stream Matching at the Pinch 665
22.10.1 The Pinch Design Approach to Inventing a Network 666
22.11 Heat Exchanger Network Design 666
Example 22.2 673
Solution 673
22.11.1 Stream Splitting 678
Example 22.3 (Source: Seider et al., Product and Process Design Principles—Synthesis,
Analysis, and Evaluation 3rd Ed. Wiley 2009 [26]) 679
Contents xvii
Solution 680
Example 22.4 [Source: Manufacture of cellulose acetate fiber by Robins Smith
(Chemical Process Design and Integration, John Wiley 2007 [34])] 681
Solution 687
22.12 Heat Exchanger Area Targets 693
Example 22.5 (Source: R. Smith, Chemical Process Design, Mc Graw-Hill, 1995 [20]) 695
Solution 696
Example 22.6 703
Solution 703
22.13 HEN Simplification 703
Example 22.7: Test Case 3, TC3 Linnhoff and Hindmarch 703
Solution 704
22.13.1 Heat Load Paths 709
22.14 Number of Shell Target 710
22.14.1 Implications for HEN Design 711
22.15 Capital Cost Targets 712
22.16 Energy Targeting 714
22.16.1 Supertargeting or ∆Tmin Optimization 714
Example 22.8: Cost Targeting 714
Solution 715
Example 22.9: HEN for Maximum Energy Recovery (Warren D. Seider et al. [26]) 722
Solution 722
22.17 Targeting and Design for Constrained Matches 725
22.18 Heat Engines and Heat Pumps for Optimum Integration 726
22.18.1 Appropriate Integration of Heat Engines 729
22.18.2 Appropriate Integration of Heat Pumps 731
22.18.3 Opportunities for Placement of Heat Pumps 731
22.18.4 Appropriate Placement of Compression and Expansion in Heat Recovery Systems 732
22.19 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer in Process Integration 732
22.20 Total Site Analysis 732
22.21 Applications of Process Integration 736
22.22 Sitewide Integration 741
22.23 Flue Gas Emissions 741
22.24 Pitfalls in Process Integration 744
Glossary of Terms 789
Summary and Heuristics 795
Nomenclature 796
References 796
Bibliography 800
Appendix D 801
Appendix G 877
Appendix H 919
Glossary of Petroleum and Petrochemical Technical Terminologies 927
About the Author 1053
Index1055
Preface
Petroleum refining is a complex industry that world- With this realignment, and planned refining open-
wide produces more than $10 billion worth of refined ings and capacity expansions in Asia, trade press
products. Improvements in the design and operation reports suggest China will overtake the US as the coun-
of these facilities can deliver large economic value for try with the most refining capacity by the end of 2022.
refiners. Furthermore, economic, regulatory and envi-
ronmental concerns impose significant pressure on
World Economic Situation
refiners to provide safe working conditions and at the
same time optimize the refining process. Refiners have Russia’s war in Ukraine is further expected to advance
considered alternative processing units and feedstocks economic consensus’s expectations for higher price
by investing in new technologies. inflation and slower global GDP growth.
The United States, Europe and countries else-
where in the world are embarking on full electrifica-
On Oil
tion of automobiles within the next couple of decades.
Furthermore, the current pandemic of the coronavi- As solid global oil demands is expected to reach
rus with lock downs in many countries has restricted record highs in 2023 per International U.S. Energy
the movement of people, less use of aviation fuel and Information Administration (EIA), supply challenges
motor gasoline. This has resulted in the barrel of crude have persisted for oil and natural gas production. The
being sold at $42.0 per barrel presenting problems to oil global demand of 98.8 million barrels per day (mb/d)
producers and refiners. The venture of electrification in Q2, 2022 is projected to grow to a record high 102.7
still poses inherent problems of resolving rechargeable mb/d in December 2023 per (EIA).
batteries and fuel cells and providing charging stations Uncertainties: This results in effective Russian pro-
along various highways and routes. Oil and natural-gas duction losses; potential OPEC and US growth.
will for the foreseeable future form an important part US petroleum net exports reached a record high
of everyday life. Their availability has changed the as 94.3%, 7.3% above its 5-year average. Presently US
whole economy of the world by providing basic needs refineries are operating at or near maximum utiliza-
for mankind in the form of fuel, petrochemicals and tion and about 1/3 of recent refining capacity loss is
feedstocks for fertilizer plants and energy for the power due to conversions to biofuels plants (e.g., renewables
sector. fuels and oxygenaged plants (Volume 5 of these vol-
Recently, the prices of Brent crude and WTI have ume series)).
now risen to $113.1 and $109.8 respectively, caused US refiners is a long-cycle business and where refin-
by various factors such as the war between Russia ers could bring more refining capacity on line despite
and Ukraine. Refining capacity is the maximum these challenges, the result could be higher demand
volume of crude oil that refineries can produce in and higher costs for crude oil.
a day. Setting the US as a benchmark for the world, Presently, the world economy runs on oil and natu-
it had 135 operable petroleum refineries and a total ral gas, and the processing of these feedstocks for pro-
of refining capacity of 19 millions barrels per day ducing fuels, and value-added products has become
in 2020 to 128 operable refineries with a total crude an essential activity in modern society. The availabil-
distillation capacity of 17.9 million barrels per day, ity of liquefied natural gas (LNG) has enhanced the
a loss of 1.1 million barrels. In the same period of environment, and recent development in the tech-
time the world lost a total of 3.3 millions barrels of nology of natural gas to liquids (GTL) has further
daily refining capacity, and about 1/3 of these losses improved the availability of fuel to transportation and
occurred in the US. other sectors.
xix
xx Preface
The complex processing of petroleum refining has simulation software excises, cases studies and a
created a need for environmental, health, and safety Conversion Table.
management procedures and safe work practices. These Chapter 21, “Heat Transfer” provides types of heat
procedures are established to ensure compliance with exchanger equipment terminology, fouling of exchang-
applicable regulations and standards such as hazard ers, and crude oil fouling models, fouling mitigation
communications (PHA, HAZOPS, MoC, and so on), and monitoring, prevention and control of liquid/
emissions, Waste Management (pollution that includes gas side fouling; design and rating of shell and tube
volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon monox- exchangers; design of double pipe including finned
ide, sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), par- tube exchangers, plate frame heat exchangers, design
ticulates, ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and techniques for difficult condensing situations and for
toxic organic compounds) and waste minimization. the application of thermosiphon reboilers, design of
These pollutants are often discharged as air emissions, air-coolers, heat tracer requirements for pipeline and
wastewater or solid wastes. Furthermore, concerns heat loss from insulated pipelines, troubleshooting of
over issues such as the depletion of the ozone layer that heat exchangers and case studies of heat exchanger
results in global warming is increasingly having a sig- failures.
nificant impact on earth’s nature and mankind, and car- The chapter provides computer/software programs
bon dioxide (CO2) is known to be the major culprit of for the design/rating of these exchanger types.
global warming. Other emissions such as H2S, NOx, and Chapter 22, “Process Integration (PI)” reviews PI
SOx from petroleum refining have adversely impacted in heat exchanger networks involving a systematic
the environment, and agencies such as Occupational and oriented approach to heating and cooling and
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and power generation to process design, and optimization
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Health and that exploits the interaction between different units,
Safety Executive (U.K. HSE) have imposed limits on exchangers and utilities in order to employ resources
the emissions of these compounds upon refiners. effectively and minimize costs. The chapter uses the
Flaring has become more complicated and concerns Honeywell UniSim Design software with an Appendix
about its efficiency have been increasing and discussed F that reviews the steps to determine pinch tempera-
by experts. The OSHA, EPA and HSE have imposed ture, cold and hot pinch temperatures, hot and cold
tighter regulations on both safety and emission control, composite curves, grand composite curve, hot and cold
which have resulted in higher levels of involvement in utility requirements. The program further produces
safety, pollution, emissions and so on. graphical outputs of pinch temperatures, hot and cold
Petroleum refining is one of the important sectors of utility requirements at varying ΔTmin.
the world economy, and it’s playing a crucial and piv- The Excel spreadsheet program from Ian C. Kemp's
otal role in industrialization, urbanization, and meet- text has been used to determine the pinch temperature,
ing the basic needs of mankind by supplying energy cold and hot pinch temperatures, hot and cold com-
for industrial and domestic transportation, feedstock posite curves, grand composite curve, hot and cold
for petrochemical products as plastics, polymers, agro- utility requirements. The program further produces
chemicals, paints, and so on. Globally, it processes graphical outputs of pinch temperatures, hot and cold
more materials than any other industry, and with a utility requirements at varying ΔTmin.
projected increase in population to around 8.1 billion Appendix H reviews the failure scenarios of heat
by 2025, increasing demand for fuels, electricity and transfer equipment. Potential safety systems are catego-
various consumer products made from the petrochem- rized as inherently safer/passive, active and procedural
ical route is expected via the petroleum and refining in decreasing order of robustness and reliability. The
process. appendix provides description of these systems thus
Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Hand ensuring the design engineer to take a very broad and
book, Volume Four, is a continuation of the previous vol- holistic approach to complete design, thereby accounting
umes; comprising of two chapters including extensive for the many different, and often competing, objectives
case studies of process safety incidents in the refineries, which the design must accomplish. Safety, environmen-
a revised glossary of petroleum and technical termi- tal impact, loss prevention, health effects, economic and
nology, process data sheets, and Excel spreadsheet pro- business factors, product quality, technical feasibility
grams, computer developed programs, UniSim – Design and many other factors must be considered.
Preface xxi
Finally, there are case studies of process safety inci- case studies of lessons learned database (LLD). It pro-
dents in this volume, which the author hopes will spur vides major process safety incident vs. root cause map
readers to process safety management, investigating matrix in a quick reference guide (https://lnkd.in/
the root causes and near misses of incidents in the dm3t5VPe) in process safety incidents. Readers are
refinery plants, finding ways in mitigating these inci- advised to view these websites and will find them edu-
dents in the future thereby saving lives of personnel in cational and informative.
the refinery facilities and chemical process industries Finally, the volume provides a glossary of petroleum
worldwide. and technical terminology, process datasheets, and a
The US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation conversion table, developed Microsoft Excel spread-
Board (www.csb.gov) has provided case studies of sheet programs and developed programs including
process safety incidents with animations, and recently UniSim design software programs that can be readily
the U.K. Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) accessed from the publisher’s website using a password.
(www.icheme.org) from IChemE Safety and Loss
Prevention Special Interest Group (SIG) has published A. Kayode Coker (www.akctechnology.com)
Acknowledgments
This project is the culmination of five years of I have been privileged to have met with Phil Carmical,
research, collating relevant materials from organiza- Publisher at Scrivener Publishing Co., some twenty
tions, institutions, companies and publishers, devel- years ago. Phil initiated the well-known Ludwig’s proj-
oping Excel spreadsheet programs and computer ect at the time during his tenure at Gulf Publishing
programs; using Honeywell’s UniSim steady state Co., and Elsevier, respectively. His suggestions in col-
simulation programs and providing the majority of laborating on these important works some seven years
the drawings in the text. ago were timely to the engineering community, as I
Sincere gratitude to Honeywell Process Solutions for hope that these works will be greatly beneficial to this
granting permission to incorporate the use of UniSim community world-wide. I’m deeply grateful to Phil for
Design simulation and many other suites of software agreeing to collaborate with me, his suggestions and
programs in the book. I express my thanks to Dr. Jamie assistance since. I believe that upon completing this
Barber of Honeywell Process Solutions for his friendship aspect of the project that the book will save lives in the
and help over many years of using the UniSim Design refinery industry.
simulation software. I also wish to express my thanks to the Wiley-Scrivener
To Mr. Ahmed Mutawa formerly of SASREF Co., team: Kris Hackerott- Graphics Designer, Bryan Aubrey
Saudi Arabia for developing the Conversion Table pro- – Copy editor, Myrna Ting – Typesetter and her col-
gram for the book. leagues. I am truly grateful for your professionalism,
Many organizations, institutions and companies assistance and help in the production of this volume.
as Gas Processor Suppliers Association (GPSA), USA,
Honeywell Process Solutions, Saudi Aramco Shell Finally,
Refinery Co. (SASREF), Absoft Corporation, USA,
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, The Bow down in humility before the Greatness of God,
Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K., Chemical whose Love is never-ending, and who sends us his
Engineering magazine by Access Intelligence, USA, help at all times.
Hydrocarbon Processing magazine have readily given He alone is Life and the Power and the Glory for ever
permission for the use of materials and their release and ever.
for publication. I greatly acknowledge and express my
deepest gratitude to these organizations. A. Kayode Coker (www.akctechnology.com)
21
Heat Transfer
21.1 Introduction
The escalating cost of energy in recent years has resulted in increased attention being given to conservation and
efficient energy management. Other types of technology, for example, energy management and pinch technology
(Chapter 22) have been employed in the energy integration of process plants and of heat exchangers, in particular.
This has resulted in an improved performance of the plants at reduced operation costs. Heat transfer is perhaps the
most important, as well as the most applied process, in refining, gas processing, chemical and petrochemical plants.
The economics of plant operation is controlled by the effectiveness of the use and recovery of heat or cold (refriger-
ation). The service functions of steam, power, refrigeration supply, and the like are dictated by how these services or
utilities are used within the process to produce an efficient conversion and recovery of heat.
Shell and tube heat exchanger types are widely employed and generally, they are custom designed for any capacity
and operating conditions, including from high vacuums to ultra-high pressures over 15,000 psig (100 MPa), from
cryogenics to high temperatures ~ 2000°F (1100°C), and any temperature and pressure differences between the flu-
ids, limited by the materials of construction. They can be designed for special operating conditions: heavy fouling,
highly viscous fluids, erosion, corrosion, toxicity, multicomponent mixtures, vibration, etc. They are the most versa-
tile exchanger types made from a variety of metals (e.g., Admiralty, copper, alloys, monel, nickel, aluminum, carbon/
stainless steel, etc.) and nonmetal materials (e.g., graphite, glass and Teflon) and in various sizes from 1 ft2 (0.1 m2)
to 106 ft2 (105 m2). They are extensively employed as process heat exchangers in petroleum refining, petrochemicals
and chemical industries; as boiler feed water heaters, phase change heat exchangers (e.g., reboilers and condensers),
evaporators, steam generators, and oil coolers in power plants, in some air conditioning and refrigeration applica-
tions; in waste heat recovery applications with heat recovery from liquids and condensing fluids and in environmen-
tal control. The tube side is for corrosive, heavy fouling, scaling, hazardous, high temperature and pressure, and more
expensive fluids, while the shell side is for cleaner, more viscous, lower flow rate, evaporating and condensing fluids.
When a gas or vapor is used as an exchanger fluid, it is typically introduced through the shell side and viscous liquids,
for which the pressure drop for flow through the tubes is high, are introduced on the shell side.
Generally, shell and tube exchanger types are non-compact exchangers, and the heat-transfer area per unit volume ranges
from 15 to 30 ft2/ft3 (50–100 m2/m3). Therefore, they require a considerable amount of space, support structure, capital
and installation costs. As a result, they are often replaced with compact heat exchangers (e.g., plate exchangers, spiral
plate heat exchangers) in those applications where the operating conditions permit it. For the equivalent cost of the shell
and tube exchangers, compact heat exchangers provide high effectiveness and are more efficient in heat (energy) transfer.
A. Kayode Coker. Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook Volume 4, (1–620) © 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook Volume 4
Although many excellent references [1−14] are available, and the technical literature contains important details of
good heat transfer design principles and good approaches to equipment design, an unknown factor still enters into
every design. This factor is the scale or fouling from the fluids being processed and is wholly dependent on the fluids,
their temperature and velocity, and to a certain extent, the nature of the heat-transfer tube surface and its chemical
composition. Due to the unknown nature of the assumptions, these fouling factors can markedly affect the design
of heat transfer equipment. We shall review this aspect with others such as the pressure drop later in the chapter
as these could have deleterious effects on the performance of heat exchangers resulting in high operating costs of
millions of US dollars per annum. Conventional practice is presented here; however, Kern and Seaton [15] have
proposed thermal concepts that may offer new approaches.
The most popular and reliable software packages for the design or rating of shell and tube heat exchangers are:
• BJAC: USA based company.
• HEI: Heat Exchange Institute, USA
• HTRI: Heat Transfer Research Institute (www.HTRI.net) USA
• HFTS: Heat Transfer Fluid Flow Services (HTFS programs are part of Aspen Technology’s Aspen
Engineering Suite and Honeywell’s UniSim Design Suite).
Generally, the design methods and equations used by these companies and institutes are proprietary and therefore,
are not provided in open literature. Tinker [16, 17] published the first detailed stream analysis method for predicting
shell and tube heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop, and his model has been used as the basis for the proprietary
computer methods developed by these institutes and companies. Tinker’s method is difficult and tedious to apply in
manual calculations. However, it has been simplified by Devore [18, 19], using standard tolerances for commercial
exchangers and only a limited number of baffle cuts. Devore presented nomographs that facilitate the application to
the method in manual calculations. Mueller [20] has further simplified Devore’s method and provides an illustrative
example. Bell [21, 22] provided a semi-analytical method based on research programs carried out on shell and tube
exchangers at the University of Delaware, where his results accounted for the major bypass and leakage streams.
This text provides the designer with a basis for manually checking the expected equations, coefficients, etc., enabling
him/her to accept or reject the computed results. The text provides a basis for completely designing the process
heat transfer equipment, and (except for specialized items such as fired heaters, steam boiler/generators, cryogenic
equipment, and some other process requirements) and sizing (for mechanical dimensions/details, but not for pres-
sure strength) the mechanical hardware that will accomplish this function. Additionally, the text presents research
studies on fouling in shell and tube heat exchangers, and, in particular, to pre-heat trains in the refining of crude oil.
21.1.1 Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology

The chemical process industries (CPIs) require heat exchanger types to transfer heat from a hot stream to a cold stream.
This heat transfer equipment must meet various codes/standards to deal with the thermal, mechanical, operational,
installation and maintenance demands on the process. The optimal heat exchanger design should minimize operating
costs and maximize product output. Shell and tube heat exchangers (Figures 21.1B–D) consist of a bundle of tube inside
a cylindrical shell. One fluid (the tube side fluid) flows inside the tubes whilst the other fluid (the shell side fluid) flows
through the shell and around the tubes. Heat is transferred across the tube wall separating the hot and cold streams. The
shell type has a significant effect on the flow configuration and thermal performance of the heat exchangers. Shell and
tube heat exchangers use baffles to transport heat to or from tube side process fluids by directing the shell side fluid flow.
The increased structural support that baffles provide is essential to the tube stability, as they prevent the tube from sag-
ging due to structural weight and also minimize vibration due to cyclic flow forces. Baffles improve heat transfer at the
expense of increased pressure drop. Tubesheets seal the ends of the tubes, ensuring separation between the two streams.
The process engineer needs to understand the terminology of the heat-transfer equipment manufacturers in order
to properly design, specify, evaluate bids, and check drawings for this equipment.
Heat Transfer 3
FRONT END REAR END

SHELL TYPES
STATIONARY HEAD TYPES HEAD TYPES
E L
A FIXED TUBESHEET
ONE PASS SHELL LIKE “A” STATIONARY HEAD
CHANNEL
AND REMOVABLE COVER F M
FIXED TUBESHEET
TWO PASS SHELL LIKE “B” STATIONARY HEAD
WITH LONGITUDINAL RAFFLE
B
G N
FIXED TUBESHEET
LIKE “N” STATIONARY HEAD
BONNET (INTEGRAL COVER) SPLIT FLOW
P
H
OUTSIDE PACKED FLOATING HEAD
C
DOUBLE SPLIT FLOW
CHANNEL INTEGRAL WITH TUBE- S

SHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER J FLOATING HEAD
WITH BACKING DEVICE
DIVIDED FLOW
T
N
PULL THROUGH FLOATING HEAD
K
CHANNEL INTEGRAL WITH TUBE-
SHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER
U
KETTLE TYPE REBOILER
U-TUBE BUNDLE
D X
SPECIAL HIGH PRESSURE CLOSURE CROSS FLOW EXTERNALLY SEALED

FLOATING TUBESHEET
Figure 21.1A Nomenclature for Heat Exchanger Components. Figures 21.1A–G used by permission: Standards of Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association, 7th Ed., © 1988. Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.
The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts:

• Front header—this is where the fluid enters the tube-side of the exchanger. It is sometimes referred to
as the stationary header.
• Rear header—this is where the tube-side fluid leaves the exchanger or where it is returned to the front
header in exchangers with multiple tube-side passes.
36 4 3 34 5 31 6 34 12 29 7 8 27 28 18 36 32
36
15
16
1 5 34 3 10 35 35 12 34 11 13 17 33
AES
Figure 21.1B Floating head (© 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.).
32 2 3 6 32 8 7 37 27 28 14 12 34 2
5 34 12 37 33 6 5
BEM
Figure 21.1C Fixed tubesheet (© 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.).
36 4 3 5 34 31 12 34 29 27 28 8 7 32 15 23 24 25 22 36
1 34 5 3 6 10 33 35 35 34 12 15 29 21
AEP
Figure 21.1D Floating head—outside packed (© 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.).
Heat Transfer 5
36 4 3 34 5 31 34 12 8 30 28 27 7 32 9
1 34 5 6 10 12 34 35 35 33
CFU
Figure 21.1E Removable U-bundle (© 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.).
8 34 12 39
36 4 3 34 5 31
15 17 36 38
16
1 5 34 3 6 18 34 12 35 27 28 7 35 12 34 39
AKT
Figure 21.1F Kettle reboiler (© 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.).
36 34 5 3 10 8 7 28 12 34 27 23 24 26 24 23 15 1 36
4 3 1 6 34 12 35 35 34 12 34 5 3 4
AJW
Figure 21.1G Divided flow-packed tubesheet (© 1988 by Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.).
Vapor Plus
Liquid Out
Top End
Liquid In
Figure 21.1H Fixed tubesheet, single-tube pass vertical heater or reboiler (used by permission: Engineers & Fabricators, Inc. Houston).
SEAL STRIP CHANNEL CHANNEL
BAFFLE CUT
SECTION “A” . ”A”
Figure 21.1I Floating head, removable type (used by permission: Yuba Heat Transfer Division of Connell Limited Partnership).
Heat Transfer 7
Figure 21.1J Split-ring removable floating head, four-pass tube-side and two-pass shell side (used by permission: Engineers & Fabricators,
Inc., Houston).
CHANNEL CHANNEL
Figure 21.1K U-tube exchanger (used by permission: Yuba Heat Transfer Division of Connell Limited Partnership).
Figure 21.1L A shell and tube heat exchanger showing an inlet nozzle on the shell-side in preparation for pressure testing.
Figure 21.1N A shell and tube heat exchanger showing the nozzles on the shell and tube sides and nozzles at the rear end.
Figure 21.1M Reactor effluent vertical shell and tube heat exchangers in series of a hydrocracking unit.
Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook Volume 4
8
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If the analysis of the relation of the individual to society is correct,
we are justified in claiming that any adequate statement of the aim of
education must point unmistakably to the idea of the common good.
Education aims so to adjust the individual to the group that the
welfare of society as a whole may be advanced. This adjustment can
be brought about only through participation in social activities, and
thus the aim is constantly realized in the process.
In our democratic society, which makes possible free education for
all of its members, there can be no question of the right of society to
demand that education aim to develop men and women who work
for the common good. It is necessary, then, to analyze this aim of
social efficiency in terms of our society. The equality of opportunity
which we profess to offer is to be thought of in terms of possible
service which may be rendered.
In any community the contribution to the general welfare which
may be made by any one of its members is conditioned by the
interests which the individual has in the general good. The unsocial
individual, the one who seldom responds to the needs of the group,
is out of sympathy with social problems, and contributes little to
social welfare.
But it is not enough that the individual be interested in the common
welfare. Interest may lead him to do that which is harmful rather than
helpful, or it may be that his interest may have no result except to
give him certain pleasurable emotions. There must be added to
sympathy, knowledge. Interest or sympathy in the welfare of society
may furnish the propelling force, but knowledge is necessary for
effective action. The world is full of men and women with the best
intentions who hinder rather than advance the common good.
Since each is responsible not only for his own conduct, but also for
the welfare of the whole group, it is necessary that our education
provide opportunity for growth in intelligence. Our schools have
always emphasized this element in education. We have often
defined the aim of education in terms of the development of
citizenship. Usually the chief qualification of the citizen has been
interpreted to be that knowledge which would enable him to exercise
the right of suffrage with intelligence. We do well, however, to
remember that intelligence must be exercised in all of the activities of
life. Our education must strive constantly to develop men and
women who will be rational at all times. But we may not forget that
our schools have been so much concerned with the intellectual side
of education that they have tended to neglect other elements which
are equally significant from the standpoint of social welfare.
There is still another element which must be added, the habit of
acting on behalf of the group. We all know people who know just
what is demanded in a given social situation; they profess to be
interested in the welfare of the group; but they never act. When their
own private interests are involved they are quick to seize the
opportunity for improving their condition; but in social matters they
are inactive. It is in this particular, rather than in any other, that our
schools fall short. We do much to arouse the sympathy of children in
the general welfare; we give them the knowledge by which their
action may be guided; but we give them little opportunity to form the
habit of social service. This is due to the fact that we so often think of
adult social activities as the only ones that are worth while, forgetting
that for the child the important thing is social activity now and in his
society, that the only way to prepare for adult social effectiveness is
to secure social efficiency on the part of the child.
These questions still remain: how can we, through education,
produce the individual who, because of social sympathy, knowledge,
and activity, will tend to advance the welfare of all; and what kinds of
education meet the demands of the aim which we have set up.
First of all, we must endeavor to produce the individual who is
sound physically. Modern education recognizes the fact that a man’s
usefulness is conditioned by his bodily condition, and is also coming
to find that physical activity is not without its effect on the mental
development and life of the individual. There is, therefore, one large
division of our work which we may call physical education.
On the side of mental development, education consists in
preserving and stimulating the child’s interest in the materials and
processes with which he may come in contact. Intellectual training
aims to develop the man or woman who is mentally alert, active in
investigation, and controlled by reason. It is to this intellectual
education that our schools have devoted the larger part of their time.
The school is the agency set aside by society for transmitting culture,
and the teacher must always concern herself largely with the
intellectual life of children.
Our modern view of education is leading us to stress, along with
physical and intellectual education, a kind of training which aims to
develop the individual whose moral standards are positive rather
than negative. Moral-social education should establish ideals of
social service as well as standards of individual righteousness.
Along with physical, moral-social, and intellectual-cultural
education, there is need for that type of training which will enable
each individual to do some particular work with a high degree of
efficiency. This type of education we commonly call vocational. It is
only recently that we have come to realize that it is not enough to
train an individual with respect to general intelligence and morality,
but that it is also just as fundamental that our education provide the
training necessary for success in the particular calling which each
individual is to enter. For the preparation of clergymen, doctors,
lawyers, teachers, and engineers, whose vocations require a
maximum of intellectual achievement, it is true that we have long had
our vocational schools. We are coming now to appreciate the fact
that equality of opportunity demands that special training be given to
those who are to enter the industries. Indeed, our vocational schools
must multiply until there is training offered for each and every calling
before we can claim to provide that training which is essential for
social efficiency.
Another problem is that of the training for leisure. In society as at
present constituted, it is possible for many individuals, and it should
ultimately be possible for all, to have a considerable amount of
leisure time. The contribution of each individual in his special line of
work, and his general interest in the whole community, will depend in
a considerable degree upon the proper use of leisure time. Our
education must, therefore, attempt to equip men with interests and
ideals which make for the nobler enjoyments.
Keeping in mind the sympathetic, wise, active social individual,
made so by the process of acquiring experience or making of
adjustments, both physical and mental, we have yet to reduce our
aim to the terms of schoolroom practice. What can a teacher hope to
do in this hour, with this group of children to work with?
First of all the teacher can work for the formation of habits which
are socially desirable and for the inhibition of those which are
undesirable. “Education is for behavior, and habits are the stuff of
which behavior consists.”[1] The school may be a very important
factor in the formation of habits in each of the fields of education
mentioned above. If the school is organized on a rational social
basis, it must continually present opportunities for actions which
should become habitual, and the future efficiency of the learner
depends upon gaining such control of much of the knowledge which
we teach that the response desired becomes habitual. The social
virtues of promptness, regularity, helpfulness, industry, fidelity,
honesty, truthfulness, cleanliness, both physical and mental,
patriotism, and the like, should be made habitual in connection with
the situations which demand their exercise. The physical habits
acquired in childhood are of the utmost significance throughout life.
Much of arithmetic, spelling, writing, geography, history, and even of
literature and art, will be significant in proportion as we have reduced
our knowledge to the automatic basis of habit. One cannot stop to
reason everything out; life is too short. We gain time and energy for
the higher activities of life in proportion as we reduce the responses
which occur frequently to the basis of habits. In vocational schools
one of the chief aims is the formation of habits of skill. Later we shall
want to discuss in detail the methodology of habit formation.
Every teacher recognizes that one of the ends which must be
achieved by the school is knowledge. We shall not here enter into
the discussion of the problem of what knowledge is of most worth,
since for the teacher this choice is usually made and prescribed in
the course of study. One cannot, however, refrain from suggesting
that much that is taught would be eliminated, if we kept constantly in
mind the end for which we strive. The following criteria, proposed by
Professor Frank M. McMurry, will be suggestive from the standpoint
of teaching, whether the teacher determines the curriculum or not.
“We hold to the following propositions in the rejection of subject
matter.[2]
“1. Whatever cannot be shown to have a plain relation to some
real need of life, whether æsthetic, ethical, or utilitarian in the
narrower sense, must be dropped.
“2. Whatever is not reasonably within the child’s comprehension.
“3. Whatever is unlikely to appeal to his interest; unless it is
positively demanded for the first very weighty reason.
“4. Whatever topics and details are so isolated or irrelevant that
they fail to be a part of any series or chain of ideas, and therefore fail
to be necessary for the appreciation of any large point. This
standard, however, not to apply to the three R’s and spelling.”
These criteria indicate clearly that knowledge can never be in itself
an end of teaching. It is not that the child may have knowledge
merely, but that he shall have knowledge which will function. This
knowledge which we seek to have the child master will concern his
physical life, his social relationships, his vocation; and in each field
the knowledge he possesses will limit his intellectual activity.
The school must keep alive, or, in some cases, awaken those
interests which are socially desirable. It is not enough that habits
have been formed and knowledge acquired. Much of the usefulness
of the individual after he leaves school will depend on his interests
which lead him to acquire new knowledge, or to attempt some new
activity. It has sometimes been asserted that the school, as at
present organized, tends to kill rather than to preserve those
interests which are common to little children. It is probable that the
passing interests in things due to curiosity must disappear,
regardless of the education which we give; but it is a poor sort of
education which leaves the child without abiding interests which will
help him not only in making a living, but also in enjoying his life.
Here, as elsewhere in education, we may be satisfied with the result
only when we get the corresponding action. That child has an
interest in good literature who reads good literature. We can be sure
that the boy is interested in natural phenomena when he is willing to
spend his leisure time finding out more about nature’s ways. The
only test that we have of an abiding interest in the welfare of others
is the fact that the child is now active on behalf of others. In like
manner are we to judge of our success in arousing and maintaining
those other interests which are desirable.
Judgments of fact are called for constantly in acquiring knowledge
and in our everyday activity; but no less important in the life of
individuals are judgments of worth. Education must concern itself
with the ideals, purposes, and standards which should be acquired
by children. There is no field in which greater skill is demanded in
teaching than in bringing children to appreciate those things which
are good, true, and beautiful. Ideals, or, for those who do not agree
with them, prejudices, will always be of tremendous importance.
They determine the course of action a man will take. Because of
their ideals men have been willing to labor incessantly for a cause
which they considered just, to give up personal good in the
pursuance of public duty, to lose all, if they might but retain their
honor, yes, even to lose their lives because they felt that this
extreme service was demanded of them. The awakening and
nurturing of ideals of work (or industry), of honor, of duty, of purity, of
service is the greatest contribution of the best teacher.
There is one other aim which the teacher should have constantly
in mind, included possibly in the above, but which needs to be stated
separately for the sake of emphasis, i.e. that children should be
taught how to work independently. The best teacher is the one who
is constantly striving to render her services unnecessary. There is
nothing that the school can do which will take the place of giving the
child knowledge of the most economical means to be employed in
achieving desirable ends. Is it a matter of knowledge, the child
should be made conscious of the methods whereby truth may be
established; is it the need of establishing a new habit, or the
breaking up of the old one, we should make available for the pupil
the principles of habit formation so that he may apply them to his
own case; in matters of right and wrong, the school should have
supplied standards of reference which will help in the difficult
situation. Possibly the great weakness of many teachers in imparting
this knowledge of methods of work is best illustrated by citing the
well-known fact that children of high school, or even college age, are
found very frequently who do not know how to read a book, or study
a lesson assigned. This problem will be treated in considerable detail
when we come to consider the study lesson.
Pupils at work forming habits of thought, feeling, and action;
acquiring knowledge of nature and of society; forming ideals which
make for social well-being; and learning in all of this work to act
independently, to function in the society of which they are a part: this
is education, and these are the goals which we should strive to
achieve every day and every hour that we teach.
For Collateral Reading

Nicholas Murray Butler, The Meaning of Education, Chapter I.
W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, Chapter III.
Exercises.
1. How would you hope to contribute to the realization of the aim of education in
the teaching of English, arithmetic, cooking, geography, or other school subjects?
2. How would you determine whether or not the children in your grade are
socially efficient?
3. What are the most important subjects, or parts of subjects, which you teach?
Why?
4. How would an application of the aim of education as discussed in this chapter
modify the work commonly done in arithmetic? In nature study?
5. It has been claimed that education should provide for the harmonious
development of all of the powers. Criticize this statement of aim.
6. Could you defend the statement that “the aim of education is to produce
socially efficient men and women,” and at the same time deny that the greatest
individual good comes from working for the general welfare?
7. Why should education be free in a democracy?
8. Is society justified in offering special education to the deficient and the
delinquent? To the especially capable? Why?
9. Is the excessive rivalry which we sometimes foster in our schools compatible
with the aim of social efficiency?
10. Of the several types of education, physical, intellectual, moral-social,
vocational, and education for leisure, which is most neglected?
11. How do you account for the fact that many children cease to inquire, to
investigate, or even to ask questions, although they are regularly taught in our
schools?
12. Why do you teach school? What do you hope to accomplish?
13. Can you name specific instances of changes brought about in children under
your instruction which justify you in believing that you have fulfilled the aim of
education in your teaching?
14. What justification is there for music, drawing, or literature in the curriculum?
15. State briefly the aim of education.
CHAPTER II
T H E FA C T O R S C O N D I T I O N I N G T H E T E A C H I N G P R O C E S S
If it is essential that the teacher approach her work with a clear

view of the ends which it is desirable for her to achieve, it is quite as
necessary that she be conscious of the factors which condition the
teaching process. The school, with its limitations and its advantages,
the community and home life of the child, and, above all else, the
child himself, his instincts, impulses, and abilities must be the subject
of most careful study. Much progress has been made in recent years
because of a better understanding and a more sympathetic attitude
toward children. Teachers are beginning to see that education has its
beginning in, and that it is always conditioned by, the life of the child
outside of the school building. The possibilities of the school as an
institution for the education of children are just beginning to be
realized.
While it is true that the school shares with the home, the church,
and the community at large the education of children, no one can fail
to recognize the fact that the responsibilities and the activities of the
school have been very greatly augmented during the past few
decades. Where other institutions have lost or have become less
effective, the school has gained, or has been forced to accept new
responsibilities. Changed industrial conditions and life in cities have
made it impossible for the home to continue to hold the important
place which it once occupied in preparing its members for efficient
participation in the productive activities. Whether we like it or not, we
are forced to admit that the church no longer exerts the power over
the lives and conduct of men that it once did. Along with the
specialization of function which is so characteristic of our modern
life, citizenship in our democracy has come to require less of that
type of participation in public affairs which was once a great
educative factor in our community life.
As these changes in the effectiveness of other institutions have
taken place, men have looked to the schools to make good the
deficiency. The schools have responded to the demand made upon
them. Our curriculum no longer consists of the three R’s. Cooking,
sewing, gardening, and many other kinds of manual work, music,
physical training, and fine art are already found in our courses of
study. We are coming to recognize the need for more systematic
training in morals and civics, and vocational training is being
introduced.
What is the significance of these changes for teachers? Is it not
true that they must teach whatever is demanded by the course of
study; and is not this the only difference in the teacher’s function
brought about by changed conditions? The answer is, most
emphatically, no. The situation which has already made necessary
the change in curriculum demands also changes in method quite as
revolutionary. It is more essential to-day than ever before that the
school present opportunities for coöperation and for group work, a
chance for pupils to work together for common ends, because there
is so much less demand of this sort made upon children outside of
school than was formerly the case. We ought to do more than we do
to develop the independence and the self-reliance which were so
characteristic of the boy and girl who lived in an environment which
constantly made heavy demands upon their strength, skill, and
ingenuity. The responsibility for taking the initiative, and of measuring
the success of one’s efforts by the results produced, is all too
uncommon in the lives of our children. The school must, if it is to
adequately meet its enlarged responsibility, develop those habits of
thought and action which enable one to get along with his fellows.
The school life of the child must, in so far as this is possible, present
such opportunities, make such demands, and judge results by
standards essentially social. The child must learn in school to serve,
to accept responsibility, and to produce results socially valuable. We
could do much to increase the efficiency of the school if we planned
more carefully to have schoolroom activities find their application in
the homes of children.
School education begins not with the ignorance of children, but
with their knowledge. Children come to us with a great wealth of
experience. Our work as teachers is to enlarge and to interpret this
experience, to give it greater meaning and significance. Can any one
question, then, the necessity for acquaintance with the life of the
child outside of school? And this study of the out-of-school
environment must continue as long as the child is in school, if the
teacher’s work is to be most effective. It makes a great deal of
difference when you wish to teach nature study that your children
have always lived in the city, at a considerable distance from a park.
The problem of teaching a great commercial center to children living
on farms presents some difficulty. But it is not alone these more
gross differences in the lives of children which demand our attention.
There are differences in ideals, differences in social custom, in short,
in ways of thinking, feeling, and acting, which one must know if one
would claim any adequate knowledge of the child to be taught.
Probably the best opportunity to gain this intimate knowledge of the
lives of children whom we teach is to be had in the work with parents
and older brothers and sisters which should be carried on in the
school building when the smaller children are not present. The
school which is a center of community life, a place for study, for
recreation, for physical development, and for social intercourse is the
school that is fulfilling its mission in the life of the people; and the
teacher who works in such a school will know her children.
There is one other responsibility which we as teachers must
acknowledge which again leads us beyond the schoolroom. We
should work for the welfare of our children during the time that they
are not with us. No other body of men and women knows the needs
of these children better than we do. Our work is conditioned by the
life of the child before he comes under our influence. Our work is
ofttime of no effect because of the adverse conditions outside of the
school. What does it matter that we try to develop morality in
children, when the forces of immorality in the streets more than
counteract our influence? what does it matter that we strive earnestly
to provide hygienic conditions for work during five hours of the day,
when filth and disease are doing their deadly work outside of the
school for nineteen hours a day? Who knows better than we that
children with starved bodies cannot do great things intellectually? If
we were only organized to improve these conditions, we could do
much for the welfare of the community. The time is coming when it
will be considered as legitimate for a body of teachers to discuss the
problems of impure food supply, of relief for the poor, of means for
the suppression of vice, and of better hygienic conditions for the
children of our cities, as it is to discuss the problems of method or
the organization of school work. What we need, if we are to be
effective in the work, is better organization, more craft
consciousness. We now possess potentially great power for social
betterment. We are exercising this power in the school, and, as
individuals, outside of the school. We will, let us hope, in time,
recognize the larger social demand and perform the larger social
service.
The children with whom we work come to us equipped with many
native reactions or tendencies to behave. In any situation the child
will react in accordance with some native tendency or habit which
has grown out of the original tendency. Success in teaching depends
upon a recognition of these instinctive tendencies, the development
of some, the grafting of new but similar reactions on others, and the
inhibition of the native reaction and substitution of another in still
other cases. The instincts which are of importance in education have
been variously named; among these those of greatest significance
for the work of the teacher are play, constructiveness, imitation,
emulation, pugnacity, curiosity, ownership, including the collecting
instinct, sympathy, wonder. We shall deal briefly with each of these in
relation to the work of the teacher.
Play: Possibly the lesson which teachers need most to learn is that
play has real educative value. Before the school age has been
reached, the child has learned chiefly by playing. In play the child
gets his first experience in those activities which are later to make
possible a happy, useful life in the community. The number of
possible reactions possessed by a child of six is largely determined
by the opportunity he has had to play. This is why we value so much
a life free from restraint, and in contact with nature, for little children.
Contact with the trees, the rocks, the birds, the flowers, and
association with other children mean possibilities of learning for the
child which no amount of instruction or exercise of authority can
equal. The child plays now with this object and again with that; and
in consequence comes to know not only the objects, but his own
power. In an imaginative way he experiences all of the adult activities
about him, sowing, reaping, building, cooking, cleaning, hauling,
fighting; and he is wiser and better prepared for the period of
struggle, which must come later, because of these activities.
Nor should this period of play end when the child enters school.
The skillful teacher makes a game of many of the exercises of the
school, which might be otherwise drudgery. The desire to win is
common to children six years of age, and many a hard task will
become play, if the element of competition is introduced and
sufficient variety in procedure is provided for. By playing, children
may learn to work. To achieve the ends desired in a game may
involve the overcoming of difficulties which require the most earnest
effort. There can be no better preparation for life than the playing of
games where team work, self-restraint, and fairness are demanded.
We need more careful study on the part of teachers of children’s
games, and more planning that all may secure the benefits which
come from this sort of activity. In the schoolroom, wherever it is
possible, the spirit of play should pervade the work. There will be
cases enough where results will depend upon the exercise of
authority. Let us never forget that the reaction of play may mean just
as valuable results as the reaction of necessity, and that the ideal life
is the one in which all work is play.
Constructiveness: Closely connected with the play instinct is the
instinct to make out of the material at one’s command that which will
represent some element in the play. In the beginning, gestures,
sounds, and whatever objects are present suffice in the make-
believe world of the child. But soon the materials are rearranged or
shaped into some new form in order to represent the object desired.
Materials become to the child just what he can make out of them.
And it is not simply in power to construct or to represent that the
child grows because of this activity. To make something, to work out
in materials one’s idea, means growth in definiteness and control of
ideas. The one adequate test of ideas must always be some sort of
expression; and, for the adult as well as for the child, construction is
one of the most important forms of expression. We would gain much
in all of our school work in clearness and definiteness, if we resorted
oftener to construction as a test. Of course, construction is not to be
limited to the making of things of three dimensions. The map, plan,
or artistic representation belongs to the same group, and is
developed from the same instinctive tendency.
Just one more word of caution needs to be given with regard to
work of this kind. In constructive work, whether with wood or clay, or
with pencil or brush, the point of departure should be the child’s idea,
not the model or pattern provided by an adult. After the child has
made his attempt, then let him see where he has failed by reference
to the object which he has tried to represent. And we can afford to be
satisfied in the beginning with a crude product, so long as it satisfies
the child. As for technique, there will come a time when the desire for
a better product will call for greater skill and will furnish the very best
possible motive for the necessary practice.
Imitation: In both play and constructive work a most important
element is the instinct to imitate. The child constantly imitates adult
activities in play, and in construction he represents the objects about
him. As has already been indicated, it is in this way that he clarifies
his ideas, that he gains experience. In imitation, which is truly
instructive, the child does not consciously plan to imitate; it is enough
that the model is present. This kind of imitation is sometimes called
spontaneous imitation, in contradistinction to the other type of
imitation, in which the individual persistently tries to reproduce the
activity of another. In the latter case he is conscious of the process;
and this type is sometimes called voluntary imitation. This distinction
is important for teachers in many phases of school work. There are
cases where the only satisfactory response is that which accords
with the model, the standard which society imposes. We do not want
a child to try to spell a word without being conscious of the form
commonly accepted. He will succeed in spelling because he has
studied this word, or is able to build it up from his knowledge of its
constituent parts. On the other hand, wherever creative work is to be
done, wherever originality is required, the educational value of the
exercise is inversely proportioned to the degree in which conscious
imitation of a model has entered to produce the result. In such
subjects as English composition, constructive work, science work
involving observation and experiment, what we want above all else is
the attempt on the part of the learner to express his own ideas; and it
is only after this expression that any adequate appreciation of model
or of criticism can be hoped for.
There is one other factor in connection with imitation which is of
great importance in teaching; namely, that children persistently
imitate what they admire. This has a double significance for the
teacher. Those things which can be made less attractive will tend to
be less imitated; and, conversely, that which is held up as worthy of
great respect will be much imitated. If we were only wise, we would
devote our attention to the leader of the group, trying to secure the
appropriate or desired reaction upon his or her part, rather than
devoting ourselves equally to the whole group. We can depend upon
it, the crowd will follow the leader whom they admire. Our appeals
often mean little to children, and the models which we set up have
little effect, because, however admirable these standards may seem
to us, they are beyond the power of children to comprehend or
admire. Instead of giving a boy a letter of Jefferson as a model,
better give him the one written by his classmate. Do not expect the
girl to imitate the noblest women in history, but make your appeal on
the basis of the virtue of the girl she likes.
Emulation: Much that has been said above under imitation might
quite as well have been written under the head of emulation. As
social beings, we tend to do what others do. Consciousness of kind
compels us to lay great store upon our ability to do as others do.
When in Rome the difficult thing is not to do “as Romans do,” but to
do otherwise. The desire to do not only as well as others, but to
accomplish more, is responsible for much that is achieved in the
world. If we did not have others with whom we are constantly
comparing ourselves, few of us would do as well as we now do.
Rivalry will always be one of the greatest means of bringing about
improvement or advancement in social conditions. In school, as well
as in the world at large, rivalry, if kept free from jealousy and envy,
will justify its existence by the results produced. The boy or girl who
is anxious to distance his fellows in school is apt to be the man of
ambition and of success in later life.
Pugnacity: More prominent in boys than in girls, but present in
some degree in every individual, is the instinct to fight, the desire not
to be overcome either by persons or conditions which surround us.
In so far as this instinct leads to physical encounter, for all except the
unusually strong physically, the correction comes by way of defeat.
For all, the substitution of games which involve physical prowess for
fighting, and the substitution of victories of intellect for the victories of
physical combat, point to the utilization of this instinct in education. It
is sometimes possible to appeal to this instinct when
discouragement and defeat in school tasks seem inevitable. No boy
likes to be told that he has been downed by the task in long division,
or that he has failed to make good in spelling or geography. The
whole world hates a quitter, and normal, healthy children are no
exception to the rule.
Curiosity: Children are proverbially curious about things. They
want to know more, to enlarge and make more definite their
experience. This desire shows itself in their actions in handling
materials, in making and unmaking, in questions asked, in
reasoning, in play, and in imitating others. The most striking
characteristic in the mental life of children is the breadth of their
interests, due to this instinct of curiosity. Most adults think along very
narrow and restricted lines; not so with children. While it is true that
they do little abstract thinking, there is scarcely an object or an action
which comes within the range of their senses that is not followed by
the desire to find out more.
Children have the spirit of inquiry, have many problems, in short,
are mentally active to a degree most uncommon among adults. The
problem of the teacher is how to keep alive this spirit of inquiry, how
to insure a continuance of this mental alertness. Much of our school
work has certainly tended in the opposite direction. Reciting what is
written in books, without thought or question, has too often been
characteristic of recitations. The appeal to authority, whether of the
teacher or of the book, instead of the appeal to experience, to
observation and experiment, or to other methods of establishing
truth, tends to kill rather than to strengthen the spirit of inquiry. We
should place greater value upon the intelligent question than upon
the parrot-like answer. Respect for the problems of children, even
when they seem of little account to us, rather than ridicule or
evasion, will tend to keep alive this most precious heritage. Of
course it is not wise to encourage the scatter-brained boy or girl who
never thinks about the same thing for two minutes in succession.
One great function of the teacher is to help children to concentrate
upon the main issue, to show a child that his question is irrelevant to
the problem under consideration, and to guide him on the path which
makes thinking pleasant and profitable.
It would be a good thing for every teacher to ask herself whether
while under her direction the children whom she teaches are usually
mentally alert, thinking, asking questions, or whether they concern
themselves only with repeating the thoughts of others. If there be
any doubt with regard to the children’s natural aptitude, let her
observe them when out of school and contrast the result. Mental
laziness is a habit acquired in spite of our initial advantage, in spite
of our desire for knowledge and the pleasure which comes from
thinking. The school and the teacher must always be judged by their
success in keeping children awake mentally; for it is power to learn
rather than knowledge which counts in later years, and learning is
most of all dependent upon the initial impulses toward inquiry.
Ownership: Very early in the life of the child the idea of personal
ownership develops. There can be no doubt concerning the
importance of this instinct in its effect upon the achievements of
men, but we are concerned chiefly, in dealing with children, with one
aspect of this tendency which is commonly known as the collecting
instinct. This desire to have the most complete collection of buttons,
postage stamps, pictures, birds’ eggs, shells, arrowheads, or
whatever else it may be, may often be utilized to great advantage.
Illustrative material for work in history, geography, nature study, and
to some degree for other subjects can be had in this way. Such a
collection will mean not only a much greater interest in the work, but
also a livelier appreciation of the subject, more images upon which to
base its generalizations. I have never seen a class that learned more
geography in a short time than was mastered by a class who
followed the American fleet around the world, collecting pictures,
products, and stamps for each of the countries visited, and writing a
full account of the country visited to accompany these illustrations.
Another class made most interesting collections in connection with
their study of colonial history. It is a mistake to suppose that ready-
made collections will answer the same purpose. They may illustrate
better, but the added interest and enthusiasm growing out of the
exercise of the collecting instinct will be wanting.
The collecting instinct may be utilized in work which deals with
ideas rather than things. Children may be just as keen in collecting
ideas about a subject in which they are much interested as in making
their collection of stones, or birds. The transition from the one type of
collecting to the other is apparent, in collections which are interesting
mainly for the ideas which they suggest.
The Social Instinct: The school has often overemphasized the
individualistic point of view. Competition is a legitimate motive; but if
all of school life centers around this motive, the child has lost much
in the non-exercise of that peculiarly human instinct which demands
coöperation and sympathy. At the foundation of our society is the
idea of working together for the common good. Boys and girls who
are to be most useful to their fellows, who are to do the most for
society, i.e. those who are truly educated, must have kept alive and
developed this spirit, more than altruistic, which sees in the good of
society the greatest individual gain. In a later chapter this topic will
be dealt with in considerable detail; suffice it to say here that many
opportunities should be found for group projects, for service on the
part of each member of the group of the sort that he is particularly
qualified to render.
Wonder: The instinct of wonder or awe, closely related to or
possibly identified with the religious instinct, is one that our modern
critically scientific attitude tends to discourage. No one who has had
the experience can doubt the value of this element in mental life. To
wonder at the glory of the heavens will doubtless make more
difference in the lives of most men and women than the smattering
of astronomy they may acquire. The man who wonders at the
manifestation of the power of the forces of nature may get more real
joy out of life than he who feels that he has solved all of her
mysteries. We are not as a people remarkable for our reverence. It
may be well urged that our schools have often been responsible for
the opposite attitude. This instinct of wonder will thrive only in a
sympathetic atmosphere. No teacher can directly inculcate or
develop it. Only that teacher who has preserved and nurtured the
instinct in her own life can hope to be effective in keeping alive the
same spirit in children.
In the first chapter it was claimed that teachers should work to
develop the socially sympathetic, intelligent, and active individual,
and that the ends to be expected from any exercises might be
classified as habits, knowledge, interests, ideals or appreciations,
and methods of work. In our discussion of the native reactions of
children, we have endeavored to show that the possibilities of such
accomplishment are the common possession of normal children. It is
for the teacher who would accomplish these ends most economically
to discover the instinctive basis for the habit to be formed, the
knowledge to be acquired, interest to be awakened, or appreciation
to be aroused. The instinctive interests of children will furnish the
most powerful motives, and will serve as a basis for the most lasting
results. Even when the native reaction is undesirable, the successful
process may depend not merely upon negation, but upon a grafting
upon the original tendency of one that is socially desirable; or, in
other cases, the substitution of another reaction based upon some
other instinctive tendency. We may not always follow where instinct
seems to lead, but we can never ignore these native tendencies.
Whether we blindly ignore or attempt to work against nature, or
wisely utilize the instincts, the fact remains that all of our work is
conditioned by the native equipment.
It has become more or less the fashion in recent years to decry
the theory of those who discuss the teaching process from the
standpoint of the child’s native tendencies, and with due regard to
his interests. The reactionary who continually harks back to the good
old times is still with us. The term of ridicule most commonly used in
lieu of argument is “soft pedagogy.” We are told that the only way to
develop men and women of strength is to begin by making sure that
we make our appeal on the basis of our superior authority, or even
brute strength, instead of finding the foundation for our work in the
instinctive curiosity and tendency to mental activity with which
children come to us. It is presumed by those who argue on the side
of the importance of authority that, unless children are compelled by
others to do hard tasks, they will never attempt anything that
involves effort. Again, they interpret interest to mean the blind
following of the child’s instinctive tendencies.
In our previous discussion we endeavored to show that education
concerns itself quite as much with the inhibition of undesirable
tendencies as with the encouragement of those which lead to
desirable activity. The process is not one of following where children
lead, but rather of availing ourselves of the native tendencies in
order that the ends we desire to achieve may be accomplished with
the least waste of time or energy. In reality, the choice between the
two positions is not whether we will have regard for childish instincts
and capacities, but rather whether we shall approach our task from
the standpoint of one who has faith in an appeal to the lower motive
of fear, or whether we believe that children are best prepared for
later activity who work out their own problems.
The best teaching can never consist in driving pupils to tasks
which they do not understand and which have little significance for
them. The standard of efficiency is found in ability to present to the
child a need, a purpose, or a problem which solicits his attention. It
may be that we shall be but imperfectly able to accomplish this
result, but, nevertheless, this must be our ideal. And it is not for
reasons of sentiment that we adopt it. The learning process is
explained in this way only. We make a new adjustment, reconstruct
our experience only in a situation which makes such a demand upon

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Petroleum Refining Design and

Applications Handbook, Volume 4 A.

• Process Safety Incidents

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Heat Transfer, provided by Kayode Coker

Printed in the USA

The Laws of Creation

The Law of Motion

“It irritates people that the truth is so simple.”

“Truth means the congruence of a concept with its reality.”

“Truth is the revealing gloss of reality.”

“Truth is the spirit’s sun.”

(In the Light of Truth)

Love thy neighbour, which means honour him as such!

(In the Light of Truth)

Love & Gratitude

Effective Tube Length for U-Tube Heat Exchangers 107

HIS smartPM Software 213

Baffle Leakage Effects, JL335

Process Requirements 505

Process Data 564

21.1.1 Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology

FRONT END REAR END

CHANNEL INTEGRAL WITH TUBE- S

PULL THROUGH FLOATING HEAD

SPECIAL HIGH PRESSURE CLOSURE CROSS FLOW EXTERNALLY SEALED

The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts:

SEAL STRIP CHANNEL CHANNEL

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