4.
1 Micro-organisms
➢ Micro-organisms are tiny living to be seen
with the naked eye.
➢ The definition of a micro-organism is an
organism that can only be seen with the aid
of a microscope.
➢ Groups of organisms that are classified as
microorganisms include bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, moulds, yeast etc.
❖ Bactria :- are unicellular and prokaryotic
organisms.
✓ They have cellular structures like cell wall,
cell membrane, cytoplasm and genetic
materials.
✓ Some bacteria have additional structures like
flagella (for movement) and capsule (for
protection).
✓ They have varied mode of nutrition. Some
are authotrophic while others are
heterotrophic.
✓ They reproduce asexually by binary fission.
✓ Most bacteria are harmless and useful, while
some of them are harmful, since they produce
toxic substances into the body and cause
diseases.
✓ They can be classified in to four groups based
on their shape.
✓ These are cocci (spherical shaped), bacilli
(rod shaped), spirilli (spiral shaped) and vibro
(comma shaped).
❖ Useful aspects of Bacteria
✓ Making of cheese and yoghurt.
✓ Making of vaccines and antibiotics.
✓ Tanning of leather in leather industries.
✓ Increase the soil fertility by their
decomposition effects.
• The harmful aspect of bacteria includes
causing diseases and food spoilage.
Viruses: - are considered to be intermediate
between living and non-living things.
✓ This is because viruses act as living thing and
reproduce only inside the host cell.
✓ They are obligate parasites.
✓ They have either DNA or RNA as genetic
material.
✓ Viruses cause some diseases, all known
species of virus cause diseases.
✓ E.g. HIV/AIDS, Corona, influenza, rabies
etc.
Fungi: living organisms which obtain their food
from other dead or living organisms.
✓ Yeast is a single celled fungus which plays
an important role in facilitating our life.
✓ They have cellular structures like cell wall,
cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
✓ They are heterotrophic (don’t make their own
food).
✓ They reproduce asexually by budding.
✓ At anaerobic condition yeast carryout alcoholic
fermentation, so that they are important for
making alcoholic drinks like wine, beer, tella,
tej etc.
𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
✓ C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP
✓ Moulds – are made up of thread like
filaments called hyphae.
✓ A mass of hyphae together forms a dense
mass called mycelium.
✓ They reproduce asexually by spore
formation.
o The Germ Theory of Diseases
➢ Germs are responsible for some diseases.
➢ In the past time before the discovery of
microorganisms, people had various thoughts
about the cause of diseases.
➢ Some of these include anger by their God,
curse, evil spirit, bad air etc.
➢ In the 17thcentury a Dutchman, Anton van
Leeuwenhoek, designed the first microscope.
✓ He also introducing heating of milk and other
food stuffs followed by rapid cooling to
kill/weaken infectious diseases and this
method is called pasteurization.
✓ Robert Koch improved microscopes so much
in the 19th century that people could see the
tiny organisms which we now know are
bacteria clearly for the first time.
✓ It was the work of the Frenchman Louis
Pasteur in the later part of the 19th century
which finally resulted in the widespread
acceptance of the germ theory of disease.
✓ At that time many people believed that living
things could arise from non-living things
spontaneously.
✓ This was called spontaneous generation
theory.
✓ Pasteur was convinced that any growths that
appeared came from microscopic organisms
already present in the air.
✓ First, he showed that the theory of
spontaneous generation was wrong.
✓ Then he showed that if he boiled broth and
sealed the container, the broth would stay
clear until he introduced material which had
been exposed to the air.
✓ At this point micro-organisms grew and the
broth turned cloudy.
✓ Finally, he designed some experiments to
identify the micro-organisms that caused a
number of diseases in people and animals,
including anthrax, rabies and diphtheria.
✓ He found ways of weakening or killing the
microbes and made vaccines against the
diseases.
✓ Pasteur’s work showed everyone that
infectious diseases are caused by micro-
organisms.
✓ He also introduced the technique of heating
and boiling milk and other food staffs to kill
germs, and this is called pasteurization.
❖ Control of microorganisms
➢ There are microbiological techniques that are
used to control the microorganisms.
➢ These includes sterilization, disinfection
and antiseptics.
1. Sterilization: is a process which involves the
overall removal of all life forms from any
objects or materials.
➢ This method includes autoclaving, ultrahigh
temperature, dry heat and pasteurization.
➢ Autoclave sterilization- is used to sterilize
equipments which are not damaged by heat
(for bacterial spores).
➢ It involves killing of bacterial spores by
boiling them in water at 121oc under high
pressure for 15-45 minutes.
➢ Ultrahigh temperature (UHT)- is used to
kill microorganisms found on food.This is
done by heating the food within the
temperature range from 135oc to 150oc for 2
to 6 seconds.
➢ It is highly used in food processing
industries.
➢ Dry heat sterilization- is used to sterilize
scientific equipments.
➢ It requires high temperature and longer
exposure time.
➢ It involves heating for 1 hour at 171oc or for
2 hours at 160oc.
➢ Pasteurization- it involves boiling or heating
of milk, beer or other food stuffs at 63oc for
30 minutes, or at 71.6oc for 15 minutes.
➢ This involves heating followed by rapid
cooling.
2. Disinfectants: are chemicals that are used to
kill microorganisms on inanimate/non-living
surfaces (objects).
➢ This method is discovered by Joseph Lister.
➢ Some examples of disinfectants include
dilute bleach, calcium hypochlorite, house
hold bleach, phenol (carbolic acid), iodine,
chlorine, formalin, alcohols etc.
3. Antiseptics: are chemicals that can be used
(applied) on animate (living) tissues like skin.
➢ It helps to prevent the entrance of germs
when our skin gets injury (wound).
❖ Growing microorganisms
➢ Microorganisms can be grown in laboratories
under controlled conditions.
➢ The growing of microorganisms is important
for the following purposes.
✓ To identify their harmful and useful
aspects
✓ To know how to kill them
✓ To develop vaccines and medicines
✓ To develop our biological knowledge etc.
➢ For growing microorganisms biologists need
to fulfill the following precautions.
✓ Isolating the type of microorganisms to be
studied
✓ Developing suitable nutrients and
✓ Suitable environmental conditions.
➢ Nutrient medium: a collection of nutrients
required for growth of microorganisms.
➢ It can be solid or liquid.
➢ Agar: is a solid nutrient medium which is
extracted from red algae.
➢ It contains all the nutrients required to grow
microorganisms in petri dish.
➢ Broth: is a liquid nutrient medium used to
grow microorganisms in a test tube.
➢ Culture media: is a collection of nutrients
and microbial cells into a nutrient medium.
➢ Inoculation: is a technique of transferring
microorganism sample into a nutrient
medium.
➢ Inoculating loop (needle): should be
sterilized (incinerated) to avoid
contamination of the sample.
➢ Inoculating solid nutrient medium containing
dish in a Zig-Zag needle form to avoid
competition.
❖ Simple staining Bacteria
➢ Gram staining technique helps us to identify
bacteria int two large groups (Gram positive
and Gram negative).
➢ Gram staining follows the following
procedures.
1. Stain all bacteria with crystal violet and
leave for 45 seconds.
2. Add Gram’s iodine and leave it for about 45
seconds, so that it will form violet-iodine
complex.
3. Add 95% ethanol solution do decolorize the
stains and leave for about 5 seconds, so that
some bacteria get decolorize whilst others
keep their stain (crystal-iodine complex).
4. Add counter stain (safranin) and leave for 45
seconds, and wash it with distilled water.
5. Observe the cells under a microscope.
➢ Note: some bacteria retain the first stain
(crystal iodine complex-purple color) and
they are called Gram’s positive bacteria.
➢ Others decolorized and retain the counter
stain (safranin-red color) and they are called
Gram’s negative bacteria.
➢ This difference among bacteria is because of
difference in the nature of cell wall.
▪ 4.2. diseases
➢ Disease is any form of abnormality or
disorder in/on the body that distorts its
normal functioning.
➢ Disease is caused by infectious
microorganisms or other causes like
deficiency of nutrients, genetic disorder,
injury etc.
➢ Some of the most commonly known diseases
which are caused by pathogenic
microorganisms will be discussed as follows.
➢ Note: pathogens- are microorganisms that
cause diseases.
A. Bacterial Diseases
➢ Most bacteria are harmless and useful; however,
some are harmful (pathogenic).
1. Tuberculosis (TB)-is caused by a
bacterium called Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
✓ It can be easily transmitted by droplet
infection.
✓ It highly affects immunocompromised
persons (person having weak immunity).
✓ Symptoms- loss of weight and appetite
• Persistent cough
• Sputum with the blood
• Slight fever
➢ Its spread is related to: -
• The spread of HIV/AIDS
• Development of resistance varieties of
bacterium against drugs
• It is common problem in Ethiopia
➢ Control and prevention methods
• Good nutritional state
• Good ventilation
• Personal hygiene and environmental
sanitation
• Pasteurization of milk
• Effective use of drug and vaccination
• Covering mouth and nose during
coughing and sneezing
2. Cholera-it is caused by a bacterium
called Vibro cholera.
➢ Transmission- eating or drinking
contaminated food or water with fecal waste.
➢ It affects the intestine.
➢ Symptoms: - sometimes asymptomatic
• Diarrhea, vomiting and dehydration
• Pale watery diarrhea is severe symptom
that can kill.
• Muscle scraps
• It largely affects travelers, people who
are in some sort of disorder, festival or
big celebration.
➢ Control and prevention
• Taking plenty of fluid
• Using antibiotics and vaccines
• Proper disposal of feace
• Good personal hygiene and
environmental sanitation
• Avoid consumption of uncooked foods
• Treatment of drinking water
3. Typhoid
➢ It is caused by a bacterium called Salmonella
typhi.
➢ It affects intestinal tracts and blood stream.
➢ Transmission: - it can be transmitted
through the consumption of polluted water
and food, and vegetables which are infected
with feaces and urine of infected persons.
➢ Symptoms: - abdominal pain, sore throat,
headache, high fever, diarrhea, spots on chest
and abdomen, enlargement of spleen etc.
➢ Control and prevention
➢ Proper disposal of feaces, treatment of water,
cooking foods and vegetables.
B. Protozoan diseases
1. Malaria
➢ It is caused by a protozoan called
plasmodium.
➢ Transmitted by a vector insect called female
anopheles mosquito.
➢ Vector- is an agent for transmission of
diseases but not cause diseases by itself.
➢ Plasmodium parasitizes the blood and liver of
an infected person.
➢ Symptoms: - fever, chills, sweat and unable
to work.
➢ Control and prevention
➢ Avoid contact with mosquitoes by using net
over beds
➢ Fixing screens on windows
➢ Using mosquito repellants
➢ Minimizing mosquitoes breeding by draining
swamps and covering water tanks.
➢ Killing adult mosquitoes by insecticides
➢ Biological control by using fish that feed on
mosquito larvae.
➢ Malaria kills millions of peoples each year
in sub-Saharan countries, including
Ethiopia.
2. Amoebic dysentery
➢ It is caused by a protozoan species called
Entamoeba hystolytica.
➢ It is transmitted by eating and drinking
contaminated food and water.
➢ House fly may infect the food and water.
➢ Symptoms: - ulceration of large intestine,
diarrhea with loss of blood and abdominal pain.
➢ Control and prevention
➢ Proper disposal of feaces
➢ Effective treatment of drinking water
➢ Prevent infective food handles (house fly)
➢ Personal hygiene and sanitation
➢ Hygienic food handling
➢ Amoebic dysentery is very common disease in
Ethiopia.
C. Parasitic worms
➢ parasitic worms are known to cause various
diseases to human.
➢ Tape worm- it is a flat worm that parasitizes
the wall of intestine of human.
➢ Taeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection
caused by the tapeworm species Taenia
saginata (beef tapeworm), Taenia
solium (pork/pig tapeworm), and Taenia
asiatica (Asian tapeworm).
➢ Humans can become infected with these
tapeworms by eating raw/undercooked beef
(T. saginata) or pork (T. solium and T.
asiatica).
➢ Symptoms are usually mild or nonexistent.
➢ T. solium tapeworm infections can lead
to cysticercosis, which is a disease that can
cause seizures.
➢ Symptoms: - mostly asymptomatic.
➢ Segments of tape worms in the feaces, weight
loss, seizures, feeling of weakness due to
pernicious anemia.
➢ Pernicious anemia: - is caused by lack of
vitamin B12.
➢ Control and prevention: - using antiworm
drugs
➢ Proper disposal of feaces
➢ Efficient inspection of meat
➢ Avoid eating raw and undercooked meat.
➢ Life cycle
➢ Oncospheres- are structures that are released
from the segment and penetrate through the
walls of small intestine of the cattle and then
to the blood, fatty tissues and muscles.
➢ They develop into cysts.
➢ The cysts develop into scolex which has
suckers and hooks to attach to the walls of the
intestine.
➢ The raw meat which contains the cysts attach
into the walls of small intestine of human and
begins to grow.
➢ After it attaches itself into the intestinal wall
it starts develop new segments called
proglottids.
➢ Proglottids have male and female organs.
➢ It is common disease in Ethiopia.
D. Gastroenteritis/acute watery diarrhoea
(AWD)
➢ It is an intestinal infection which is caused by
different groups of pathogenic
microorganisms such as viruses (rotaviruses),
bacteria (Salmonella and Escherichia coli),
Amoeba etc.
➢ It is characterized by acute watery diarrhea
(AWD).
➢ It may result in excessive loss of the body
fluid.
➢ Symptoms: - watery diarrhea, slight fever,
abdominal pain, muscle ache and headache.
➢ Control and prevention
➢ Good personal hygiene (washing hands
thoroughly), treatment of water, cleaning
food and equipments, avoid eating
undercooked or raw food, good nutritional
state for the patients of AWD.
➢ It is common disease in Ethiopia.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
➢ STDs are diseases that transmitted by
unprotected (unsafe) sexual contacts.
➢ They are also known as venereal diseases
(VD).
➢ Most STDs are very dangerous because they
are asymptomatic (no symptoms).
➢ STDs may cause severe damage to different
organs of the body including heart & brain
damage and infertility.
➢ The most vulnerable age groups are younger
peoples (18-30).
➢ The most commonly STDs are gonorrhea,
chancroid, syphilis, HIV/AIDS etc.
1. Gonorrhea
➢ It is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria
gonorrhea.
➢ Transmission- by unsafe sexual contacts.
➢ From mother to child during birth
➢ Symptoms- in men
➢ Burning sensation while urination
➢ Yellowish white discharge from the penis
within a week after infection.
➢ In women
➢ Mostly asymptomatic
➢ Discharge from vagina
➢ Burning during sensation
➢ May result in blindness of baby if pregnant
women are not well treated.
➢ Control and prevention
➢ At early stage it can be treated by antibiotics.
➢ Respecting the ABC rules;
• A- Abstain from any sexual
intercourse
• B- Be faithful to one sexual partner
• C- Condom using
➢ Visit the clinics or hospitals when someone
suspects as infected.
➢ Until the treatment is completed, avoid
sexual intercourse.
2. Syphilis
➢ It is caused by a bacterium called Treponema
palladium.
➢ Transmission- unprotected sexual contacts.
➢ Congenital syphilis spreads from the mother
to the fetus and causes severe complications
to the new born baby.
➢ Symptoms- it has three major stages of
symptoms.
I. Priary stage: - the first 6 weeks
➢ Painless sore at the site of initial infection
(around genital organs).
➢ Swollen of glands.
II. Secondary stage: - occur 6 weeks after
the primary stage.
➢ Tiredness, sore throat, headache, hoarseness,
loss of appetite, patchy hair loss, swollen
glands, rash etc.
➢ Lasts for two to six weeks.
III. Tertiary stage: - appeared after years
➢ It results in severe complicated & irreversible
problems such as illness of the skin, bones,
brain & spinal cord and heart.
➢ It can be transmitted from infected pregnant
mother to her baby and may cause deformity
or death of child.
➢ Control and prevention: -
➢ Respecting ABC rules
➢ Visit a clinic or hospital of locality
➢ Prenatal blood test for pregnant women
➢ The infected person must avoid sexual
intercourse until the treatment is completed.
3. Chancroids
➢ It is caused by a bacterium called
Hemophilus ducreyi.
➢ It is the most common problem of men.
➢ It increases the risk/spread of HIV/AIDS.
➢ Symptoms: - first stage involves
➢ Ulceration of genitals, particularly on the
penis which are filled with soft pus.
➢ Bleeding of ulcers and bursting of pus.
➢ Painful ulcer.
➢ Second stage: - involves
➢ Swollen glands which are filled with pus.
➢ When the swollen burst, it may cause large
and painful ulcer.
➢ Permanent loss of penis or groin.
➢ Control and prevention: -
➢ Respecting ABC rules.
➢ Good genital hygiene
➢ Circumcision of males reduces the risk.
➢ visit clinic/health centers in the locality.
➢ Using medicines
➢ Traditional practices- are important
alternative forms of medicines.
➢ They do have holistic effect on treating the
patients.
➢ Limiting their dosage is very important.
➢ Modern medicines- are responsible for
curing various diseases.
➢ The most common examples of modern
medicines include antibiotics and use of
vaccines.
➢ When we use modern medicines, the
following precautions should be considered;
➢ Do not take more/less than prescribed
➢ Surer you finish taking all the medicines
➢ Do not use drug which is not prescribed
➢ Carefully observe the expiry date of the drugs
before use
o 4.3. HIV and AIDS
➢ The medicinal term for AIDS is Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
➢ This is because it weakens or destroys the
immune system.
➢ AIDS is caused by HIV (Human Immune
Virus).
➢ Since the virus destroys the immune
system, it makes the body to suffer with
other opportunistic infections like TB.
➢ Tuberculosis attacks the body which is in
weak immune state.
➢ Transmission:
➢ Unprotected sexual intercourse ➢ This can be done through educating and
➢ From mother to child in the womb during creating awareness in the society.
birth and breast feeding.
Voluntary Counseling and Testing/VCTs
➢ By sharing needles and sharp materials
➢ During transfusion of infected blood. ➢ VCTs are important in educating and
o HIV and AIDS In Ethiopia informing people about HIV/AIDS.
➢ HIV/AIDS is a major problem in Ethiopia. ➢ This can be
➢ Globally around 3.3 million people are ➢ Pre-Test counseling – is a counselling
infected by HIV/AIDS. service which is given before the testing.
➢ Among 90% of them are in sub–Saharan ➢ Post-Test counselling – after testing aware
African countries including Ethiopia. about the future whatever the result is.
➢ The highest rate of infection is on younger
people who are in between 18-45 years old.
➢ Thus, it has a huge impact on economy,
(effects the working age group).
➢ The prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS is higher in
cities than rural areas.
Hiv And the Immune System
➢ HIV weakens the immune system by
destroying/killing T-cells.
➢ Normally our body has two types of cells that
help our immune system.
➢ These are T- cells and B-cells.
➢ T-cells – /killer cells are cells that recognize
and bind/attach to a cell carrying a foreign
antigen and destroy/kill it.
➢ B-cells- are cells that recognize and attach to
a foreign antigen.
➢ They reproduce and form many identical
copies which all secrete antibodies to destroy
the antigen and memory cells.
Stigma and Discrimination
➢ Stigma is a mark of disgrace on people with
HIV/AIDS.
➢ Discrimination is an act of neglecting
someone from the group or others.
➢ These acts are the most serious cases that
affect people living with HIV/AIDS.
➢ These includes;
➢ People do not allow to give them a job
➢ Do not allow them to share rooms, dining
tables etc.
➢ Neglect from school ...
➢ All these acts are improper and unethical.
➢ Thus, we have to fight against stigma and
discrimination.
➢ Instead, we have to care and love PLWHA.
5.1. Principle of classification
✓ Our world is the home for variety of living
things.
✓ It is estimated that there are millions of
species of organisms, among which only 1.5
million species are identified.
✓ Therefore, it is important to classify
organisms;
1. To simplify their study.
2. To bring order out of chaos or confusion.
3. To try to understand how life originated.
The classification system
✓ It is the system of grouping organisms based
on their similarities and differences.
✓ Taxonomy: - is the branch of biology that
deals about the classification of organisms.
✓ Aristotle: - he is a Greek philosopher who is
attempted to classify organisms for the first
time in the 400 B.C.
✓ First, he grouped living things into two
groups- plants and animals.
✓ Again, he classified animals into three
groups;
▪ Animals that can fly
▪ Animals that live in water
▪ Animals that live on the land
✓ Plants also classified into three groups based
on their size and pattern of growth;
▪ Tall plants (Trees)
▪ Medium plants (shrubs)
▪ Small plants (herbs)
✓ The modern classification method;
✓ It is introduced by a Swedish botanist Carl
Linnaeus.
✓ He classifies organisms based on their
evolutionary relationship, and it is called the
natural classification system.
✓ The modern classification method involves
the following categorization system.
✓ Species --- genus --- family --- order --- class
--- phylum/division --- kingdom
✓ Species is a simplest hierarchy of
classification which consists organisms that
can interbreed successfully and can produce
fertile offspring.
Naming of living tnings
✓ Carl Linnaeus device a scientific name for
organisms which consists of two names.
✓ The first name is the genus name which is
followed by species name.
✓ This naming system is called Binomial
Nomenclature.
✓ This naming system follows the following
rules.
▪ The first name is a genus name, and starts
with capital letter.
▪ The second name is species name, and all
written in small letters.
▪ The two names are written in italic style
or underlined in hand writing.
✓ Scientific names are needed in study of
organisms to have a common understanding
by replacing the common names used by
different languages.
✓ Common names – are names given to
organisms by different languages.
✓ Examples of scientific names of some
organisms are summarized in the table
below.
Common Scientific Genus’s Species
name name name name
Domestic Felis Falis domesticus
cat domesticus
Dog Canis Canis familiaris
familiaris
 Human Homo Homo Sapiens ✓ Reproduce asexually by fragmentation and
being sapiens binary fission.
Kosso Hygenia Hygenia abysinica ✓ Some of them are harmful and cause
Tree abysinica diseases.
Lion Panthera leo Panthera Leo ✓ E.g., tuberculosis, pneumonia, gonorrhea
✓ Others are useful for humans.
Leopard Panthera Panthera Pardus ✓ E.g., medicines, vaccines, decomposers
pardus 2. Kingdom Protista
✓ The Protista are all microscopic single-celled
Maize Zea mays Zea Mays
organisms that do have a nucleus – they are
Table 5.1 examples of scientific names
eukaryotic cells.
Hierarchy Human Teff Mushroom ✓ They are quite complex in their shapes.
Kingdom Animalia Plantae Fungi ✓ They include plant-like organisms and
Phylum or Chordata Angeosper- Basidiomycota animal-like organisms.
division Mophyta ✓ Protista make up much of the plankton found
Class Mammalia Liliopsid Basidiorhycete in the oceans and are the basis of the food
s supply for all organisms in sea.
Order Primates Cyperales Agaricales ✓ Some Protista cause serious disease in human
Family Hominida Poaceae Agaricaceae beings.
e ✓ Examples of harmful Protista include
Genus Homo Eragrostis Agaris Plasmodium falciparum, which causes
Species sapiens Teff Campestris malaria, Entamoeba histolytica, which causes
Table 5.2 Hierarchy of groups amoebic dysentery, and Trypanosoma, the
The Five Kingdom System blood parasite that causes sleeping sickness.
✓ It is he most accepted scheme of ✓ Dinoflagellates are Protista that cause
classification which is introduced by an bioluminescence in the seas and oceans when
American biologist R.H. Whittaker in 1969. they produce a greenish light.
✓ A kingdom is the largest taxon and consists 3. Kingdom Fungi
of all the other taxa in the modern ✓ They are eukaryotic and mostly multicellular.
classification ✓ They have heterotrophic mode of nutrition
✓ The five-kingdom system consists of the (mostly decomposition).
following major kingdoms. ✓ They can be parasitic, saprophytic or
1. Kingdom Monera mutualists.
2. Kingdom Protista ✓ Digestion takes place outside their body; first
3. Kingdom Fungi digest then ingest.
4. Kingdom Plantae ✓ They have rigid cell wall a nitrogen
5. Kingdom Animalia containing polysaccharide called chitin.
1. Kingdom Monera– consists of prokaryotic ✓ They store carbohydrate in the form of
and unicellular organisms. glycogen.
✓ They are the most plentiful organisms.kik ✓ Parasitic fungi: - feed on living tissues
✓ They live almost everywhere. plants and animals.
✓ E.g., bacteria and blue green algae ✓ E.g., Candida albican- thrush fungi, Tenea
✓ The most common characteristics of pedis- athletes foot fungi, mildew- plant
kingdom Monera includes; parasite.
✓ Prokaryotic and unicellular ✓ Saprophytic fungi: - they feed on dead
✓ Either heterotrophic or heterotrophic materials.
✓ Most of them have cell wall
✓ They are decomposers which play a role in
recycling of matter in an ecosystem.
✓ Mutualist fungi: - they live in close
association with other organisms.
✓ E.g., lichen – mutualistic association
between algae and fungi.
✓ Mycorrhizae: - an association between fungi
and roots of plants.
✓ Kingdom fungi consists of three major phyla:
✓ These are phylum Zygomycota, phylum
Ascomycota and phylum Basidiomycota.
✓ Note: Yeasts are the only unicellular fungi
which are important in making injera & bread
and alcohol production.
4. Kingdom Plantae
✓ The main characteristics of plants are;
✓ They have eukaryotic cells.
✓ They are multicellular organisms.
✓ They have chloroplast and carryout
photosynthesis (they are autotrophic).
✓ They are predominantly land dwelling.
✓ They have cell wall made up of cellulose.
✓ They reproduce sexually and asexually.
✓ The plant kingdom consists of the
following divisions;
1. Division Bryophyta (mosses and liver
worts)
2. Division Pteridophyte (ferns)
3. Division Gymnosperms (conifers)
4. Division Angiosperms (flowering plants)
✓ Division bryophyta (mosses and liver
worts)
✓ They are simplest green land plants.
✓ They have no true leaf, stem and root.
✓ They are non-vascular plants.
✓ They have simple leaves.
✓ They have simple root like structures called
rhizoid which is used for absorption of
water.
✓ They are small, the largest species is less than
60 cm tall, and are found in damp places.
✓ They are commonly found in rainforests and
high-altitude mountains.
✓ The best examples of bryophytes are mosses
like Etodon concinnus, found in the Bale
Mountains, and Funaria spp.
Division pteridophyte (Ferns)
✓ They have large prominent leaves called
fronds, and horizontal underground stem
called rhizome which bears roots.
✓ They have true leave, stem and root.
✓ They have vascular tissue (xylem & phloem).
✓ Their spores are produced in the fronds and
their spores are dispersed by wind.
✓ They live in damp shady places and very
common in tropical rainforest.
✓ They reproduce by alternation of
generation.
✓ The sporophyte stage is well developed
while their gametophyte stage is reduced.
✓ The next two divisions of the plants are the
seed-bearing plants or spermatophytes.
✓ These are the most successful of all land
plants.
✓ Spermatophytes are the most successful
because of the following characteristic
features that they possess:
▪ They have well-developed roots, stem
and leaves.
▪ They have well-developed vascular
tissues.
▪ The male gametes are contained within
pollen grains and the female gamete is
contained within the embryo sac.
▪ The product of fertilization in sexual
reproduction is a seed that may or may
not be enclosed in a fruit.
▪ The spermatophyta are divided into two
divisions, namely, gymnospermae and
angiospermae.
Division gymnospermae (non-flowering
plants)
✓ The gymnosperms are higher plants that have
well developed root, stem and leave.
✓ They have well developed vascular tissue
✓ They have unprotected ovules by ovary, and
they form necked seeds which are not
enclosed with fruits.
✓ Note: ovule is a part of flower which
develops into seed and ovary is developed to
fruit.
✓ Their leaves are mostly needle shaped and Have true secondary Have true secondary
ever green. growth, with vascular growth, with
✓ Their reproductive structure is found in a cambium, absent vascular cambium,
structure called cone. present
✓ Male cone and female cone are found on They are mostly They are mostly
herbaceous woody and some
different part of the plant.
herbaceous
✓ They are heterosporous (microspores and e.g., teff, wheat, maize e.g., roses, peanut,
megaspores). bean
✓ Microspores – are male gametophytes.
✓ Megaspores – are female gametophytes. 5. Kingdom Animalia
✓ E.g., Juniperus procera (tsid), Podocarpus ✓ It consists of multicellular, eukaryotic and
falcutus (zigba) heterotrophic organisms.
✓ The largest groups of gymnosperms are ✓ Their body have complex organ systems.
conifers. ✓ They have no chloroplast and cell wall.
Division angiospermae (flowering plants) ✓ They feed by ingesting the food materials.
✓ They are higher plants that possess true root, ✓ They reproduce sexually and some asexually.
leave stem and flower. ✓ They exhibit locomotion (movement).
✓ They are the most successful land plants. ✓ They have nerve system and sensitive to their
✓ They produced seed covered by fruits. surroundings (environments).
✓ They possess well developed vascular tissues ✓ Kingdom animalia consists of 33 phyla, but
(xylem and phloem). here we shall only consider the main ones.
✓ They have highly developed sexual and ▪ Porifera (sponges)
asexual mode of reproduction. ▪ Coelenterata (cidaria)
✓ Their ovules are protected by ovary and the ▪ Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
ovules develop into seed while the ovary ▪ Nematoda (roundworms or
develops into fruit. nemathelminthes)
✓ Angiosperms are divided into two classes; ▪ Annelida (segmented worms)
monocots and dicots. ▪ Mollusca (soft-bodied animals)
✓ The comparision of the two classes are ▪ Echinodermata (spiny-skinned
summarized in the table below. animals)
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons ▪ Arthropoda (joint-footed animals) •
Have one cotyledon Have two Chordata
cotyledons ✓ Animals can be grouped into vertebrates and
Have needle shaped Have broad leaves invertebrates.
narrow leaves ✓ Vertebrates: - are animals with back bone.
Have parallel venation Have net venation
These includes phylum chordates.
Stem contains vascular Stem contains
✓ Invertebrates: - are animals without back
bundles in scattered form vascular bundles in
ring form bone.
Have fibrous or Have tap root ✓ Except phylum chordata, all animal phyla
adventitious root system system are invertebrates.
▪ Phylum Porifera (sponges): -
Floral parts are arranged in Floral parts are ✓ They are the simplest of all invertebrates.
3’s or multiple of three arranged in 4’s, 5’s ✓ They are multicellular and eukaryotic.
or multiples of 4 and ✓ They have central body cavity and supportive
5 structures called Spicules.
✓ They have little coordination and control.
✓ They lack nervous system.
✓ They have hallowed filter feeders.
✓ Only young can move by flagellar structures
and feed by engulfing food.
✓ Most of them are hermaphroditic.
✓ Note: hermaphroditism is the condition of
having both male and female reproductive
organs.
✓ They are evolutionary dead and have no close
living relatives.
▪ Phylum Coelentarata (cnidaria)
✓ Their bodies are composed of two layers,
namely Ectoderm (outer layer) and endoderm
(inner layer).
✓ They are beautiful creatures and some are
poisonous.
✓ They have soft body with a ring of tentacles
for capturing preys.
✓ They have stinging cells on their tentacles for
poisoning or immobilizing prey and
predators.
✓ They have only one opening which is mouth.
✓ They are radially symmetrical.
✓ Radially symmetry is a body that can be
divided into many halves which are mirror
images of one another.
✓ E.g., Sea anemones, hydra, jelly fish and
coral
▪ Phylum Nematoda (nemathelminthes)
(round worm)
✓ Have unsegmented body and organ system.
✓ They have cylindrical body.
✓ Their body is covered with cuticles which
helps them to resist drought and unfavorable
conditions.
✓ They have complete digestive system.
✓ Have bilaterally symmetrical body.
✓ Bilaterally symmetry is a body that can be
divided into two halves that are mirror
images of one another.
✓ Have no circulatory system.
✓ They found almost everywhere.
✓ They are the very important for healthy soil.
✓ They are the most numerous animals.
✓ E.g., Filaria, Ascaris
▪ Phylum Annelida (Segmented worms)
✓ They have segmented body with structures
and organs repeated along the body.
✓ They are hermaphrodites, with male and
female reproductive organs.
✓ They are triploblastic, (ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm).
✓ Triploblastic - Having a body derived from
three embryonic cell layers (ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm), as in all
multicellular animals except sponges and
coelenterates.
✓ Have complete digestive system and well
developed ganglionic nervous system.
✓ Have closed circulatory system.
✓ They have locomotory structures called
Chaetae or Parapodia projections found on
every segment.
✓ Chaetae are tiny hair like structures.
✓ They are free living which found in mist soil
and water.
✓ They are important to increase soil fertility
and medicinal leech.
✓ E.g., Earth worm, Leech, Hirudo spp
▪ Phylum Mollusca
✓ They are unsegmented spotted body which
are covered by shells, some are shell-less.
✓ Their body is divided into head, foot and
visceral mass.
✓ They are triploblastic (ectoderm, mesoderm,
endoderm).
✓ They are coelomates (i.e., have true body
cavity) consisting of reproductive structures,
kidney, and heart.
✓ They breath by using gills.
✓ Some have tentacles, e.g., octopus.
✓ They are the most intelligent of all
invertebrates and have wide range of
lifestyles.
✓ They live in the sea, or in fresh water or on
land.
✓ E.g., snail, squid, octopus
▪ Phylum Echinodermata
✓ They are spiny skinned animals.
✓ They are triploblastic.
✓ Have mouth, gut and anus.
✓ They have tube feet for locomotion and
obtaining food.
✓ All are marine animals.
✓ The adults have five arms, but the larval
stages do not.
✓ E.g., Asteris, (starfish), Echinus, (sea urchin)
and Paracucumana tricolor, a brightly
coloured sea cucumber known as a sea apple.
▪ Phylum platyhelminthes (Flat worms)
✓ They have relatively high level of
organization, and illustrate organ system
level of organization.
✓ Have flattened body with mouth but not anus.
✓ They are acoelomate (i.e., have no internal
body cavity).
✓ They possess a front end where the mouth,
major sense organs and the main integrating
region of the nervous system is sited.
✓ They are hermaphrodites.
✓ They range from 1 mm to 30 cm in length.
✓ They are triploblastic.
✓ They use diffusion for material transport.
✓ They live as parasite or free living.
▪ Phylum Arthropoda
✓ This phylum gets its name from two Greek
words, arthron – joint, and podos – foot.
✓ The arthropods are the most varied animals
on the Earth, with around a million different
species.
✓ They have made use of a wide range of
available ecological niches.
✓ They have jointed (segmented) body.
✓ Have external exoskeleton which is
composed of chitin.
✓ Consists of body divided into head, thorax
and abdomen.
✓ Have well developed nervous system and
complete gut from mouth to anus.
✓ Have an open circulatory system.
✓ They are coelomate (have body cavity).
✓ This phylum classified into five classes; class
Arachnida, class crustacea, class insecta,
class Chilipoda and Diplopoda.
▪ Class Arachnida
✓ They have body divided into cephalothorax
and abdomen.
✓ They have four pair of legs and no antennae.
✓ The gas exchange is by tracheal system.
✓ Some have another structure for exchange of
gas called lamellae (book lung).
✓ It is unique feature for arachnids.
✓ Some are poisonous.
✓ E.g., spider, scorpion, ticks and mites
▪ Class Insecta
✓ They are the most diversified group of
Arthropoda.
✓ They have body divided into head, thorax and
abdomen.
✓ Consists of a pair of antennae, three pair of
legs and one/two pairs of wings and
compound eyes.
✓ They respire by trachea and excrete by
means of Malpighian tubules.
✓ Malpighian tubules are slender tubes
normally found in the posterior regions of
arthropod alimentary canals.
✓ Each tubule consists of a single layer of cells
that is closed off at the distal end with the
proximal end joining the alimentary canal at
the junction between the midgut and hindgut.
✓ They live almost everywhere, but mostly land
based.
✓ E.g., flies, butter flies, moth, beetles, wasp,
bees etc.
▪ Class crustacean
✓ They have two body parts, cephalothorax
(head fused with thorax) and abdomen.
✓ They have four pairs of jointed legs.
✓ Have two pairs of antennae (unique to
crustaceans) and simple eyes.
✓ Their body is protected by structure called
carapace.
✓ E.g., shrimp, lobsters, crab, diphina, water
flea, cray fish etc.
▪ Class Chilopoda
✓ Have long and flattened body.
✓ Consists of pair of antennae, pair of jaws, pair
of legs per segments.
✓ They use tracheal system for respiratory and
excrete by Malpighian tubules.
✓ E.g., centipedes
▪ Class Diplopoda
✓ Have long and cylindrical body. ▪ Class Pisces- fish
✓ Has a pair of segmented antennae and two ▪ Class Amphibians
pair of legs per segment. ▪ Class Reptilia- reptiles
✓ They use tracheal system for respiratory and ▪ Class Aves- birds
excrete by Malpighian tubules. ▪ Class Mammalia- mammals
✓ E.g., millipedes ▪ Class Pisces
✓ Have stream lined bodies with scaly skin.
✓ Have four fins for swimming.
✓ They live in water except mudskipper and
lung fish.
✓ Their breathing organ is gill.
✓ Their heart is two chambered (auricle and
ventricle).
✓ Have external fertilization.
✓ They are poikilothermic animals.
✓ Poikilothermic: - are animals that variable
body temperature that changes depending on
the external environment.
✓ They use their lateral line system which is
▪ Phylum Chordata used for hearing.
✓ This phylum consists of animals that have ✓ Fishes can be grouped into two subclasses;
notochord at the early stage of the life cycle. bony fish and cartilaginous fish.
✓ Notochord; - is a flexible rod like structure
of cartilage running alongside of the body.
✓ They have gill slits at the embryonic stage
which is later replaced lungs and gills.
✓ They have a hallowed nerve chord.
✓ Phylum Chordata consists of the following
subphyla;
▪ Subphylum urochordata: - consists of
marine animals such as tunicate.
▪ Subphylum cephalochordata: - include
animals like lancelets and amphioxus.
▪ Subphylum vertebrata: - which
includes animals with back bones.
▪ Note: Tunicates and lancelets are the
simplest and most primitive forms of
chordates.
▪ Vertebrates
✓ This subphylum consists of animals with
backbone.
✓ They have the following common features; ✓ E.g., bony fish- tilapia, Nile perch, cod,
▪ Closed circulatory system mackerel, cat fish etc.
▪ Two pair of limbs ✓ E.g., cartilaginous fish- shark, skates, ray etc.
▪ Having excretory organs like kidney o Class Amphibians
▪ Internal (endoskeleton)
▪ It can be classified into five classes;
✓ The word amphibian is derived from two
Greek words, amphi means both and bios
means life.
✓ This is because amphibians spend parts of
their lives (larvae or tadpole) in water and
adults live on the land.
✓ They are the first vertebrates to colonize land.
✓ They use external fertilization which needs
water as a fertilizing agent.
✓ They spend their larval stage in water.
✓ They are ectothermic (poikilothermic).
✓ They are on the threat of extinction because;
o Killed by pathogenic fungus
o Loss of habitat
o Pollution
✓ Their lifecycle includes metamorphosis
stages from larva to adult.
✓ E.g., frogs, toads, salamanders
▪ Class Aves
✓ Have skin that bears feathers and scales on
the legs and mouth parts.
✓ Have bony skeleton.
✓ Have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs, front
limbs form wings.
✓ Pentadactyl limbs are five-digit limbs.
✓ They have internal fertilization.
✓ Internal fertilization takes place inside the
female body.
✓ They are homeothermic (endothermic)
animals, they have constant body
temperature which is not affected by changes
in the environmental temperature.
✓ E.g., pigeons, eagles
▪ Class Repitilia
✓ Have dark scaly skin with horny scales.
✓ Have bony skeleton.
✓ Usually have pair of pentadactyl limbs.
✓ Visceral clefts never develop gills.
✓ They use lungs for gas exchange.
✓ Have no external ear.
✓ Use internal fertilization, they lay fertilized
egg which have leathery skin on land.
✓ They are poikilothermic (ectothermic).
▪ Class Mammalia
✓ Their skin bears hairs.
✓ Their skin consists of subcutaneous & sweat
glands.
✓ They have bony skeleton.
✓ Have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.
✓ Visceral clefts never develop gills, they use
lungs for gas exchange.
✓ Have external ear (in addition to middle and
inner ears).
✓ They are homeothermic (endothermic).
✓ Class Mammalia has three subclasses;
▪ Monotremes (egg laying mammals)
▪ Marsupials
▪ Placental mammals
✓ Monotremes (egg laying mammals) –
✓ They are primitive mammals.
✓ They lay eggs.
✓ Have webbed feet.
✓ E.g., Duckbilled platypus
✓ Marsupials
✓ They produce tiny immature Youngs which
remain in Marsupium (pouch) to complete
their development.
✓ They get milk from mammary glands.
✓ Placental Mammals
✓ They have complex placenta in which
exchange of material takes place between the
mother and fetus, until the embryonic
development is completed.
✓ Their babies are nourished by milk (produced
by mammary gland) from the mother.
✓ These are also called higher mammals.
✓ E.g., cows, dogs, elephant, lions, humans etc.
 6.1. Ecosystems Biosphere (Ecosphere) is the tin layer of
atmosphere at the surface of earth, including
Organisms interact one another and things in
the biologically inhabited soil, water and air.
their surrounding habitat in order to survive.
It is the sum of all ecosystems on the world.
This means any organisms cannot survive
An ecosystem can be affected by living and
unless they interact with their environments.
non-living components.
Ecology: - is a branch of biology that study
i. Abiotic components
about environment (ecosystem).
✓ It consists of non-living factors that can affect
The word ecology comes from two Greek
the living condition of a given ecosystem.
words Oikos means “house” and logy means
✓ The major abiotic factors include water,
“study”.
sunlight, air, soil, temperature, humidity,
It studies the interaction of organisms one
wind, topography of the land and rainfall.
another and with the non-living environment.
✓ Water: - it is the most important component
Environment is the sum of all biotic and
for habitat, drinking and irrigation purposes.
abiotic components.
✓ Sunlight: - is the ultimate source of energy
A structure of life and interaction between
for all life forms for building organic
organisms and their surroundings can be
substances in the process of photosynthesis.
shown in the following relationships based
✓ Air: - is the mixture of different important
on increasing level of organization.
gases for living things. E.g., CO2, O2, N2 etc.
Organism --- population --- community ---
✓ Soil: - is another factor that affect living
ecosystems --- biome --- biosphere.
things based on its fertility, Ph (acidity or
Organism is an individual living thing.
alkalinity) determine the vegetation coverage
Population is a group of individuals of the
of an ecosystem.
same species that live in the same habitat.
✓ Temperature: - determine the ability of an
Community is a group of organisms of
organism to survive in a given habitat.
different species living in the same habitat.
✓ Humidity: - is the concentration of water
Ecosystem consists of all organisms in a
vapor (moisture) in the air which affects the
given habitat and their interaction with their
rate of water loss (transpiration) in plants.
non-living environment.
✓ Rainfall: - is the amount of rain falling in to
The abiotic (non-living) components of the
an area which determines the amount and
environment are vital for biotic components.
types of plants and animals living there.
Organisms interact with one another and their
non-living environment through different cycles ✓ Wind: - is the current of air moving in the
such as water cycle, nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle… atmosphere which affects humidity and
Biomes are geographical areas which have pollination of flowers.
their own characteristics climatic conditions ✓ Topography of the land: - includes altitude,
include the rainfall, types of vegetation and slope and exposure of the land which
animals. determine the vegetative cover and
the major biomes found on different regions sustainability of the land for farming activity.
of the earth are desert, grass land, tropical ii. Biotic Components
rain forest, temperate forests, tundra, ✓ Consists of all life forms living in a particular
savannah etc. ecosystem.
✓ They interact in various ways; some are:
✓ Intraspecific factors: - occur between
members of the same species such as
competition for food, territory, and mating.
✓ Interspecific factors – occur between
members of different species. This includes;
✓ Predator- prey relationship is also called
predation.
✓ Symbiosis relationship between two or more
organisms of different species in which one
ore both get benefit from the relationship.
✓ These include;
✓ Commensalism – is the relationship in
which one organism is benefited while the
other is neither benefited nor harmed (+/0).
✓ E.g., big tree and epiphytes
✓ Mutualism: - is the relationship in which
both organisms get benefits and t is an
obligatory relationship (+/+). E.g., Lichen
✓ Parasitism: - is parasite-host relationship in
which one organism benefited while another
harmed (+/-). E.g., human & tape warm
✓ Protocooperation – both organisms are
benefited but it is not obligatory relationship.
✓ E.g., teeth cleaning birds and crocodile, lion
6.2. Food Relationship
✓ According to their mode oof nutrition,
organisms can be classified as autotrophic
and heterotrophic organisms.
✓ Autotrophs: are organisms that can make
(synthesize) their own energy from raw
materials.
✓ Photoautotrophs: - are photosynthetic
organisms (use light to make food).
✓ They are called producers, and are sources of
food for other organisms.
✓ E.g., green plants and blue green algae
✓ 6CO2 + 6H2O ------- C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ATP
✓ Chemoautotrophs: - are release energy from
simple chemical reaction.
✓ E.g., nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas and
Nitrobacter)
✓ 2NH4+ + 3O2 →
𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑠
2NO2 + 2H2O +
4H+ + ATP
𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟
✓ 2NO2 + O2 → 2NO3 + ATP
✓ Heterotrophs: - are organisms that can’t
synthesize their own food, rather they feed on
other organisms.
✓ They are called consumers.
✓ They can be grouped as;
✓ Herbivores – are animals that feed on
vegetations (plants).
✓ E.g., cow, buffalo, giraffe
✓ Omnivores – are animals that feed on both
plants and animals.
✓ E.g., human, rat, pig
✓ Carnivores – are animals that feed animals.
✓ E.g., lion, cat, tiger
✓ Decomposers: - are micro-consumers that
breakdown dead bodies and decompose into
the soil. E.g., bacteria and fungi
o Food Chain
✓ It is simple and direct feeding
interrelationship which involves transfer of
energy and nutrients.
✓ Each organism occupies particular trophic
level within food chain.
✓ Trophic levels are levels in a food chain to
which an organism belongs.
✓ First trophic level (producers.)
✓ They are green plants and algae.
✓ They can produce their own energy by
photosynthesis since they have chlorophyll.
✓ Photosynthesis changes the sunlight heat
solar energy to chemical energy.
✓ All organisms depend directly or indirectly
on producers.
✓ The sun is the ultimate source of energy for
all food chains.
✓ Second trophic (primary consumers)
✓ Includes herbivore and omnivores that eat
plants directly.
✓ Third trophic level (secondary consumesr)
✓ They are carnivores which eat herbivores and
sometimes omnivores.
✓ Fourth trophic level (tertiary consumers)
✓ Are top carnivores which mostly eat other
carnivores.
✓ Decomposers- are found at the end of each
food chain.
✓ E.g., oak (leaves) -- caterpillar -- shrew – owl
✓ Grass – rabbit – fox – flea
 ✓ Phytoplankton -- zooplankton --- fish --- man
✓ Food Web
✓ It is a complex feeding interrelationship
between organisms that consists of many
food chains.
✓ E.g.,

o Biological Pyramids
▪ Pyramid of biomass
✓ Biomass refers to the total amount of organic
matter (dry mass).
✓ Pyramid of Energy
✓ The total mass of consumers in particular
✓ In an ecosystem, there is always be a transfer of
trophic level is less than the total mass of
energy from one trophic level to the next.
producers.
✓ The primary source of energy for all food chain is
✓ Biomass decreases as we go from first trophic
from the sun.
level to the higher tops.
✓ This energy changed into chemical energy by
producers and transferred through the food chain.
✓ There is progressively less energy available for
organisms along a food chain.
✓ Energy can’t be created or destroyed.
✓ Producers use only 10% of their energy and lost
90% of energy.

✓ Pyramid of numbers
✓ The numbers of organisms decrease as we move
from first trophic level to the top. ✓ 100% energy from the sun --- producer used
✓ Producers contain large number of organisms up 10% --- primary consumers used up 1% --
than consumers. secondary consumer used up 0.1%.
✓ Note: in case of parasite-host, the pyramid of
number is inverted pyramid, this is because a 6.3. Recycling in nature
single host may carry many parasites.
✓ The recycling of substances provides an
important link between abiotic and biotic
environment.
✓ Substances from the environment are used
directly by plants and indirectly by all others.
✓ Substances are returned to the environment
from organisms by excretion, egestion,
death and decay of tissues.
✓ Decomposers play a huge role in recycling
of nutrients.
✓ It is important for soil fertility, removing
unpleasant wastes materials and making
composts in garden.
✓ Recycling of substances in an ecosystem
includes chemical, physical and biological
processes.
✓ E.g., carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, water
cycle etc.
o The Nitrogen Cycle
✓ Nitrogen is a gas that represents 78% of the
atmospheric air.
✓ It is important to synthesize biological
molecules such as amino acids and nucleic
acids (DNA and RNA).
✓ Atmospheric nitrogen is not directly used by
most organisms.
✓ Thus, the nitrogen cycle involves the
conversion of nitrogen gas by various
biological, chemical and physical processes
into usable form by plants.
✓ The atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by
microorganisms living in a symbiotic
relationship with leguminous plants.
✓ Leguminous plants have root nodules in
which nitrogen fixing bacteria live within it.
✓ The nitrogen cycle involves the following
bacteria;
1. Nitrogen fixing bacteria – convert free
atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate.
✓ Nitrate is the only form of nitrogen that can
be used by plants.
✓ Note – lightning has a role in fixing
atmospheric nitrogen.
2. Nitrifying bacteria convers ammonium
compounds into nitrate.
✓ Ammonium compounds -------- nitrite
✓ Nitrite ------- nitrate
3. Putrefying bacteria - they convert the dead
bodies and decay of plants and animals into
ammonium compounds.
4. Denitrifying bacteria – are bacteria that
convert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen.
✓ Plants synthesize protein by using the
nitrates that can be absorbed from the soil.
o The carbon cycle
✓ Carbon is a component of all organic
molecules and is essential for all life forms.
✓ The carbon cycle mainly involves the
conversion of the organic molecule CO2 to
form organic molecules which are formed
with in the tissue of organisms.
✓ Note: the major organic substances in living
organisms are carbohydrate, lipid (fat) and
protein.
✓ The concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere can be increase by the reasons
such as burning of fossil fuel and
deforestation.
✓ Clearing of vegetation decreases the fixation
of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
✓ An increase in atmospheric CO2 would trap
retransmitted solar energy which might be
lost into space.
✓ This is called green-house effect.
✓ This result in global warming which result
in increasing earths average temperature.
✓ Ozone protects us from the harmful
ultraviolet light in the sun’s rays.
✓ As the ozone layer thins, more people are
getting skin cancers and suffering eye
damage from the sun.
✓ Ozone layer of the atmosphere that protects
the earth from harmful ultraviolet light from
the sun.
Water Cycle
✓ Water is essential for life.
✓ Water cycle involves physical process such
as evaporation, rainfall and transpiration.
✓ Rain dissolves some pollutants in the air and
these are then deposited on the earth surface
on to soil vegetation and water.
✓ E.g., accumulation of sulphuric acid from
burning of fossil fuels results in acid rain.
✓ There are four main stages in the water
cycle. They are evaporation, condensation,
precipitation and collection. Let's look at
each of these stages.
✓ Evaporation: This is when warmth from
the sun causes water from oceans, lakes,
streams, ice and soils to rise into the air and
turn into water vapour (gas). Water vapour
droplets join together to make clouds!
✓ Condensation: This is when water vapour
in the air cools down and turns back into
liquid water.
✓ Precipitation: This is when water (in the
form of rain, snow, hail or sleet) falls from
clouds in the sky.
✓ Collection: This is when water that falls
from the clouds as rain, snow, hail or sleet,
collects in the oceans, rivers, lakes, streams.
Most will infiltrate (soak into) the ground
and will collect as underground water.
✓ The water cycle is powered by the sun's
energy and by gravity. The sun kickstarts the
whole cycle by heating all the Earth's water
and making it evaporate. Gravity makes the
moisture fall back to Earth.
o Adaptation
✓ Adaptations are featuring those organisms
develop which make it possible for them to
survive in particular habitats.
✓ Organisms have different adaptation
mechanism to survive in a given habitat.
6.4. Adaptation in cold climates
✓ Organisms that live in cold climatic regions
have adaptive mechanisms to reduce their
heat loss.
✓ Animals in this area have features;
▪ Reduced surface area to volume ratio.
▪ Reduced ear size and other parts of skin.
▪ Thick layer of the fat under the skin to store
more internal heat (fat has high heat storage
capacity).
▪ Camouflage – is a condition in which arctic
animals change their skin surface with
seasonal changes.
▪ It helps organisms to hide from preys and
for predators not to be seen by preys.
▪ E.g., polar beers
 o Adaptations in dry climates without thinking about the fate of the next
✓ In order to survive in dry climate (desert) generation.
organisms need to have the following ✓ Deforestation is the process of cutting trees
adaptations. without planting another tree for replacement
✓ Adaptation of plants to desert climate include ✓ The vegetation coverage of Ethiopia was
▪ Long roots to absorb more water. around 40% of the land before 100 years.
▪ Thich and fleshy stem to store more water ✓ But, now a day only 3% of the land is covered
(succulents). by vegetations which indicates a big loss.
▪ Reduced number of stomata on the leaf ✓ So, we have to stop over-deforestation, & we
surface to reduce the amount of water loss have to plant two trees as we cut one tree.
by transpiration. ✓ Steps of planting trees and protection:
▪ Their leaf surface is covered by waxy ▪ Slap the young tree in the soil
cuticles to reduce water loss. ▪ The young trees need to be cared with
✓ Adaptation of animals in desert climates; extra water at least for one year
▪ Large surface rea to volume ratio. ▪ They need to be protected from animals
▪ They get more water from the food which
they eat rather than drinking.
▪ Animals like camel (sheep of desert) have
hump (adaptational water storage).
▪ It helps to stay without drinking water for
29-30 days.
▪ Develop additional extensions like large ear
to increase its surface area for heat losing.
▪ Some are Nocturnal – hide themselves in
burrows or shades at the day time and search
food at night.
o Some adaptation of plants
✓ Wind pollinated flowers have light and
feathery pollen.
✓ Animal dispersed plants have seeds which
have hocks and spines.
o Some animal adaptations
✓ Carnivore animals have sharp and pointed
canniness to tear flesh.
✓ Porcupine (jart) has skin surface which is
covered with long stiff parts like needles
called quills.
✓ It helps to protect itself when it is attacked by
enemy.
6.5. Tree Growing Project
✓ As the human population number increases,
ultimate need of resources of human being is
also increasing.
✓ Accordingly, people are using resources
(both renewable & non-renewable).
✓ Tree (vegetation) are one of this natural
resources which people are using widely