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Cebir CheatSheet v1
Cebir CheatSheet v1
GROUPS
i. ∗ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ∀𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆
Binary Operation
ii. 𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏 =∗ �(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏)�
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ [𝑥𝑥]𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑 ∈ [𝑦𝑦]𝑛𝑛 . 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑏𝑏 ∗ 𝑑𝑑, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Well-Defined
∗ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 [ 𝑘𝑘]𝑛𝑛
ORDER
Order of Group |𝐺𝐺| = 𝑠𝑠(𝐺𝐺)
Finite Group 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 |𝐺𝐺| 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
i. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 = 1𝐺𝐺 ,
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔:
Order of Elements 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) = |𝑔𝑔| = 𝑚𝑚
ii. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖:
𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) = ∞
i. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑔𝑔𝑚𝑚 = 1𝐺𝐺 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓.
ii. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) = 𝑛𝑛, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔0 , 𝑔𝑔1 , 𝑔𝑔2 , … , 𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
iii. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) = ∞, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Properties … , 𝑔𝑔−2 , 𝑔𝑔−1 , 𝑔𝑔0 , 𝑔𝑔1 , 𝑔𝑔2 , … 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
iv. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 |𝐺𝐺| 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
v. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑔𝑔𝑘𝑘 = 1𝐺𝐺 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘 ≠ 0, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔)� 𝑘𝑘
vi. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑔𝑔𝑘𝑘 = 𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑙 , 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔)� 𝑘𝑘 − 𝑙𝑙
vii. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) = ∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑘𝑘 = 1𝐺𝐺 , 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑛𝑛
viii. 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔𝑘𝑘 ) =
gcd(𝑘𝑘,𝑛𝑛)
ix. 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑘𝑘, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 [𝑘𝑘]𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (ℤ𝑛𝑛 , +𝑛𝑛 )
𝑛𝑛
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜([𝑘𝑘]𝑛𝑛 ) =
gcd(𝑘𝑘, 𝑛𝑛)
x. 𝑜𝑜(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑜𝑜(𝑎𝑎−1 )
xi. 𝑜𝑜(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑜𝑜(𝑎𝑎)
xii. 𝑜𝑜(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) = 𝑜𝑜(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)
xiii. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑔𝑔2 = 1𝐺𝐺 , 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
Well Ordering
𝐴𝐴 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Principle
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑞𝑞 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟
Division Algorithm
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑟𝑟 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ |𝑏𝑏|
Euclidean Algorithm
i. 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈
ℤ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 gcd(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
ii. gcd(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) = 1 ⟺ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 1
iii. gcd(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
iv. gcd(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑑𝑑 ⇒ gcd � , � = 1
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
SUBGROUPS
Definition 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∅ ≠ 𝐻𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺𝐺 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝐺𝐺,∗) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝐻𝐻,∗) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝐺𝐺,∗)
Notation 𝐻𝐻 ≤ 𝐺𝐺
(𝐻𝐻,∗) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠;
i. ∅ ≠ 𝐻𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺𝐺
ii. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 (𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐻𝐻) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ∀𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐻𝐻
Theorem iii. 𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ∀𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝐻
Trivial Group {1𝐺𝐺 } 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺
{𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛 | 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ} =< 𝑔𝑔 > 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺. < 𝑔𝑔 >
Cyclic Subgroup
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔
𝐻𝐻 ∪ 𝐾𝐾 ≤ 𝐺𝐺 ⟺ 𝐻𝐻 ⊆ 𝐾𝐾 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐾𝐾 ⊆ 𝐻𝐻
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
CYCLIC GROUPS
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐻𝐻 = {𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 | 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ}, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 generator𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻.
Generator (Üreteç)
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵: < 𝑥𝑥 > = {𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 | 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ} , 𝐻𝐻 = < 𝑥𝑥 >
Cyclic Group
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐺𝐺 = {𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 | 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ}, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐺𝐺 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 “𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺”.
(Devirli Grup)
i. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐺𝐺 = < 𝑥𝑥 >, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜(𝑥𝑥) = |𝐺𝐺|
(𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ü𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒ş𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
ii. 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
iii. 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
Theorems iii. 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
iv. 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
v. 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) = 𝑛𝑛, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 𝑔𝑔 > = { 𝑔𝑔0 , 𝑔𝑔1 , 𝑔𝑔2 , … , 𝑔𝑔𝑛𝑛−1 }
vi. 𝑜𝑜(𝑔𝑔) = ∞, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 𝑔𝑔 > = {… , 𝑔𝑔−2 , 𝑔𝑔−1 , 𝑔𝑔0 , 𝑔𝑔1 , 𝑔𝑔2 , … }
vii. ℤ𝑛𝑛 = < [𝑘𝑘]𝑛𝑛 >, gcd(𝑘𝑘, 𝑛𝑛) = 1
viii. 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (ℤ, +) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛ℤ = {𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 |𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℤ} 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 > 0
ix. 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑇𝑇(𝑛𝑛) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛. 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛,
𝐺𝐺 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑. 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐺𝐺 = < 𝑔𝑔 >
𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑|𝑛𝑛, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 𝑔𝑔𝑑𝑑 > 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑
Euler Function 𝜑𝜑(𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 ) = 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘−1 (𝑝𝑝 − 1) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜑𝜑(𝑝𝑝) = 𝑝𝑝 − 1
COSETS AND LAGRANGE THEOREM
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝐻𝐻 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐺𝐺.
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≔ {𝑎𝑎ℎ |ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝐻}. 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 (𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍) 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
Definition 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎)
WORDS
Subgroup of G
Generated
Properties
Set Product
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺. 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒;
Theorem
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ≤ 𝐺𝐺 ⟺ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺. 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒;
Theorem |𝐻𝐻|. |𝐾𝐾|
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 =
|𝐻𝐻 ∩ 𝐾𝐾|
𝐺𝐺� ≔ {𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 |𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺} 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑁𝑁 ⊲ 𝐺𝐺. (𝐺𝐺� ,∙) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎:
Quotient Group 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔). (ℎ𝑁𝑁) = 𝑁𝑁(𝑔𝑔ℎ) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝐺𝐺
Properties of i. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒: 𝑁𝑁 = 1𝐺𝐺 𝑁𝑁
Quotient Group ii. 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒: 𝑔𝑔−1 𝑁𝑁
GROUP HOMOMORPHISM
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝐺𝐺,∗) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝐻𝐻,⊡) 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔. 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Definition 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠:
𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑏𝑏) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎) ⊡ 𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏)
Identity Map 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = 𝑔𝑔 (𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺)
Isomorphic
Groups
Chinese
Remainder
Theorem
First
Isomorphism
Theorem
Second
Isomorphism
Theorem
Third
Isomorphism
Theorem
Properties
Invariant
Under
Isomorphism
SYMMETRIC GROUPS
Definition 𝑆𝑆𝑋𝑋 = {𝑓𝑓: 𝑋𝑋 → 𝑋𝑋 |𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏}, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑆𝑆𝑋𝑋 ,∘) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Cayley’s
Theorem
Properties |𝑋𝑋| = |𝑌𝑌|, 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑆𝑋𝑋 ≅ 𝑆𝑆𝑌𝑌
Notations
k-cycle
Transpositions
Alterneting
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛
Group