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 CONTENTS
April 2024 Volume 29 Number 4 ISSN 1468-9340
03 Comment
05 World news
08 Evaluating risks and diversifying economies
Gord Cope, Contributing Editor, discusses the state of the refining
and petrochemical sector in the MENA region and reveals how
countries are looking to tap into the green fuels sector.
14 2024: the year the world wakes up to
methane emissions?
Mark Naples, Umicore Coating Services, considers how the threat
of methane emissions can finally be conquered in the oil and gas
industry.
19 SAF: viability, scale and economic advantage
Paul Ticehurst, Johnson Matthey, UK, discusses the importance of
sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) for decarbonisation, the technology
that supports large-scale production of this fuel, and the economic
benefits it could present.
23 A new value for plastic waste
Antonio Batistini, Enrico De Dominicis, Massimo Di Amato,
Barbara Morico, Emma Palo, and Paola Sclafani, MAIRE, Italy, explore
how depolymerisation technology can support the creation of new
circular value chains in the plastics sector.
29 A new circular plastic ecosystem
Kae S. Wong, Fabrice Cuoq, Giri Anupam, Omid Emamjomeh and
Christoph J. Dittrich, SABIC Global Technologies B.V., alongside
Rasha H. Daadoush and Vishvedeep Bhatt, Aramco, highlight how
adsorption is an effective way to stabilise and remove chlorides in
plastic derived oil (PDO) to protect downstream assets.
35 Guidelines for optimising C5/C6 isomerisation
units
Fatemah Jameel Fraidoun, Kuwait National Petroleum Company
(KNPC), presents a case study in which the Mina Al Ahmadi refinery
optimised its isomerisation unit in order to reduce the isomerate
Reid vapour pressure and maintain high research octane number.
39 Diagnostic technologies for process
optimisation
Jaspreet Nijjar, Tracerco, UK, explores the benefits offered by specialist
scanning and radiotracer technologies in optimising processes.
45 Smarter, safer working
Mark Breese, Yokogawa RAP, considers the importance of digital
control of work (CoW) systems in promoting more intelligent
operations and an improved safety culture in the downstream
industry.
49 Simplifying safety in a complex world
Eric Sallee, OsecoElfab, explores how advances in rupture disc
technology can help refineries and chemical processing facilities
minimise overpressure risks and reduce emissions.
53 Surface engineering process and applications
Sunil Musali, MOGAS Surface Engineering, USA, discusses the use cases
for thermal spraying and laser cladding in surface engineering.
56 Navigating cybersecurity challenges
Paul Evans, Nozomi Networks, discusses the challenges faced by the
downstream oil and gas industry as it embraces digitisation.
59 A specialised approach to assessing
cybersecurity risks
Mary Sebastin and Saltanat Mashirova, Honeywell OT Cybersecurity,
explain why cyber-physical risk assessments are essential in protecting
petrochemical and oil and gas facilities from cybersecurity threats.

63 Cyber-enemies at the gate

Avoiding the cybersecurity problem is no longer a viable strategy, but
putting protections in place is more straightforward than it seems.
Alexandre Peixoto, Emerson, explains.

67 Sulfur review
Hydrocarbon Engineering presents a selection of the most advanced
sulfur technolgies and services that are currently available to the
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 COMMENT
CONTACT INFO CALLUM O'REILLY
SENIOR EDITOR

B
MANAGING EDITOR James Little
james.little@palladianpublications.com ack in February, the landing of a first
SENIOR EDITOR Callum O'Reilly
commercial spacecraft on the Moon
callum.oreilly@palladianpublications.com sparked a wave of excitement about
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Poppy Clements
a new era of private lunar exploration.
poppy.clements@palladianpublications.com The successful touchdown of US-based
Intuitive Machines’ unmanned Odysseus lander
SALES DIRECTOR Rod Hardy
rod.hardy@palladianpublications.com marked the first time that a US craft has landed
on the Moon since 1972, and it is hoped that it
SALES MANAGER Chris Atkin
chris.atkin@palladianpublications.com will change the face of planetary exploration. It could help to fund future state
missions, and eventually aid plans to set up a permanent human base on the Moon
SALES EXECUTIVE Sophie Birss
sophie.birss@palladianpublications.com (and beyond).
While the Odysseus lander grabbed most of the headlines, another vitally
PRODUCTION MANAGER Kyla Waller
kyla.waller@palladianpublications.com
important space mission took place shortly after. On 4 March, a groundbreaking
satellite designed to help protect the Earth’s climate successfully launched
EVENTS MANAGER Louise Cameron from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, US. MethaneSAT – developed
louise.cameron@palladianpublications.com
by a subsidiary of the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) and partnered by the
DIGITAL EVENTS COORDINATOR Merili Jurivete likes of Google, SpaceX, and the New Zealand Space Agency – will find and
merili.jurivete@palladianpublications.com
measure methane emissions over wide areas. The satellite, which will focus
DIGITAL CONTENT ASSISTANT Kristian Ilasko first on oil and gas operations, processes observed spectrographic data to
kristian.ilasko@palladianpublications.com
calculate quantitative emission rates, revealing how much methane is emitted.
DIGITAL ADMINISTRATOR Nicole Harman-Smith “MethaneSAT’s superpower is the ability to precisely measure methane levels with
nicole.harman-smith@palladianpublications.com
high resolution over wide areas, including smaller, diffuse sources that account for
ADMIN MANAGER Laura White most emissions in many regions”, said Steven Hamburg, EDF Chief Scientist and
laura.white@palladianpublications.com MethaneSAT Project Leader. “Knowing how much methane is coming from where
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS and how the rates are changing is essential.”
Nancy Yamaguchi Gordon Cope According to the project backers, the unique capabilities of MethaneSAT will
create unprecedented transparency. Interactive emissions data will be available
free of charge, enabling anyone to see and compare emissions results by company,
SUBSCRIPTION RATES country or production basin. Ultimately, this will enable operators to find and fix
Annual subscription £110 UK including postage problems faster.
/£125 overseas (postage airmail).
Two year discounted rate £176 UK As outlined in an excellent article from Umicore Coating Services that features
including postage/£200 overseas (postage airmail). in this issue of Hydrocarbon Engineering, the world seems to be finally waking up
SUBSCRIPTION CLAIMS to the substantial threat posed by this invisible gas, and finding the solutions to
Claims for non receipt of issues must be made within 3 months of
publication of the issue or they will not be honoured without charge. conquer it. A number of new announcements to reduce methane emissions were
made at the COP28 summit in Dubai, and over 150 countries have now signed up
APPLICABLE ONLY TO USA & CANADA
Hydrocarbon Engineering (ISSN No: 1468-9340, USPS No: 020-998) is to the Global Methane Pledge to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% below
published monthly by Palladian Publications Ltd GBR and distributed in
the USA by Asendia USA, 701C Ashland Avenue, Folcroft, PA 19032.
2020 levels by 2030.
Periodicals postage paid at Philadelphia, PA & additional mailing offices. What’s more, MethaneSAT is just one of the tools that is now available
POSTMASTER: send address changes to HYDROCARBON ENGINEERING,
701C Ashland Ave, Folcroft PA 19032. to help oil and gas producers to collect data on their emissions. Indeed, the
team behind MethaneSAT point to a ‘complementary ecosystem’ of methane
satellites for addressing emissions globally, including a satellite developed by the
European Space Agency. A new global satellite methane detection and notification
15 South Street, Farnham, Surrey
system (known as the Methane Alert and Response System, or MARS for short) is
GU9 7QU, UK also extremely promising for the industry. As Mark Naples, Managing Director of
Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999 Umicore Coating Services, explains in his exclusive article starting on p. 14 of this
issue: “Energy suppliers could soon have access to a suite of tools and funding to
reduce gaps in their understanding of where emissions are occurring, enabling them
to act as never before against this invisible threat.”
 WORLD NEWS
Global | Methane emissions from the energy
sector remained near record high in 2023
M ethane emissions from the
energy sector remained near a
record high in 2023, according to new
analysis from the International Energy
Agency (IEA).
The IEA’s latest update of its
‘Global Methane Tracker’ is the first
comprehensive assessment of global
methane emissions since the COP28
climate summit concluded in
December 2023. The new analysis
finds that the production and use of
fossil fuels resulted in close to
120 million t of methane emissions in
Canada | Pembina awards contract for RFS IV
expansion
P embina Infrastructure and
Logistics LP has awarded Worley
a contract for RFS IV, the expansion
of Pembina’s existing Redwater
propane-plus fractionation and
storage complex in Alberta, Canada.
Under the contract, Worley will
provide fabrication and module
assembly from its Blackfalds and
Edmonton modularisation yards.
USA | TotalEnergies acquires Talos Low Carbon Solutions
T otalEnergies has signed an
agreement to acquire 100% of
Talos Low Carbon Solutions (TLCS),
a US company focused on carbon
capture and storage.
After completion of the
transaction, TotalEnergies will own
a 25% share in the Bayou Bend
project, alongside Chevron (50%,
operator) and Equinor (25%).
The Bayou Bend project is a
major CO2 storage project located
along the Texas Gulf Coast, close to
the company’s assets in the region.
TotalEnergies will also own a 65%
operated interest in the
2023, a small rise compared with
2022.
According to the report, the top
10 emitting countries were
responsible for around 80 million t of
methane emissions from fossil fuels
in 2023.
However, the IEA notes that
substantial policies and regulations
announced in recent months, as well
as fresh pledges stemming from the
COP28 climate summit, have the
potential to put methane emissions
into decline soon.
The company will also provide field
construction services at the
Redwater complex.
Worley categorises this contract
as transitional work.
1 RFS IV is expected to increase
the fractionation capacity by
55 000 bpd (8744 m3), enabling the
complex to meet increased demand
in the region.
Harvest Bend (Louisiana) project and
a 50% interest in the Coastal Bend
(Texas) project. With Coastal Bend
and Harvest Bend being located
farther away from the company’s
other existing assets, TotalEnergies’
intention is to divest its interest in
these two projects after closing.
The Bayou Bend project is a
carbon transportation and storage
solution for industrial emitters
located in the Houston Ship Channel
and Beaumont – Port Arthur region,
one of the largest industrial
corridors in the US. Comprising
licenses dedicated to CO2 storage,
China | Clariant and
Lummus awarded
catalyst technology
contract for
new isobutane
dehydrogenation
plant
C lariant and its process partner
Lummus Technology have been
selected by Huizhou Boeko Materials
Co. Ltd to provide their CATOFIN
catalyst and process technology for
the dehydrogenation of isobutane at
the new plant in Huizhou City, China.
The process technology is exclusively
licensed by Lummus Technology,
while the tailor-made catalyst is
supplied by Clariant.
This is the first time that Huizhou
Boeko will license the CATOFIN
technology at one of its sites.
The scope of this award includes
the technology license and basic
engineering. Once complete, the
plant will produce 550 000 tpy of net
isobutylene, which will serve as
feedstock for the downstream
production of methyl tertiary butyl
ether (MTBE).
offshore and onshore, covering
approximately 600 km2, it could
enable the storage of several
hundred million tons of CO2.
Patrick Pouyanné, Chairman and
CEO of TotalEnergies, said:
“TotalEnergies is pleased to enter
the Bayou Bend project through
the acquisition of Talos Low
Carbon Solutions. Ideally located
close to our Port Arthur refinery
and our petrochemicals assets in
La Porte, this project will be
instrumental for the reduction of
direct emissions from our US
operations.”
HYDROCARBON 5 April 2024
ENGINEERING
 WORLD NEWS
UAE | Technip Energies, JGC and NPCC receive
DIARY DATES LNTP for Ruwais LNG Project
29 April - 03 May 2024
RefComm
Galveston, Texas, USA
T echnip Energies, leader of a joint
venture (TJN RUWAIS JV) with
JGC and NPCC, has received a
electric-driven motors instead of
conventional gas turbines and will be
powered by nuclear energy.
www.events.crugroup.com/refcomm Limited Notice To Proceed (LNTP) The plant is set to be the first
from ADNOC to commence early LNG export facility in the Middle East
06 - 08 May 2024 engineering, procurement and and North Africa (MENA) region to
ILTA Conference & Trade Show
construction (EPC) activities at the run on clean power, making it one of
Houston, Texas, USA
ilta2024.ilta.org
Ruwais low-carbon LNG project, the lowest-carbon intensity LNG
located in Al Ruwais Industrial City, plants in the world.
14 - 16 May 2024 Abu Dhabi, UAE. The project will significantly
Asia Turbomachinery & Pump Symposium The project will consist of two enhance ADNOC’s LNG production
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia natural gas liquefaction trains with a capacity, aligning with global natural
atps.tamu.edu total LNG production capacity gas demand and the shift towards
of 9.6 million tpy. The plant will use decarbonisation.
10 - 14 June 2024
ACHEMA

Canada | Air Products awards module

Frankfurt, Germany
www.achema.de/en

11 - 13 June 2024
fabrication agreement to Worley

A
Global Energy Show Canada
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
ir Products Canada Ltd has It is expected to position Alberta
www.globalenergyshow.com awarded Worley an agreement to as the centre of western Canada’s
provide procurement, fabrication and hydrogen economy. Under the
20 - 22 August 2024 modularisation services for its agreement, Worley’s Edmonton
Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia Net-Zero Hydrogen Energy Complex, modularisation yard will fabricate and
Houston, Texas, USA located in Edmonton, Alberta, assemble process and pipe rack
tps.tamu.edu Canada. modules, implementing automated
Once operational, Air Products pipe-cutting techniques and robotic
17 - 20 September 2024 says that the net-zero complex will welding. Worley’s Edmonton
Gastech
produce clean hydrogen and capture modularisation yard is located
Houston, Texas, USA
www.gastechevent.com and permanently sequester adjacent to Air Products’ Net-Zero
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Hydrogen Energy Complex.
22 - 25 September 2024
GPA Midstream Convention
San Antonio, Texas, USA USA | EIA expects low natural gas prices
www.gpamidstreamconvention.org

15 - 17 October 2024
AFPM Summit T he US Energy Information
Administration (EIA) expects the
benchmark Henry Hub spot price to
New Orleans, Louisiana,, USA
summit.afpm.org average about US$2.25/million Btu in
2024, a 10% decrease from 2023 and a
04 - 06 November 2024 65% decrease from 2022.
Sulphur + Sulphuric Acid 2024 In its March ‘Short-Term Energy
Barcelona, Spain Outlook’ (STEO), EIA forecasts that US
www.events.crugroup.com/sulphur natural gas inventories will be more
than 30% higher than average at the
11 - 14 November 2024
ERTC
end of the winter season following
Lisbon, Portugal relatively low winter demand.
www.worldrefiningassociation.com/event-events/ According to EIA’s forecast, low
ertc natural gas prices will slightly decrease
domestic natural gas production in
2024 compared with record
production in 2023.
EIA expects US crude oil
production to continue growing in
2024 and 2025, with both years
exceeding the production record set
in 2023. Growth in US crude oil
production should help offset the
effects of continued voluntary OPEC+
oil production cuts announced
recently, but EIA still expects a tight
balance of global oil production and
demand, which EIA forecasts will lead
to higher Brent crude oil prices in 2024
than expected at the start of the year.

6 HYDROCARBON
April 2024 ENGINEERING
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 Gord Cope, Contributing Editor, discusses the state of the refining
and petrochemical sector in the MENA region and reveals how
countries are looking to tap into the green fuels sector.

8 HYDROCARBON
April 2024 ENGINEERING
T
urmoil abounds in the Middle East and North Africa.
In addition to the Hamas-Israel war, Iran’s proxies are
busy stirring up trouble in Yemen and Lebanon, while
various domestic conflicts grip countries in Egypt,
Algeria, Iraq and other jurisdictions. Yet, the region is ripe with
fossil fuels and green energy potential that is greatly sought
after by consuming nations in Europe and Asia.
Egypt produces approximately 680 000 bpd of crude, most
of which is slated to be converted to fuels in its dozen
domestic refineries. Several billion dollars are being spent
upgrading various complexes, including a US$2 billion project
to add a hydrocracker to Egyptian General Petroleum Corp.’s
Assiut refinery. At the southern end of the Suez Canal, Red Sea
Refining and Petrochemicals is building the Tahir refinery and
petrochemicals plant in the port of Ain Sokhana. When
completed later in the decade, it will have the capacities
of 1.5 million tpy of ethylene and 600 000 tpy of propylene.
In May 2023, Suez Methanol Derivatives Co. (SMD) signed
an agreement with Methanex Egypt to supply feedstock for its
specialty-chemicals complex in the port of Damietta. The
US$120 million complex is the first of its kind in Egypt, and will
produce 140 000 tpy of urea formaldehyde concentrate,
naphthalene formaldehyde and specialty resins for domestic
and export markets. Construction is currently underway, with
first product deliveries expected in October 2024.
Algeria’s oil and gas sector is in an enviable position. It ships
approximately 45 billion m3 of natural gas annually through
Mediterranean subsea pipelines and LNG tankers to Europe.
In addition, it produces 1.3 million bpd of light, sweet crude, the
majority of which is exported.
In an effort to satisfy growing domestic demand,
state-owned Sonatrach has launched an ambitious plan to
expand the 670 000 bpd capacity of its domestic refineries.
The Hassi Messaoud refinery, adjacent to its largest oilfield, is
being enlarged from 23 000 bpd to 110 000 bpd capacity. It also
plans to eventually expand and upgrade its Bishkra, Tiaret and
Skikda refineries to similar capacities. But recent reports note
that Sonatrach is at loggerheads with Samsung and
Técnicas Reunidas (Hassi Messaoud’s EPC contractors) over
costs associated with the US$3.7 billion expansion; negotiating
a financial resolution may delay final investment decisions
(FIDs) on the three latter refinery projects.
In December 2022, Saudi Aramco and TotalEnergies
announced a joint plan to build a US$11 billion petrochemical
facility in the Saudi port of Jubail adjacent to the existing
SATORP refinery. The new complex will contain one of the
largest mixed-load steam crackers in the Middle East, with a
capacity to produce approximately 1.6 million tpy of ethylene
and other gases. The feedstock is expected to underpin a
further US$4 billion investment in related industrial sectors,
including the manufacture of carbon fibres, lubricants,
detergents, automotive parts and food additives. In June 2023,
it was announced that Hyundai Engineering would build the
mixed-feed crackers, Maire Tecnimont would construct two
polyethylene units, and Sinopec Engineering would fabricate
the tank farm. Tentative completion is set for 2027.
HYDROCARBON 9 April 2024
ENGINEERING
 Qatar continues to pursue its goal to be the world’s
leading LNG exporter. In October 2023, it broke ground on
the world’s largest LNG project, the North Field Expansion
(NPE). When completed later in the decade, it will boost the
country’s current capacity of 77 million tpy by a further
48 million tpy. That same month, it signed long-term deals
with Shell to supply up to 3.5 million tpy of LNG for deliveries
to the Netherlands, starting in 2026 when the first phase of
its major expansion comes online. The news comes on the
heels of a similar announcement between QatarEnergy and
TotalEnergies to supply up to 3.5 million tpy to France. All
deals are set at 27 years in duration.
In late 2023, QatarEnergy and Chevron Phillips Chemical Co.
secured US$4.4 billion in financing for a US$6 billion polymers
facility in Qatar’s Ras Laffan Industrial City. The project will
include the largest ethane cracker in the Middle East, with a
capacity of 2.1 million tpy, as well as two, high-density
polyethylene units with a total capacity of 1.7 million tpy.
When completed in 2026, most of the output will be exported
for use in durable goods such as gas and water distribution
pipes.
Borouge is the UAE’s major petrochemical complex,
located in the downstream hub of Ruwais. The plant, which is
jointly owned by ADNOC and Austrian partner Borealis,
produces 5 million tpy of poly-olefin compounds, which are
used in a wide variety of industrial applications in Europe and
Asia. The US$6.2 billion Borouge-4 expansion project is
currently under construction, and will add 1.5 million tpy of
capacity.
Kuwait holds approximately 100 billion bbl of crude
reserves, and currently produces 2.7 million bpd. The state
has plans to increase production to 3.25 million bpd by 2027,
and to 4 million bpd by 2035. Kuwait Integrated Petroleum
Industries Co. (KIPIC) is also commissioning the latest
expansion of its Al Zour refinery complex in the Persian Gulf,
boosting domestic refining capacity to 1.6 million bpd. A
major new olefins plant is being built nearby.
When completed in 2025, it will produce 2 million tpy of
olefins and 1.44 million tpy of polymers.
Iraq currently produces 4.3 million bpd from 140 billion bbl
of crude reserves. In January 2024, The Iraqi Ministry for
Energy Affairs and Oil announced plans to increase oil
production to 6 million bpd by the end of the decade. In
addition, the country would like to reduce its dependency on
imported refined products by increasing refining capacity. It
currently has 16 refineries producing approximately
1 million bpd of fuel and related products. The government
seeks to add a total of 320 000 bpd of new capacity, and has
issued tenders to build the 150 000 bpd Nasiriyah in the
Southern Dhi Qar Governorate, the 100 000 bpd Al-Kut
refinery in eastern Iraq, and the 70 000 bpd Samawah refinery
in southern Iraq. In addition, Iraq announced plans to finally
initiate the Nibras petrochemical complex in Basra to leverage
substantial gas reserves in the region. The JV between Shell
and the federal government is expected to produce
1.8 million tpy of petrochemical products when it comes
on-stream at the end of the decade.
Iran, with 156 billion bbl of crude reserves, has a refining
capacity of 2.6 million bpd. It also has ambitious plans to
expand its refining and petrochemical output; the country has
April 2024 10 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
over 1.4 million bpd of new capacity on the books.
The 360 000 bpd Siraf refinery project, designed to split
condensate feedstock, is expected to start operations in 2025.
Green energy
MENA countries are hoping to tap into the lucrative,
low-carbon fuel sector. While hot, arid conditions are a bane
to agriculture, abundant wind and sun allow jurisdictions to
use hydrolysis to produce green hydrogen. The energy-dense
gas can then be converted into easily-transportable green
ammonia for exports to Asia and Europe, where it can be
used for utilities and fertilizers, dramatically reducing carbon
footprints in these sectors.
Saudi Arabia is building an immense green ammonia plant
in the NEOM project, a futuristic greenfield development in
the country’s northwest, home to abundant solar and wind
resources. The US$5 billion plant would produce up
to 650 tpd (240 000 tpy), primarily for export.
As part of the UAE’s plan to supply up to 25% of imported,
low-carbon hydrogen in key global markets, its state-owned
subsidiary, Fertiglobe, has been shipping demonstration cargoes
of blue ammonia to Germany. The ammonia was produced at
the company’s Fertil plant in Abu Dhabi’s Ruwais industrial
complex; the company is developing a greenfield, 1 million tpy
low-carbon ammonia plant at the complex.
In 2022, Egypt announced its National Climate Strategy
2050, which outlined objectives to reduce carbon emissions
and produce energy from renewable resources. In May 2023,
it signed a US$450 million agreement with Norway’s Statec to
build a green methanol plant in Damietta for the purpose of
supplying low-carbon fuel for ships. Initial capacity is slated at
40 000 tpy, with the potential to increase to 200 000 tpy.
Energy will be supplied by 40 MW of solar power and
120 MW of wind power.
In October 2023, Abu Dhabi’s state-owned ADNOC
announced that it had awarded EPC contracts for the
Hail and Ghasha Offshore Development. The project is a
major milestone for the country’s net zero by 2045 goal;
when completed, the two fields will yield 1.5 billion ft3/d,
which will be piped ashore where facilities will sequester up
to 2 million tpy of CO2 while producing low-carbon
hydrogen. The National Petroleum Construction and
Saipem S.p.A will build the artificial islands and subsea
pipelines, and Tecnimont S.p,A. will construct the onshore
CO² and sulfur recovery modules. ADNOC intends to have up
to 10 million tpy of CO2 sequestration in place by 2030.
Oman has announced plans to produce 1 million tpy of
renewable hydrogen by 2030, 3.75 million tpy by 2040 and
8.5 million tpy by 2050, with the intention of exporting the
majority in various forms of ammonia. In addition to building
extensive solar farms, the country, which exports 200 000 tpy
of grey ammonia products, would need to spend tens of
billions in order to massively expand its terminals capacities.
Morocco is a major producer of phosphate fertilizer, which
is sold both in its pure form and mixed with other fertilizers.
When ammonia prices spiked in the immediate aftermath of
the Ukraine war, state-owned fertilizer producer OCP found
itself spending almost US$2 billion on imports to meet its
mixed-fertilizer contracts. OCP now plans to invest US$7 billion
on constructing a green ammonia plant in the coastal town of
Tarfaya. The facility is expected to produce 1 million tpy when
it comes on-stream in 2027. While the price of green hydrogen
is significantly higher, OCP views the investment as a hedge to

S
reduce price volatility and increase security of supply.

Problems
The impacts of war continue to reverberate through the
ulphurPro
SulphurPro
®
®
Middle East. For the last several years, Egypt, Israel and Jordan
have been acting in concert to build a regional energy
Based on Chemistry & Engineering Science
network to commercialise the gas discoveries in their
respective offshore waters. Egypt, which acts as a regional
energy hub for oil, gas, LNG and refined products, has been
receiving approximately 800 million ft3/d of gas from Israel’s
various fields, including Tamar. When the Hamas-Israel war
began, Israel ordered the Tamar field to be shut-in, and to
reroute production from the Leviathan field to Jordan. While
the move proved temporary, Egypt suffered daily blackouts
and disruptions to its LNG exports, and highlighted the
fragility of regional energy markets. Houthi attacks on vessels
transiting the Red Sea also constitute a major threat to
movement of energy through the Suez Canal. In the
short-term, vessels heading to Europe are being re-routed at
great expense around the southern tip of Africa.
In the longer term, stakeholders contemplating
investment in refining and petrochemical facilities in the
region are obliged to reevaluate risk premiums, or to seek out Native Sulphur
more stable jurisdictions. In late 2023, QatarEnergy and
Chevron Phillips Chemical Co. began construction of the
US$8.5 billion Golden Triangle Polymers plant in Texas, US.
The plant, located approximately 100 miles east of Houston,
will feature a 2.08 million tpy ethylene cracker and two
high-density polyethylene units with a combined capacity of
2 million tpy. In addition, QatarEnergy has invested
US$11 billion in the Golden Pass LNG production facility, also TheThe ULTIMATE
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natural hydrogen in France and around the world, with the
potential to drop prices for carbon-free hydrogen
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hydrolysis assets.

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prices have soared. Countries like Saudi Arabia and Qatar,
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 M
any of the countless stories focused on climate
change all share a singular villain: carbon.
Carbon – specifically carbon dioxide (CO2) – is
central to the environmental conversation.
Businesses market themselves to consumers as carbon neutral,
technologies like carbon capture are touted as major
breakthroughs, while phrases like ‘carbon footprint’ are part of
cultural lexicon. This is good news for the fight against climate
change, as CO2 poses a serious long-term risk to the future of
the planet.
However, this focus on carbon means that another
emissions threat has – until now – slipped largely under the
radar: methane. Even the oil and gas industry, a sector forced
to continually focus on and invest in reducing harmful
emissions, appears to have overlooked the risk posed by
methane given the continued prevalence of gas flaring and
venting at sites around the world. 1
Thankfully, there are signs that the world is waking up to
this invisible threat. And the downstream oil and gas sector
has the power to conquer this new threat – but it must change
the way it thinks about methane leaks for good.

An invisible threat
Methane emissions represent one of the largest threats facing
humankind today. Since the Industrial Revolution, this invisible
gas has been responsible for approximately a third of the
recorded rise in global temperatures.2 Without immediate
action, emissions from human sources are projected to

April 2024 14 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Mark Naples, Umicore Coating Services, considers
how the threat of methane emissions can finally be
conquered in the oil and gas industry.

HYDROCARBON 15 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 increase by up to 13% in the next six years, causing
significant and irreparable harm to the planet.
In terms of trapping heat, methane is much more
potent than CO2 and other greenhouse gases – but only
for a relatively short time. When first emitted, methane
traps roughly 100 times more heat than CO 2. However, it
also starts to break down more quickly, while CO 2 can
persist for around a century. Over the course of 20
years, methane traps around 80 times as much heat as
CO2. Over a century, that number drops to 28 times3
– still significant, but its impact is blunted enough to
allow mitigation to take place.
In other words, while methane emissions are
dramatically accelerating the climate towards the 1.5°C
warming threshold – beyond which scientists agree the
environment would suffer irreparable damage – cutting
emissions can reverse this course just as quickly.
Figure 1. Capturing the vast amount of methane wasted each year across the 67% to US$1500/t in 2026.
oil and gas industry would mean progress for both the climate crisis and the
energy crisis.
Figure 2. Modern sensing technology is highly scalable and available
in increasingly small form-factor devices thanks to advances in laser
absorption spectroscopy.
April 2024 16 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Approximately 60% of all methane emissions are
caused by human activity, and a third of this is
produced by the energy sector through flaring, venting,
and leaking infrastructure. 4 Estimates suggest that
halving these emissions over the next 30 years will be
instrumental in meeting the critical goal of reaching
global net zero emissions by 2050.
Urgent action is needed – and the world is starting
to wake up to the scale of what is required.
Wake up and smell the methane
In December 2023, representatives from major oil and
gas companies around the world committed to action
that will cut methane emissions by at least 30% by 2030.
The Global Methane Pledge (GMP), made at the COP28
summit in Dubai, UAE, promises a huge leap forward in
the fight against climate change. Partners of this
agreement have announced that
more than US$1 billion of new grant
funding will be allocated to support
action against methane – more than
three times the pre-existing funding
levels – and individual action is
ongoing to reduce the impact of
these harmful emissions further.
Over 150 nations have signed up
to the GMP, a commitment to cut
human-related methane emissions
by 30% by the end of the decade.
Included in the pledge is the
prospect of financial penalties for
businesses that fail to act. The US,
for example, plans to introduce a
fine of US$900/t of methane
emitted this year, which will rise by
Perhaps the most important
commitment made at COP28 was
the launch of the Data for Methane
Action campaign. The Global
Methane Hub plans to increase the
funding available to governments to
take advantage of previously
unleveraged data. Alongside the full
launch of a new Methane Alert and
Response System (MARS), energy
suppliers could soon have access to
a suite of tools and funding to
reduce gaps in their understanding
of where emissions are occurring,
enabling them to act as never
before against this invisible threat.
Firm action at the political level
– of the kind demonstrated at
COP28 – was sorely needed. But all
industries must do their bit to help
deliver on these pledges, and few
have the same potential to make a
difference as the oil and gas
industry.
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 A clearer picture
To back these pledges up with action, oil and gas
operations need better quality data than is currently
available. Limitations in the data on methane emissions
have effectively hidden the scale of the problem,
preventing optimised action from being taken. For the
downstream sector, this is particularly important, as this
segment is responsible for 20% of fossil methane
emissions on its own.5
Of course, solving this is easier said than done.
The GMP saw several new signatories at COP28,
including Kenya, Angola, and Turkmenistan, the latter of
which in particular has been highlighted as a methane
‘super-emitter’. More than 5600 super-emitter events
have been recorded by UN research since 2019, with
little overall reduction observed among many GMP
signatories. In certain countries, emissions have even
increased. 6 In 2022, two oil and gas fields alone in
Turkmenistan were responsible for more global warming
than all carbon emissions released by the UK that year.7
Most oil and gas operators oversee many thousands
of miles of pipelines, rendering manual checks impractical
at best and expensive, ineffectual time sinks at worst.
As a result, leaking pipelines have been widely accepted
as a regrettable cost of doing business for decades.
This cost should not be as high as it currently is.
In The Guardian’s major investigation of super-emitter
events, the largest it found was from a major pipeline
near Turkmenistan’s Caspian coast.
This is why the announcement of the MARS at
COP28 is so promising for the industry. Recent years
have seen rapid progress in satellite tracking and other
modelling techniques that have significantly enhanced
the capacity of oil and gas producers to collect data on
their emissions beyond the upstream. Now, for the first
time, it is economically feasible to monitor emissions
from pipelines, refineries, and storage facilities thanks
to systems like MARS. In collaboration with the
Copernicus space programme, it represents the first
global system that connects satellite-detected methane
emissions with trackable notifications.
In a pilot phase that ran throughout 2023, MARS
identified more than 1000 methane plumes from energy
production and linked 400 of these to specific facilities.
Tools like this are changing the picture of emissions and
expanding the available approaches to ensure
compliance with global commitments on methane.
This new tool is being supported by a worldwide
campaign to encourage more comprehensive data
collection. The Data to Methane Action campaign aims
to improve the funding available to governments and
businesses to enable radical reductions in methane
emissions by targeting leaks and policy change. It is
supported by satellite monitoring systems and scientific
monitoring campaigns, providing transformational tools
to help the energy sector scale up its efforts.
There are rewards for engaging in abatement
strategies that go far beyond legal compliance,
however. The International Energy Agency (IEA)
April 2024 18 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
estimates that around 80% of methane emissions could
be avoided at no net cost, because the cost of
preventing the leaks will be offset by the market value
of the captured gas – with downstream leak detection
and repair (LDAR) being the most valuable. As energy
prices around the world remain high, every molecule of
methane leaked into the atmosphere is worth more
than it ever has been.
Action on the ground
While oil and gas businesses wait to benefit from the
monitoring systems announced at COP28, they can
pre-emptively improve their emissions profiles by taking
action on the ground. Thanks to technological
advances, businesses today have access to a suite of
monitoring solutions for identifying where leaks are
occurring, chief among which are high-performance
infrared (IR) sensors. These small devices generate
beams of IR light that pass through a filter inside a
sampling chamber that blocks certain wavelengths.
This means that only the desired wavelengths make
it through the filter to a detector, which measures the
attenuation of the light it receives to determine the
precise concentrations of gases that may be present.
Changing filters enable different wavelengths of light to
reach the detector, which can, in turn, be used to check
for different kinds of gases.
Certain gas analyser instruments incorporate
laser diodes mounted on a thermo-electric cooler.
This enables the laser’s wavelength to be tuned to
match the absorption wavelength of a particular
molecule, resulting in enhanced sensitivity and
discrimination. These instruments benefit from a lower
risk of false alarms, which can plague other common
gas detection technologies.
These advanced emission tracking devices mean
leak prevention is no longer a hypothetical concept.
Supported by the growing groundswell of funding to
improve monitoring solutions, today’s energy suppliers
have a wealth of options available to track harmful leaks
and start to address them.
For too long, the problems caused by invisible gas
leaks have remained unseen. Now, the technology is
widely available to address those problems, and there is
the political will to use it. All that remains is for the oil
and gas industry to capitalise – and 2024 could be the
year the climate fightback begins.
References
1. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/gasflaringreduction/
global-flaring-data
2. https://www.iea.org/reports/global-methane-tracker-2023
3. https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/why-do-we-compare-methane-
carbon-dioxide-over-100-year-timeframe-are-we-underrating
4. https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/oil-gas-and-coal/methane-
emissions_en
5. https://www.iea.org/commentaries/the-case-for-regulating-
downstream-methane-emissions-from-oil-and-gas
6. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/dec/02/
us-outlines-measures-to-cut-methane-emissions-by-80-in-
next-15-years
7. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/09/mind-
boggling-methane-emissions-from-turkmenistan-revealed
Paul Ticehurst, Johnson Matthey,
UK, discusses the importance of
sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) for
decarbonisation, the technology that
supports large-scale production of this fuel,
and the economic benefits it could present.

I
n November 2023, the first ever transatlantic flight in a
commercial airliner using drop-in 100% SAF was
successfully completed by Virgin Atlantic, representing
an enormous step forward in decarbonising air travel.
The question now is how can the technology be scaled and
what is the wider potential of SAF?
SAF offers a solution to reduce the lifecycle emissions
from aviation today, but its production also offers the
promise of a huge positive impact on economies. Indeed, in
the UK alone, Johnson Matthey and EY have calculated that,
if the UK meets its target of 10% SAF by 2030, not only will
this save over 3 million tpy of CO2 from entering the
atmosphere (equivalent to taking almost 2 million cars off
UK roads), but, if produced locally, it will also add up to
£11.9 billion gross value added (GVA) to the UK economy.1
100% SAF in existing aircraft
The key to unlocking the full potential of SAF lies in
overcoming the challenges associated with its composition.
Traditional jet fuel contains aromatic compounds.

HYDROCARBON 19 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 These ring-shaped molecules are an important component
of the fuel as, among other properties, they enhance
lubricity, lower freeze point, and interact with polymer seals
in the current engines and fuelling systems to help prevent
fuel leakage. Most bio-based fuels, including popular
options like hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA)
and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) products, lack these aromatic
compounds. This characteristic of these SAF components
Figure 1. The FT CANS process flow.
Figure 2. Wax and liquid produced by the FT process.
April 2024 20 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
can limit how much can be blended into conventional
jet fuel which is currently limited to a maximum of 50%.
Addressing this challenge is synthesised aromatic
kerosene (SAK), a bio-based, aromatic-rich component,
which can be blended with other SAF pathways like HEFA or
FT products to create drop-in 100% SAF. Virent, the original
inventor of BioForming® sugars-to-aromatics (S2A), and
Johnson Matthey have been working in close collaboration
on this technology, which uses biomass sugars as feedstock.
This innovation means 100% bio-based fuels can meet
current jet fuel standards, offering a sustainable,
high-performance fuel alternative.
SAK supplies the necessary aromatics for jet fuel and
can be blended with a range of other SAF, accelerating the
shift from conventional fuel to sustainable alternatives
compatible with existing aviation technology. Compared
with conventional jet fuel, blending SAF with SAK can
reduce fine particulate emissions by up to 80%. The various
demonstration flights using BioForm® SAK have also shown
that SAK can be a ‘normaliser’ to ensure different SAF
blendstocks can be brought within specification and meet
aviation performance criteria.
SAF blended with BioForm SAK offers a promising path
forward for the aviation industry in meeting its targets for
decarbonisation, but its success hinges on several factors.
The production of SAF and SAK must scale up to meet the
demands of the global aviation industry. This expansion
requires significant investment in production facilities and
the development of robust supply chains.
Driving SAF production efficiency at
scale – a view of the advancing FT
potential
There are several different processes and feedstocks that
are currently approved to produce SAF. These include HEFA,
Alcohol to Jet (AtJ) and FT products. While AtJ technology is
still developing, the conversion of waste, biomass or
existing CO2 emissions into sustainable fuels via FT synthesis
is technically proven at scale and, unlike HEFA, the process is
not reliant on limited and sometimes conflicting feedstock
resources.
FT is nothing new: the chemistry was developed in the
1920s by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch as a way of
converting carbon sources into liquid hydrocarbons via
syngas. However, the latest developments in FT technology
mean the production of fuel from sustainable carbon
sources has made the process more commercially viable at
an industrial scale.
Catalysts are used in the FT process to increase the rate
of reaction and efficiency of the process. Hydrogen and
carbon monoxide are converted into long-chain paraffins or
waxes as they pass through the catalyst. Pore diffusion and
mass transfer are critical to the performance of the catalyst
and, as the process is highly exothermic, reactor design
requires efficient removal of heat from the system.
While different reactor and catalyst combinations have
been widely used in the FT process, the FT CANSTM system,
developed by BP and Johnson Matthey, enhances the
process efficiency and intensifies the FT reaction. This
results in catalyst volumes being reduced by more than 50%
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compared with conventional fixed bed reactor
configurations, reducing capital costs, and increasing
large-scale commercial viability. Multiple tubes, each
containing around 60 - 80 CANS carriers filled with catalyst,
are hosted in the reactor, meaning the system can be readily
scaled across a very wide range of production volumes
without impacting performance. The design of the reactor
means that the gas is forced through the catalyst as it
passes radially from the inside to the outside of the tube
(Figure 1). By using a series of connected, smaller diameter
catalyst beds, heat generated can be more tightly controlled
and removed and pressure drop is lowered. The shorter
catalyst bed achieved with CANS carriers compared to
standard fixed-bed reactors means catalyst size can be
optimised to reduce diffusion resistance and drive process
efficiency by facilitating selectivity towards more desirable
long-chain hydrocarbons.
Overall, the FT CANS configuration not only uses much
less catalyst than a standard fixed bed reactor, but also
requires 95% fewer tubes and a smaller installation footprint
for the same scale of production. The technology provides
a three-fold increase in production volume when compared
with conventional fixed-bed reactors of the same size. The
overall estimated cost reduction is up to 50% with a CO
conversion rate of >90%. Step-change advances in
technology such as this are pivotal in lowering the cost to
produce SAF and enabling economically viable large-scale
production to meet the increasing global demand.
Economies of scale – the economic
impact of investment in SAF
production
The investigations by EY and Johnson Matthey show the
potential economic benefits of SAF production. If 10% of
UK jet fuel is produced as SAF in the UK, this equates to
up to £11.9 billion in GVA. This has been calculated in real
terms and discounted for 3.5% SDR as based on the
economic appraisal guidance from the HMT Green Book,
broadly reflecting the uncertainty of future impacts. The
total potential GVA includes direct, indirect, and induced
GVA, and covers both construction and operational
impacts. Direct GVA is derived from income from
construction for SAF production (main facilities and
upstream) and indirect from the wider effect on the
supply chain. Induced GVA is based on the wider impact
on the economy, allowing for the knock-on effects on
other industries and services as the SAF industry begins to
grow.
While the calculations carried out by EY are only
applied to the UK, using domestic targets for SAF
production and local economic landscape, it opens the
question of what the impact of increased SAF production
worldwide could have on global economies. While further
research would be needed to quantify wider global
economic benefits, international legislation is aligning to
drive huge increases in SAF production out to 2050 and
the emissions reduction potential is clear.
 Antonio Batistini, Enrico De Dominicis,
Massimo Di Amato, Barbara Morico,
Emma Palo, and Paola Sclafani, MAIRE,
Italy, explore how depolymerisation
technology can support the creation of new
circular value chains in the plastics sector.

P
lastics are a fundamental material that we use every day.
According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD)’s ‘Global Plastics Outlook’,
published in February 2022, plastics production has
increased nearly 230-fold, from 2 million t in 1950 to 460 million t in
2019, with a further projected increase to about 1231 million t in
2060.1
The success of plastics is now becoming its greatest threat.
According to the OECD’s ‘Global Plastics Outlook Policy Scenarios
to 2060’, published in June 2022, 353 million t of plastics waste were
produced in 2019 alone, a number expected to reach more than
1000 million t by 2060; moreover, the plastics waste management
system is severely inadequate, with only 33 million t being presently
recycled and with about 153 million t being completely
mismanaged.2
To tackle what is becoming a major global environmental crisis,
in March 2022 the UN Environment Assembly adopted a resolution
aimed at developing an international legally binding instrument to

HYDROCARBON 23 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 stop plastics pollution. During the negotiations held by the
Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on Plastics
Pollution, organisations like the High Ambition Coalition to
End Plastic Pollution put forward strong demands to place
limits on plastics production and use.3 To comply with these
exacting demands, the plastics industry must rapidly increase
the effectiveness and efficiency of plastics waste recycling
systems, establishing real and consequential plastics circular
value chains.
A fully integrated approach to plastics
circularity
With the aim of developing technologies for mechanical and
chemical recycling of waste, NEXTCHEM (MAIRE) has
developed a Green Circular District Model (Figure 1) that
consists of an integrated platform of green chemistry
technologies, including upcycling and chemical recycling.
In this framework, MyRemono is a NEXTCHEM subsidiary
that is focused on developing and licensing a novel and
Figure 1. NEXTCHEM’s Green Circular District Model.
Figure 2. MyRemono semi-industrial prototype under
construction.
April 2024 24 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
efficient continuous depolymerisation technology for plastics
chemical recycling, particularly for polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA), polystyrene (PS) and, in the future, polyolefins (PO).
MyRemono’s technology is located in the chemical
recycling area of the Green Circular District Model, building
on a chemical conversion process focused on the production
of monomers from non-recyclable plastics. This technology
can be applied to the above-mentioned polymers
(PMMA, PS and PO), deriving both from industrial scraps and
post-consumer waste, from which it can recover valuable
monomers to produce virgin-like recycled polymers. This
results in a viable solution to enhance plastics recycling,
reduce the consumption of fossil-based materials, and
address some of the main issues affecting mechanical
recycling processes.
A tool for plastics chemical recycling
The depolymerisation technology can be categorised as a
thermal-catalytic cracking process that results in monomers
which can be recovered and reused for the production of a
new virgin polymer.
The primary goal of this technology is to offer a valid
solution to the growing global problem of pollution caused
by plastic waste, capable of eliminating all the negative
environmental and economic impacts generated by the
practices currently used for the management of this type of
waste.
This technology is a continuous process, based on a
molten metal flow, maintained at a temperature ranging from
300 - 500°C. Polymeric materials to be treated are introduced
in the form of grinded particles into the depolymerisation
reactor. The proper mixing of the polymeric materials with
the continuous molten metal flow improves the quality of
both the breakdown of the polymers’ molecular bonds and
the recombination of molecules to obtain the desired
monomers, while reducing overall depolymerisation reaction
times.
The depolymerisation reaction can be described as
follows:
n When the polymers are immersed in the molten metal,
the carbon-carbon bonds that form their molecules
break down and the resulting radicals are fixed to the
metal. In this step, a series of electrons is released, with
consequent forming of aliphatic compounds.
n The molten metal assumes acid characteristics, the
aliphatic components migrate to its surface, and
therefore are protonated, becoming carbocations.
n Carbocations can undergo different types of reactions,
such as breaking into two fragments, isomerising, or
undergoing cyclisation. At the end of these reactions,
they lose a proton, restoring the activity of the molten
metal. They also migrate to the surface in the form of
gas.
The main product generated by the reaction between
polymers and the molten metal flow is a monomer-rich
depolymerisation gas which, after emerging from the molten
metal, is conveyed into a condensation or a cooling system.
The configuration of this latter part of the process is
influenced by the type of polymer treated; for instance,
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 when processing PMMA and PS-based polymers, a liquid final
product is generated, thus requiring a final condensation
system. When treating polyolefins, the depolymerisation
technology generates mainly a gaseous final product which
requires a cooling system similar to that used in
hydrocarbon-fed ethylene and propylene plants.
The type of polymer treated also influences either the
composition and the quantity of the noncondensable or
useless fraction of the depolymerisation gas which,
depending on its characteristics, could be vented after
Figure 3. PMMA regrind.
Figure 4. Activated carbon filtration, from left not
filtered and filtered samples.
Figure 5. Nanofiltration, from left not filtered,
retentates and permeates.
April 2024 26 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
passing through a vent gas treatment system or used as an
energy source to partially fuel the depolymerisation process.
The continuous flow of the molten metal also favours its
continuous cleaning, eliminating the solid products generated
during the breakdown of the polymers’ molecules, without
requiring any stop to the depolymerisation process.
The molten metal can be lead, tin, zinc, antimony,
cadmium and magnesium and mixtures thereof, optionally
mixed with other metals and/or acid components.
Industrial application
The depolymerisation technology has been tested through
both lab-scale and semi-industrial scale prototypes (Figure 2)
using different plastics waste and materials.
The most extensive tests have been performed using
PMMA waste and materials (Figure 3), which could be
consistently depolymerised to a high-quality recycled methyl
methacrylate (rMMA). To perform the tests, a mixed-coloured
PMMA regrind, with a granule size varying from
1 mm to 16 mm, was used as the main raw material.
The PMMA tests were primarily focused on identifying
the optimal operational conditions for the depolymerisation
process, in order to maximise both the recovery rate and the
quality of the recovered recycled monomer rMMA. The tests
achieved a recovery rate up to 95 wt% on the PMMA
processed, with an MMA concentration up to 97 wt% on the
raw rMMA.
Secondly, a series of tests were carried out to identify the
most efficient and effective purification system, including
tests on activated carbon filtration (Figure 4) and
nanofiltration (Figure 5), with varying degrees of success.
At the end of this second phase of testing, a purified
rMMA with a quality suitable to generate a 100%
rMMA-made cast sheet was achieved (Figure 6). Moreover,
samples of this purified rMMA sent to third parties for
analysis and production tests have been received with
significant interest.
Building on the results obtained during the PMMA
testing campaigns, MyRemono is developing its first industrial
plant, focused on recycling PMMA into a high quality rMMA
with a 99%+ MMA content, characterised by a carbon
footprint that is approximately 96% lower than that of virgin
MMA.4 This new plant will work in a continuous mode for an
expected on-stream factor of about 7680 hr/yr, with a
PMMA regrind throughput capacity of 650 kg/h and an
overall yearly throughput capacity of approximately 5000 t.
The plant will incorporate the following main features:
n PMMA reception and storage area.
n PMMA quality control platform and charging system.
n A depolymerisation unit.
n A condensation and a two-stage purification unit.
n A rMMA storage and loading system.
The PMMA is fed into the depolymerisation unit where it
is mixed with the plant molten metal. The contact between
the PMMA and the metal greatly amplifies the effectiveness
of the thermal energy, breaking down the PMMA molecular
bonds in a fast and efficient way, and produces a
methyl methacrylate rich depolymerisation gas, together
with some solid residue.
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 While the gas is fed to the condensation unit to become
raw rMMA, the solid residue is accumulated inside a
dedicated section of plant and from there it is periodically
removed and sent to disposal, without requiring any plant
stoppage.
The raw rMMA is then fed to the purification unit where,
thanks to a two-stage process, it is purified from both MMA
low and heavy boilers, as well as from other impurities,
generating a high quality purified rMMA.
At the end of the purification step, the plant will have
generated the following outputs:
n A purified rMMA stream.
n A MMA high boilers liquid stream used internally to
generate energy on site.
n A MMA low boiler gaseous stream used internally to
generate energy on site.
n A water stream generated during the purification step,
to be sent for recovery or disposal.
n A solid residue stream generated during the
depolymerisation step, to be sent for recovery or
disposal.
Figure 6. MyRemono purified rMMA sample and
rPMMA sheet 100% rMMA-made construction.
Figure 7. HIPS shreds and MyRemono’s rStyrene.
Figure 8. MyRemono route to polyolefin chemical recycling.
April 2024 28 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
The plant, which will be located in Montorio al Vomano
in central Italy, is presently at the permitting phase and is due
to start operations by 2H25. According to first forecasts,
MyRemono is expected to license the technology starting
from 2030.
Future applications
According to the preliminary tests performed on
styrene-based and olefin-based polymers, the technology
appears suitable to efficiently recycle these types of plastics
waste and materials.
Tests performed on high impact polystyrene (HIPS)
highlighted an interesting crude rStyrene quality (Figure 7),
as well as a high recovery level. Analysis of MyRemono raw
rStyrene has also been conducted by a third party.
Throughout 2024, further tests will be performed, which
aim to maximise rStyrene quality and recovery rates, as well
as demonstrate the technology’s applicability to other
polystyrene-based streams.
Tests with polyolefins demonstrated that the
depolymerisation technology could work as a ‘polyolefin
steam cracker’, returning these plastics into an ethylene- and
propylene-rich gas, which could potentially be directly fed
into the back-end of a steam cracker without requiring any
further cracking process (Figure 8). MyRemono’s polyolefins
application by-passes the clean-up and steam cracking
phases, which provides a more efficient and cost-effective
solution.
Between 2024 and 2025, tests will be performed aimed at
confirming and optimising this additional technology
application.
Conclusion
Boosting the scope of plastics waste recycling systems and
establishing highly valuable plastics circular value chains is of
paramount importance for the plastics and chemical sectors
to thrive.
To achieve these objectives, the massive deployment of
a combination of consolidated technologies and new
recycling solutions is vital.
In this framework, MyRemono’s technology – combining
advantages such as a continuous process, high energy-mass
transfer ratio, short residence times and a high flexibility in
treating different types of plastics waste within compact
plants – is a valuable tool in the fight against plastics
pollution, contributing to the decarbonisation of the plastic
industry and strengthening the health of the plastics and
chemical sectors.
References
1. ‘Global Plastics Outlook: Economic Drivers,
Environmental Impacts and Policy Options’,
OECD, (February 2022).
2. ‘Global Plastics Outlook Policy Scenarios to
2060’, OECD, (June 2022).
3. ‘Potential options for elements towards an
international legally binding instrument by
the co-chairs of the High Ambition Coalition
to End Plastic Pollution’, High Ambition
Coalition to End Plastic Pollution.
4. ECOINVENT 3.9.1 database for the
conventional European production of
virgin-MMA.
Kae S. Wong, Fabrice Cuoq,
Giri Anupam, Omid Emamjomeh
and Christoph J. Dittrich,
SABIC Global Technologies B.V.,
alongside Rasha H. Daadoush
and Vishvedeep Bhatt, Aramco,
highlight how adsorption is an
effective way to stabilise and
remove chlorides in plastic
derived oil (PDO) to protect
downstream assets.
P
lastics are ubiquitous in industrial and commodity
applications. While more than 1 million t of plastics
are produced and used every day, used plastics have
created environmental challenges due to their long
natural decomposition process. Global awareness about
plastic pollution and its impact on ecosystems continues to
grow. Producers are experiencing growing pressure from
consumers to reduce plastic waste, and national
HYDROCARBON 29 April 2024
ENGINEERING
 governments, particularly in Europe, are introducing
ambitious targets for a circular economy. All these
factors are currently catalysing the development and
implementation of plastic recycling technologies around
the globe.
Plastic recycling recovers used plastic products at the
end of their useful life and reprocesses them via
mechanical and chemical recycling routes. Mechanical
recycling uses mechanical processes such as sorting,
washing, drying, grinding and compounding, to convert
used plastics back into plastic products. Advanced
recycling processes mostly rely on the pyrolysis of used
plastic packaging, possibly after washing, into plastic
Figure 1. (a) Mechanical recycling and (b) chemical recycling of
used plastics.
Figure 2. World’s first commercial unit for the chemical recycling of used plastic
with the pyrolysis unit on the right and the hydrotreatment unit on the left
(photograph taken in Geleen, the Netherlands in March 2023). Image courtesy of
SABIC.
April 2024 30 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
pyrolysis oil, which is also known as plastic derived oil
(PDO). Both routes have their pros and cons and are
complementary to each other (Figure 1). Mechanical
recycling has the advantage of reprocessing used plastic
directly in the converter, which is more energy efficient.
Mechanical recycling has limitations on optimum
recycling of plastic packaging waste because plastics are
mostly recycled into applications that are not recyclable
again after use. The product properties of mechanically
recycled plastics are typically of lower value than for
virgin plastics, which limits, combined with possible
contaminants, the use in applications driven by high
standards, for example in food or healthcare packaging.
Mechanical recycling is mostly suitable to
recycle pure thermoplastics, which are
available via collection and sorting in large
quantities. However, this collected waste also
contains multilayer/multiproducts packaging
applications, food residues and plastics which
cannot be sorted for mechanical recycling for
other reasons.
On the other hand, chemical recycling
ensures mechanical and processing properties
equivalent to the virgin material, making it an
attractive recycling route for brand owners
and customers that demand high quality
packaging solutions. Chemical recycling
enables the recycling of plastic waste streams
for which there are no recycling solutions
today. It recycles low quality, mixed plastic
waste that is otherwise destined for
incineration or landfill, back to the original
polymer through pyrolysis to its molecular
building blocks.
Other chemical recycling technologies
that rely on solvolysis or biological/enzymatic
degradation are being developed. However,
these technologies are generally dedicated to
the recycling of one specific polymer,
e.g. PET, which requires high purity feedstock
in a similar manner to mechanical recycling,
and is generally not suitable for used
polyolefins.
In the pyrolysis process, the used plastics
are heated to
approximately 400°C or
more without adding
oxygen, so the long chains
cleave into shorter chains.
Through the pyrolysis
processes, the plastic
waste is broken down to
oil, (called pyrolysis oil or
PDO) gas and a solid
residue. The PDO is used
as an alternative
feedstock to replace fossil
oil or naphtha and fed to
a liquid cracker for the
production of monomers
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 such as ethylene or propylene that will be used to
produce polyolefins.
Compared to fossil-based feedstock, PDO contains
substantially higher amount of chlorides, nitrogen- and
oxygen- containing components. Souchon et al
mentioned that the organic chlorine (Cl) concentration in
PDO can be up to two orders of magnitude higher
compared to a fossil feed.1 Those contaminants can have
a detrimental impact on the assets, such as corrosion
(from chlorinated and fluorinated species) and lead to
fouling (from olefins and diolefins). As a result, further
processing of PDO requires pre-treatment of the raw
PDO to remove contaminants and reactive components,
such as (di)olefins, chlorides, nitrogen- and
oxygen-containing components. Additionally, unstable
components in PDO can lead to precipitation and
sedimentation of gum-like degradation products during
transport and storage.
The PDO pre-treatment methods can be divided
into physical and chemical techniques. Hydrotreatment
is a chemical upgrading method which catalytically
converts (di)olefins into saturated components,
Figure 3. The reduction of oxygen compounds,
nitrogen compounds, and chloride compounds in
the used PDO, using different solid adsorbents. The
selected adsorbents include silica product 1 (1), clay
product 1 (2), ion exchange resin (3), molecular sieve
(4), clay product 2 (5), activated carbon product 1 (6),
activated carbon product 2 (7), silica product 2 (8),
washed activated carbon (9), clay product 3 (10), and
calcium oxide (11).
Figure 4. The changes in hydrocarbon composition
(carbon number) for untreated and treated PDO using
molecular sieves and activated carbon.
April 2024 32 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
nitrogen-containing components into ammonia,
oxygen-containing components into water, and organic
chlorinated components into hydrogen chloride. SABIC
is building the first-of-its-kind commercial hydrotreating
unit for this purpose (Figure 2). The physical upgrading
methods, such as adsorption, absorption, filtration,
liquid extraction and distillation, rely on removing the
contaminants based on the physical properties of PDO
components.
PDO characterisation
In order to validate effective upgrading methods,
adequate analytical techniques are required.
Understanding chloride speciation is critical as chlorides
are amongst the most harmful components with regards
to corrosion as they form hydrochloric acid during high
temperature processing. Souchon et al summarise the
standard methods of chlorine determination in crude oil
and petroleum derivatives, e.g., ASTM D4929,
ASTM D7536, UOP 779, etc. These standard methods only
monitor the total Cl content, which may not be
sufficient for Cl compounds originating from chlorinated
polymers such as PVC. Cl speciation techniques (which
are used to identify the type of chlorinated species) are
essential to obtain a better insight for developing
upgrading technologies and distinguishing organic
chlorides from inorganic salts. 1-chlorobutane,
1,2-dichloroethane and 2-chloroethanol were the most
abundant volatile organic Cl species identified in PDO
samples analysed by gas chromatography with ICP
tandem mass spectrometry, GC-ICP-MS/MS.1
Pyridine and its derivatives, such as methylpyridines,
are found in the naphtha fraction of PDO analysed by
the 2D gas chromatography (GC X GC) coupled to four
different detectors.2 Regarding oxygenates, alcohols,
ketones and ethers were detected.
SABIC recently developed a simple and affordable
speciation method. The method uses a specific halogen
detector (XSD) combined with 1D gas chromatography.
Compounds are first identified using a separate
GC X GC-MS system and added to the GC-XSD
chromatogram using known retention time. Chloride salts
and organic chloride compounds, such as chlorinated
hydrocarbons, e.g., chlorethanol and chlorobenzonitrile,
were successfully identified and quantified.
PDO upgrading via adsorption
Based on the PDO characterisation data, the
heteroatoms in PDO are mainly polar in nature with low
carbon numbers. Hence, some of the oxygen-, nitrogen-,
and chloride-containing compounds in PDO can be
adsorbed on solid adsorbents, such as activated carbon,
solid alkali, solid acid, clays, silica, etc. Depending on the
size and shape of the adsorbents, e.g., pellets, extrudates,
powders, granules, etc., the adsorption vessel can be a
fixed bed or a stirred slurry unit.
Figure 3 shows the reduction in the oxygen-,
nitrogen- and chloride-containing compounds in the
PDO, using selected solid adsorbents. All of the tested
adsorbents show between 30 and 55% relative
 Cl reduction. These results have been obtained in batch
(stirred batch slurry) experiments using these solid
adsorbents at approximately 10 wt% and 24 hours
contact time at 20°C. The initial atomic chloride
concentration was 160 ppmw.3
The hydrocarbon composition changes slightly when
the PDO is treated with activated carbon (Figure 4). The
activated carbon treated PDO became slightly lighter as
seen in Figure 4 where a higher amount of low-carbon
number components were detected. No significant
hydrocarbon composition changes were observed for
the molecular sieve treated PDO. As shown in Figure 5
for selected identified chlorinated species, the
concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane and
2-chloroethanol were reduced for a large portion after
treatment, with both activated carbon and molecule
sieves. On the other hand, the removal of
2-chloroethylbenzoate was less pronounced on the
molecular sieve compared to 1,2-dichloroethane and
2-chloroethanol. This suggests a size effect where
2-chloroethylbenzoate is too large to properly enter the
pores of the molecular sieve. Tests performed at lower
adsorbent concentrations have shown that polarity of
the species also impacts adsorption, where
2-chloroethanol was preferentially adsorbed.
Adsorption kinetics controls the adsorption rate,
which determines the time required to reach equilibrium
for the adsorption process. The adsorption transport
model can give information regarding adsorption
Accurate
liquid water
measurements
in EDC
pathways, which is important information for the
development of the process and the adsorption system
design. In order to determine the chloride adsorption
kinetics, the dynamic behaviour of a fixed-bed column
was fitted to the pseudo-first-order (PFO) and
pseudo-second-order (PSO) kinetic models. The
PFO model assumes the rate of change of solute uptake
with time is directly proportional to the difference
between saturation (equilibrium) and actual loading (still
available adsorption capacity), which is generally
applicable over the initial stage of an adsorption
process.4 The rate constant of adsorption is expressed as
a first-order rate expression given in Equation 1:
(1)
The logarithmic form of the integrated PFO kinetic
Equation (1) gives the linear expression in Equation 2:
(2)
Where: qt is the adsorbate loading adsorbed at time
t (mgCl/gad); qe is the equilibrium adsorption capacity
(mgCl/gad); k1 is the rate constant (/min).
The PSO kinetic model assumes a quadratic
dependency between the adsorption rate and the still
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 available adsorption capacity, and can be described by
Equation 3:
(3)
The integrated form of the PSO kinetic Equation 3
can be linearised into Equation 4:
(4)
Figure 5. The changes in selected chlorinated species
in PDO treated with molecular sieves and active
charcoals.
Figure 6. Sorption kinetics of total Cl adsorption onto
activated carbon obtained using equations 1 - 4.
Figure 7. Gum prevention on (b) molecular sieve and
(c) activated carbon treated PDO compared to the
(a) untreated PDO.
April 2024 34 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Where qt is the adsorbate adsorbed at time t
(mgCl/gad); qe is the equilibrium adsorption capacity
(mgCl/gad); k2 is the rate constant (g/mg/min).
Figure 6 shows that the PSO model is in good
agreement with experimental data over 1 day of run time.
Therefore, the PSO kinetic model is applicable to
describe the total Cl adsorption kinetics on activated
carbon. This model can be used to design the adsorption
column, as well as to predict the time when the
adsorbent reaches saturation.
Finally, Figure 7 shows that the molecular sieve and
activated carbon treated PDO is lighter in colour
compared to the untreated PDO. This shows that the
molecules which cause the colouration in PDO are
partially adsorbed on the adsorbent. Additionally, the
untreated PDO shows deposits of a semisolid and creamy
layer on the bottom of the cylinder after 30 days of
storage. On the other hand, no layer deposition was
observed in the adsorbents treated PDO samples. This
deposit layer is known as gum, which precipitates out of
the solution with time due to ageing of the PDO.
Treating the PDO with adsorbents, such as activated
carbon and molecular sieves, removes gum and/or gum
precursors from the PDO and increases the stability of
the PDO.5
Conclusion
The removal of chlorinated species in PDO is essential
to protect the downstream refining and chemical assets
from potential corrosion. Adsorption is proven as a
simple and effective chloride removal step. It also
stabilises PDO during transport by avoiding gum
formation. The development of these upgrading
technologies should, on one hand, focus on the
contaminants removal efficiency, considering the
carbon footprint impact of these additional upgrading
steps. Lastly, in addition to mechanical and chemical
recycling, other efforts, such as design for recyclability
and closed loop recycling, should be promoted.
Working side-by-side with partners across the entire
value chain is essential to develop robust and diverse
circular solutions and establish a new circular plastic
ecosystem.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Aramco Sabic Circular
Solutions Technology Integration workstream.
References
1. SOUCHON, V., MALEVAL, M., CHAINET, F., and LIENEMANN, C. P.,
‘Chlorine speciation in complex hydrocarbon matrices using
GC-ICP-MS/MS’. J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 38, 1634, (2023).
2. THI, H. D., DJOKIC, M. R., and VAN GEEM, K. M., ‘Detailed
group-type characterization of plastic-waste pyrolysis oils: By
comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography including
linear, branched and di-olefins’, Separations 2021, 8, 103.
3. SCHUCKER, R. C., CUOQ F., SUMPENA, K., and WONG, K.,
‘Methods for treatment of mixed plastic waste pyrolysis oil’,
WO2023279022A1, 2023.
4. VAREDA, J. P., ‘On validity, physical meaning, mechanism insights
and regression of adsorption kinetic models’, J. Mol. Liquids,
376, 121416, (2023).
5. GIRI, A., EMAMJOMEH, A. R., and CUOQ, F., ‘Systems and methods
for processing pyrolysis oil’, WO2021255591A2, (2021).
Fatemah Jameel Fraidoun, Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC), presents a case
study in which the Mina Al Ahmadi refinery optimised its isomerisation unit in order to
reduce the isomerate Reid vapour pressure and maintain high research octane number.

T
he ever-growing global demand for cleaner fuels is
challenging refineries to increase the production of
low-sulfur and aromatic gasoline components.1 The
light naphtha isomerisation process can reduce the
aromatics from catalytic reforming products.2 A crucial barrier is
the high isomerate Reid vapour pressure (RVP), which affects
the MOGAS pool blend. As a result, extra quantities of other
higher research octane number (RON) and lower RVP gasoline
streams are sacrificed, or product sales quality is jeopardised.
Reducing isomerate RVP is accompanied by a loss in octane
barrels. Previous research has focused on enhancing product
yield or RON. This article explains how a lower RVP product can
be achieved while maintaining a high RON and presents
guidelines for other optimisers that share the same goal.
The subject of the case study presented in this article is a
C5/C6 isomerisation unit at the Mina Al Ahmadi (MAA) refinery
in Kuwait, constructed of treating sections for hydrogen and
light naphtha feed to remove sulfur, chloride, and moisture. The
feed mixture is then heated sequentially by exchange with the
effluent of two reactors operating in series. Raw isomerate is
then sent to a stabiliser column for C4- components removal.
The stabiliser overhead gas is treated in a net gas scrubber for
HCl neutralisation. The isomerate is routed to the
deisohexaniser (DIH), in which further optimisation of the
column’s streams achieves the required product specification.
The DIH overhead stream contains the main isomerate
composition of normal pentane (nC5), iso-pentane (iC5), and
dimethylbutanes (DMBs). The bottom flow of DIH contains
heavier C7+ components that contribute to lowering the final
product RVP. Finally, a side cut from the column is recycled to
the reactor with fresh feed. This stream contains normal hexane
(nC6) and methylpentane (MPs), with RONs that can be further
upgraded.
The author’s strategy is:
n Firstly, to understand the effect of feed composition on
unit operation and desired product quality.
n Secondly, to record and maintain the optimal reactor
operating temperature at which desired conversions are
achieved.
n Thirdly, study the stabiliser column behaviour and
construct an approach to identify the changes in feed
composition without sample analysis.
n Finally, understand the DIH operation and its effect on
product quality.

HYDROCARBON 35 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 It was concluded that the reactor feed composition affects Feed composition
the performance of all columns and, therefore, product quality. Maintaining steady feed quantity and quality is the main factor
Consequently, the author presents an inclusive and systematic affecting the results’ consistency. The fresh feed and DIH
optimisation approach for feed composition and column recycled stream affect the quality of combined feed to the lead
operation. reactor. Therefore, comparing reactor feed composition with
remaining factors constructs a representative analysis of feed
Plan and strategy quality impact on product quality. Generally, lowering C4- and
The trial aims to reduce isomerate RVP from 14.1 to below 12.8 psi C7+ components reduces isomerate RVP. However, a steep
while maintaining around 87 RON. The reduction in nC5 to iC5 reduction in C7+ may lead to disturbances in the stabiliser, and
conversion results in a lower presence of the higher RVP iC5 their absence in the DIH bottom will eventually lead to an
components in the final product. Hence, the desired isomerate increase in isomerate RVP. For higher than 50% operating
RVP is expected to be accompanied by a lower RON by at least capacity, it is advisable to maintain 2.7 - 4.1 mol% of C7+
two figures, i.e., 87 to 85. Therefore, familiarising oneself with components in the feed.
RON and RVP for each component, as shown in Table 1, is the Three feed cases (A - C) with different compositions were
first step towards achieving the desired product quality. The selected for the trial, where feed cases A and B have similar C7+
isomerate composition is affected by several factors, such as components and case A contains more C5s. On the other hand,
operating capacity, fresh and combined feed composition, cases B and C have similar C5s, and the second is lower in C7+.
hydrogen purity, HLSV, reactor temperature, stabiliser and The components were altered in these manners to understand
deisohexaniser column operation. The unit operating capacity the effect of feed composition on product RON and RVP.
during the trial is 75% due to feed unavailability. Despite this, the
author was able to achieve similar results at a higher operating Reactors performance
capacity. The hydrogen purity and HLSV remained constant The isomerisation reactions, benzene saturation, ring opening
throughout the trial and will therefore be excluded from the and cracking occur in the lead reactor. Hence, the lag reactor
analysis. inlet temperature is lowered to maintain paraffin to iso-paraffin
conversion and avoid reaction reversibility. The focus is on
Table 1. Reference for hydrocarbon components achieving an optimal inlet temperature for both reactors at
RON and RVP3 which DMBs production is maximised and nC5 to iC5 conversion
Component RON RVP (psi) is lowered without highly impacting product RON. For this study,
lead and lag reactor inlet temperatures are reduced below
IC4 100.2 71.9
normal operating conditions by 7 and 5°C, respectively. Most
NC4 95 51.5
importantly, the lead reactor inlet temperature should not result
IC5 93.5 18.93 in complete C7+ cracking to avoid eliminating its presence in
NC5 61.7 14.42 isomerate and increasing C4- components. Different outcomes
CP 102.3 9.18 are expected for cases with varying numbers of reactors and
22DMB 94 9.13 catalyst types.
23DMB 105 6.85
Stabiliser column
2MP 74.4 6.27 Promoting the stabiliser column separation allows for improving
3MP 75.5 6.27 product RVP due to minimising C4- components slippage with
NC6 31 4.59 the raw isomerate. Lifting a small portion of the isomerate C5s
MCP 96 4.17 with the stabiliser off-gas will improve RVP with minimal effect
CH 84 3.02 on RON, especially at high DMBs conversion. The stabiliser reflux
rate and bottom reboiling remained constant throughout the
BZ 230 2.98
cases to assess the impact of different feed compositions on
C7+ 82 2.1 product quality. Double membrane
technology can be introduced to
recover hydrogen and LPG
components from the net gas to
accommodate losses in isomerate
yield. Hydrogen can be routed to a
hydrogen recovery unit, while LPG
can be sent as a product.

Deisohexaniser column
The most potent streams that
process engineers can artistically
optimise to impact isomerate
quality is the DIH. The type of
Figure 1. Reactor feed quality based on the stabiliser column operation. adjustment differs based on the
reactor and DIH feed components.

April 2024 36 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
The guidelines in Figures 1 and 2 assist in identifying the changes
in reactor feed quality without a sample and advise on the
required DIH stream optimisation. The focus should be on
optimising the column to allow the accumulation of DMBs in the
system as this maintains higher product RON and lower RVP. It
was found that this is more achievable at lower operating
capacities than 100% as there is more flexibility in optimising the
unit.
Stabiliser column
The stabiliser bottom temperature was maintained at a standard
operating value with a reflux flowrate higher by 8% throughout
the three cases. The higher C5 and C7+ components in the
Case A feed resulted in a top temperature of 98.5°C against
96.9°C and 95.5°C for Cases B and C, respectively. At the same
operating conditions, the higher the C4s, C5s and C7+
components in the reactor feed, the higher the stabiliser

Results and discussion

Feed quality
The composition of the reactor’s three feed cases (A - C)
were analysed to understand the impact of components,
RON and RVP on product quality. The results revealed that
feed RON and RVP only sometimes directly correlate with
product RON and RVP. Therefore, the comparison was
dedicated to specific components. As shown in
Figures 3 and 4, an increase in higher RVP contributors
(C4s, C5s, C7+) and a decrease in lower RVP components
(nC6, MPs, DMBs) is directly proportional to high product
RVP and lower RON.
The Case A feed contained 31 mol% of C5s and 3.3 mol%
of C7+, twice the content of that in Case C. Moreover, the
total nC6s, MPs and DMBs in Case A were lower than in
Case C by 16.4 mol%. As a result, Case A product RON and
RVP were 87.6 and 11.5 psi, respectively, while Case C product
RON was 86.3 with a RVP of 10.6 psi. On the other hand,
Case C feed contained higher 2.8 mol% nC6, MPs and DMBs,
0.9 and 1.67 mol% lower C5s and C7+, respectively, than
Case B. The differences were minor however, with different
stabiliser and DIH column operating parameters, the resulting
Case B product RVP is 11 psi with a RON of 87. Although the
isomerate RON for Case C was lower than the minimum
requirement of 87, the reduction was considered minimal for
the RVP difference of 2.2 psi. Figure 2. Optimising isomerisation unit to reduce isomerate
In conclusion, the results of the three presented cases RVP whilst maintaining higher RON.
met the trial’s target of RVP below 12.8 psi
while maintaining a higher RON. To
illustrate, the original product RON was 87,
with an RVP above 13.0 psi. From the
author’s experience, the results shown in
Case B are more achievable and optimal.

Reactors performance
The author prefers to keep the reactor
temperature adjustment as the last
optimisation option to preserve the
catalyst lifecycle. The key is that the
selected temperature does not result in
lower RVP by a drastic reduction in nC5 to
iC5 conversion, as presented in Figure 5.
Therefore, the optimal lead reactor inlet
temperature was maintained throughout
the trial, while the lag reactor’s
temperature was slightly increased to be
aligned with the increase in nC6/MPs
components. The temperatures were
Figure 3. The impact of feeding higher and lower RVP components on
deliberately maintained constant to isomerate RVP.
observe the stabiliser behaviour.

HYDROCARBON 37 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 overhead and return reflux temperatures. Lifting higher RVP
components with the off-gases is more achievable for Case C
due to the feed’s lower presence of C4s and C5s. Consequently,
reducing the stabiliser bottom temperature would increase
Case C product RVP, and a higher temperature would decrease
Case A RVP.
Higher return temperature and overhead cooling were
required for Case A due to the feed’s higher C4 and C5 content.
Subsequently, cooling requirements dropped for the other cases.
Reducing the reflux rate would affect the separation efficiency,
leading to more C5s in the raw isomerate. Therefore, slightly
increasing the return temperature of Cases B and C would result
in more effective separation. Although the top temperature may
drop with the higher reflux rate, unnecessary energy losses due
to heating the additional reflux shall be avoided. Moreover, the
reflux return temperature must be aligned with the downstream
net gas scrubber operating condition to avoid foaming.
Figure 4. The impact of feeding higher and lower RVP components on
isomerate RON.
Figure 5. The effect of lower iC5 to nC5 conversion on product RON and RVP.
April 2024 38 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
In conclusion, based on the optimiser requirements, a decision
can be made on what elements to sacrifice while operating the
unit safely.
Deisohexaniser column
The DIH top and bottom temperatures, reflux rate, and
overhead flowrate decreased along Cases A - C. On the other
hand, DIH bottom flow and recycling increased. The column
behaviour is associated more with the quality of DIH feed, which
changed due to the different reactor feed quality and
maintained stabiliser bottom temperature. A higher presence of
C4 and C5 components in the DIH is expected when the reactor
feed is lighter. Hence, an increase in the DIH overhead flow and
reflux rate was observed in Case A. Subsequently, the bottom
and recycle were reduced to maintain the overall column
balance, resulting in higher product RVP and RON.
The Case C feed was lower in C4 and C5s and higher in
lower RVP components, which resulted in
lower DIH overhead flow and reflux rate.
Consequently, the bottom and recycle
flows increased to maintain material
balance, contributing to lower product RVP
with minimal reduction in RON.
In conclusion, minimising product RVP
while boosting RON requires lower iC5 and
a higher DMBs presence in the overhead
with maximising nC6 and MPs in recycle to
increase DMBs conversion.
Conclusion
Isomerisation is a leading process for
refineries that aim to compete in global
oil markets with low aromatic and sulfur
gasoline. Enhancing isomerate quality
depends on operational planning
requirements of higher yield or RON.
Despite this, high gasoline RVP can be a
challenge for refineries, and reducing
isomerate RVP is expected to result in
lower RON. An in-house exercise was
conducted at the MAA refinery to
minimise isomerate RVP while maintaining
a high RON. Isomerate RVP was reduced
from a maximum of 14.1 to 11 psi with a
RON of 87. It is worth mentioning that an
isomerate RON of 89 was achievable at
an RVP lower than 12.8 psi. The
conclusion of this trial is constructed in
Figure 2 as a guideline to assist other
optimisers in their journey to achieve
similar objectives.
References
1. CISCHKE, S., ‘The Need for Global Availability
of High Quality Fuels’, available at: https://
unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2007/
wp29/Presentation%20OICA.pdf
2. HUSSAIN, N., ‘Euro Specifications of Gasoline
fuel’, available at: https://thepetrosolutions.
com/euro-specifications-of-gasoline-fuel/.
3. BENTAHAR, N., KHELASSI, S., and
ABDELRAZEK, F., ‘Production of clean gasoline
from condensate’, Egyptian Journal of
Petroleum, 22(3), pp. 345 - 350, (2013).
 Jaspreet Nijjar, Tracerco, UK, explores the benefits offered by specialist
scanning and radiotracer technologies in optimising processes.

I
n order to remain competitive in the current
economic climate, process optimisation is key for
refining, petrochemical, and chemical processing
industries. As plants and refineries are continuously
expanding to meet current and future demands, units are
being pushed well into and above their design capacity,
limiting output from the unit and product purities. Only
by having a complete understanding of their processes
can operators make the decisions and changes required
to deliver safer and more efficient production.
Tracerco has deployed specialist scanning and
radiotracer technologies to aid operators with
troubleshooting production problems and process
optimisation. These non-intrusive measurements provide
a visualisation of real-time process conditions whilst they
are online, enabling operational and mechanical issues to
be identified at the earliest possible stage when adopting
preventative approaches to process control. This has
helped operators to maximise production output, reduce
unit downtime and optimise maintenance schedules.
Diagnostic technologies
There are two main types of diagnostic, or scanning,
technologies employed by Tracerco; gamma and neutron.
Gamma ray absorption involves the use of a gamma
emitting radioisotope, typically 60Co or 137Cs, placed on

HYDROCARBON 39 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 one side of the vessel or pipe and a scintillation detector technology empowered an operator to make a critical
mounted on the opposite side. The attenuation in process decision to maximise yield.
radiation by the process media is measured, generating a
real-time density profile from which the mechanical Case study 1
integrity of the internals can be inferred and any process In this case study, a customer was experiencing a
issues, such as fouling, foaming, flooding and liquid reduction in production output and, after consultation, it
maldistribution identified. These scanning technologies was concluded that the debutaniser tower appeared to be
have been deployed on a variety of assets, including the bottleneck for the unit. They identified unwanted
packed-bed and trayed towers, tanks, pipes, separators heavy material in the overhead at high-rate conditions.
and reactors, whether the assets have been operating in Since the customer had no differential pressure
normal, test or upset conditions. The results from instrumentation or sample points available, the pressure
Tracerco’s analysis of the data have provided operators drop through the vessel could not be confirmed. The
with a clear picture into the performance of their assets, customer was able to increase feed over 20 - 25% of the
enabling them to take corrective action to troubleshoot tray design. However, they could not increase reboiler
and optimise their processes. The following case study duty without sending heavy material overhead when
demonstrates how Tracerco’s gamma scanning reboiler boil up was increased. The customer’s simulations
indicated, at those conditions, the vessel should not be
operating near 100% flood. In order to obtain insight into
Table 1. Tracerco technology vs the customer’s the process conditions and verification of the simulations,
in-house simulations the customer elected to perform three gamma scans
Rate % tray spacing (known as Tru-ScanTM) at low, medium and high rates on
Quantified From customers the debutaniser column at maximum feed rates (20 - 25%
using Tracerco’s in-house over design). The results of the gamma scans are depicted
FrothView simulations in Figure 1.
technology Using Tracerco’s FrothViewTM technology, the
Low (blue scanline 50 - 70% 50 - 60% percentage froth height, equivalent to percentage tray
in Figure 1) space, was quantified from the scans (represented by the
Mid (red scanline in 70 - 95% 70 - 80% bars and numbers shown on the right hand side of
Figure 1) Figure 1). Table 1 compares the tray spacing obtained from
High (black scanline 100%, indicative of 80 - 90% the technology vs the customer’s in-house simulations.
in Figure 1) flooding The data gathered from the Tru-Scan and FrothView
surveys showed they were in
fact experiencing flooding at
higher rates than their
in-house simulations were
predicting. With this
knowledge, the customer
made a design modification to
the trays by increasing the hole
area on the active panels to
reduce pressure drop. This
enabled the customer to
operate at the higher rates,
without adversely effecting
overhead material purities, and
resulted in 15 - 20% additional
throughput.

Neutron
The second diagnostic
technology works on the
principle of neutron
backscatter. A small portable
lightweight instrument
containing a neutron source
and detector, is placed against
the vessel wall. The
high-energy neutrons from the
Figure 1. Gamma scans (Tru-ScanTM) performed under various operating conditions
on a debutaniser tower. neutron source penetrate the
vessel wall and interact with

April 2024 40 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 the process media. If the process media is hydrogenous, phases in a vessel, e.g., vapour, foam oil, emulsion, water
the high energy neutrons are diffused and scattered back and solids. The neutron backscatter technology is widely
to the detector as slow neutrons. In this way, the response implemented by operators to give them accurate
at the detector is directly proportional to the hydrogen inventories of their storage tanks and diagnose interface
content of the media, i.e. the more hydrogen in the media, control issues in separators. An example of how the
the more neutrons are scattered back and the higher neutron backscatter technology aided with optimisation
response seen at the detector. This technology can of a separator’s performance is outlined below.
therefore be used to measure the levels of different
Case study 2
A refinery customer requested
neutron backscatter scans to
assist with evaluating the
effectiveness of two different
demulsifier chemicals on their
separator. Four scans were
performed on the separator:
two baseline scans and two
following the addition of the
two different demulsifier
chemicals. The results are
shown in Figure 2.
The first baseline scan (light
blue line) showed that there
was approximately 1 m of clear
water at the bottom of the
separator. A gradual reduction
in response was observed from
the 1 m elevation, up to the
Figure 2. Neutron backscatter scans performed on a separator: two baseline and
top of the weir which would
two following the injection of demulsifier chemicals.
be caused by emulsion. The
second scan (green line),
performed after the first
demulsifier chemical was added, showed a severe
emulsion had been created, with evidence of less than
15 cm of clean water in the bottom. The third scan (black
curve) was a baseline scan performed the next day which
showed that the conditions inside the separator had
returned to the baseline conditions of the first scan. The
fourth scan (red line), following the addition of the second
demulsifier chemical, showed that the emulsion that was
on top of the water level had been removed. This data
enabled the customer to select the second demulsifier
chemical to optimise their process by effectively
controlling the dosing regime based on real-time
conditions.

Figure 3. Position of detectors for distribution and
residence time study performed on a gas phase
reactor.
Tracer technologies
Radiotracers have been utilised in tandem with Tracerco’s
other diagnostic technologies on a number of different
vessels including reactors, separators, fluid catalytic
cracking (FCC) units and pipelines to generate the critical
process insights required to reduce maintenance and
operational costs and increase production rates. These
technologies involve injecting a phase-specific radiotracer,
which is carried in a specific phase flow, into the inlet of
the vessel. Tracerco has a variety of radiotracers
compatible with solid, liquid and gaseous phases, enabling
every phase flow to be measured. Several sensitive
detectors are positioned on the inlets and outlets of the
vessel, enabling the passage of the tracer to be monitored.

April 2024 42 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 The responses measured
from the detectors at the top
of the upper bed and bottom
of the lower bed are shown in
Figures 4 and 5, respectively.
Figure 4 shows that for the
top of the upper bed, almost
20% of the flow was
measured near each of the NE
and E bearing detectors with
approximately 17% at the NW
and SE detectors. 11% and 8%
was observed at the
SW and W detectors,
respectively. Since each
detector should have been
equally distributed (16.7%), a
Figure 4. Responses from the detectors measured at the top of the upper bed. total of 40% to the NE and E
and only 20% to the SW and
W indicated serious
maldistribution was present.
Figure 5 shows that the
detector responses were
more similar to each other for
the bottom of the lower bed,
however there remained a
58% to 42% flow bias to the
east side of the reactor. The
mean residence time (MRT)
was measured at 36.8 seconds
from the upper bed top ring
to the lower bed bottom ring
and the overall MRT was
53.4 seconds.
The data from this study
enabled the operator to
Figure 5. Responses from the detectors measured at the bottom of the lower bed. identify the cause of their
sub-optimal reactor
performance. At the next
When the tracer flows past the detector, its response scheduled shutdown the customer changed the inlet
and time is registered. Information on flow distribution distributor and redistributor between the beds and when
and timing can be derived from analysis of the detector the reactor was restarted, the performance had
responses, allowing flow dynamics and the behaviour of significantly improved. With the process and
solids, liquids and gases within the vessel to be measured. performance insights gained from the reactor
The following case study illustrates how the results from distribution study, the customer was able to realise the
these measurements allow operators to diagnose value of the investigation and avoided any further lost
integrity problems, determine distribution uniformity yield or downtime costs.
and make modifications to improve efficiency using data
driven insights. Summary
Diagnostic service technologies can be deployed on a
Case study 3 variety of different industrial assets to provide
Tracerco was contacted to assist with start-up issues that non-intrusive diagnosis of production or integrity issues
a customer was experiencing with its gas phase reactor in real time. This enables operators to see the necessary
containing two fixed catalyst beds. They were corrective action required to minimise downtime and
experiencing lower than expected conversion upon optimise their processes. Companies like Tracerco can
startup and suspected maldistribution to be the cause. deliver innovative technologies that enable operators
A distribution and residence time study was performed across the globe to make informed decisions on the
by positioning four rings of six detectors on the reactor condition of their assets, helping industry achieve safer
at elevations highlighted in Figure 3. and more efficient production.

April 2024 44 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 Mark Breese, Yokogawa RAP, considers the importance of digital
control of work (CoW) systems in promoting more intelligent
operations and an improved safety culture in the downstream industry.

P
rocess optimisation, when broken down into its
constituent words, can be summarised as: (process)
‘a series of progressive and interdependent actions or
steps taken in order to achieve a particular end’ and
(optimisation) ‘the act of making the best or most effective use
of a situation or resource’.
Companies often have a number of concerns when moving
from the standpoint of simply ‘getting the work done’ to
‘getting the work done safely’. It is unfortunate that, on
occasion, safety only becomes important after an incident has
taken place.
Improved safe working must sometimes jump a series of
stalling objections before being put into place; some common
examples being:
n The belief that the company does not have the time or
money to devote to safe control of work (CoW).
n Some companies may prefer to first improve injuries in the
field due to employee time based maintenance (TBM)
shortages and workers’ misunderstandings of their jobs
rather than accidents related to work permit issuance.
n With ageing workforces, there may be a lot of opposition
to digitalisation on the job site. Digitising everything may
put a heavy workload on young people in the field
(teaching older workers and registering on their behalf).
n Companies may believe that digital CoW systems are
smart, but that there are only few major benefits to
implementing them. This is because they may believe that
it is not significantly different from existing paper systems.
n Companies may have a deep-rooted culture of central
management using paper, Excel, etc., and believe that it will
take a long time to change the fundamentals.
So what do these objections have to do with process
optimisation? At best, they are excuses for not wanting to
change, and at worst they are deliberate reasons why
companies do not want to optimise safe working processes
because they are classified as secondary to the main processes
of making things or doing the primary work of the site. As such,
they are not considered worthy of the same level of effort,
when the opposite is often the case. Resolving safe working

HYDROCARBON 45 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 practices can have a huge positive effect on the main processes
and the company’s bottom line.
It is important to consider each objection and how they
relate to both process optimisation and CoW.
A route to save both money and time
without compromising safety
Fundamentally, a lack of time and money is an issue
encountered by many, particularly when markets are soft, and
by general reductions in the workforce over time. This is a
catch-22 in that saving both time and money requires more
efficient working, but it will almost always take time and, to an
extent, cost, to achieve it.
At its heart, CoW is about ensuring all risks are mitigated, all
forms of energy are removed from the work area, and everyone
who needs to be aware of the work is aware and has agreed to
it happening. Process efficiency savings come from an
optimised best practice workflow and an easier ability to see
and sequence work so that there are no dangerous
simultaneous operations, and everyone knows where and, more
importantly, when, they need to be active.
This ensures there are as few delays as possible because
work can be more easily planned and run through the system,
without taking any shortcuts on safety. This, in turn, leads to
optimised maintenance processes that ensure the primary
Figure 1. The many advantages that a good digital control of
work system can bring.
April 2024 46 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
processes benefit from the maximum uptime possible, whilst
overdue maintenance backlogs should tend towards zero.
Improved maintenance processes with
clarity of instruction
TBM is a well-used principle and generally works well,
particularly as plants gain experience over the typical service life
of their installed items. The problems with it tend to arise as the
overdue maintenance backlog creeps up, which it can do if
maintenance activities are not completed in line with the time
allocated for them. The reasons for this are commonly due to
overruns of other work, conflicts between activities, parts
shortages, or people not being available on time.
Workers not understanding their jobs is almost always the
fault of the people generating and issuing the work as opposed
to the workers themselves.
Most incidents have at their root an inadequate assessment
of risk, often allied with an incomplete or unclear set of
instructions.
A good digital CoW system can help solve both issues by
allowing better planning, removing time pressures and reducing
overdue workload, whilst helping to ensure a clear and robust
risk assessment allied with clear instructions on what must be
done to complete the work safely.
Additionally, the improved view of activities offered by
digital CoW systems should enable visibility well in advance
of whether there may be conflicts and should remind
supervisors to check on parts availability before releasing
work.
Gaining the benefits of worker
experience
Opposition to digitalisation can be observed in several
ways. At its root is a fear of the unknown that leads to a
level of resistance to change.
In every conversation with more experienced personnel
at site, the discussion is never about fear of the system, but
rather about how they can ensure that their skills can be
transferred properly to the rest of the workforce to ensure
that tribal knowledge and understanding can be switched
to corporate understanding and consistency.
Where companies only have a small number of access
rights to the system, this tends to result in a wall between
the general workforce and the people who are assigned
access to the system. Good integrated safe systems of work
(ISSOW) should always allow the broadest level of access
possible and be role-driven so everyone who needs to be
involved in safe working processes, including contractor
workers, can be. This helps to foster a much more inclusive
culture.
As an aside, it is poor practice to try signing for
someone else because it means there is no true
accountability for activities. By everyone having their own
access and rights, companies are doing their utmost to
ensure that a robust system is in place, with each person
being accountable in line with the competence assigned to
them by their roles.
A best practice workflow, and an intuitive, easy-to-use
interface, will take away most fears. Older workers do
indeed have important lessons that they can teach their
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Figure 2. Five steps to excellence in control of work.
younger colleagues whilst still being open to new ideas
themselves. It is this inclusivity that really helps in the process
of optimisation.
Understanding the advantages that CoW
systems can offer
Digital and paper systems really should not be any different at
their fundamental level. Both systems aim to ensure that all the
safe working factors are implemented, including local site,
national or international rules.
However, not all digital, or indeed paper, systems are
created equal. A good digital system should offer users a more
intelligent way to manage their safe working practices.
Any ISSOW should ensure that all the information is shown
in the most visible and consistent manner possible. The great
advantage of digital systems is that they can offer a level of
granularity that is not possible with paper-based systems. They
also offer a more intelligent solution in several ways, such as:
n Lessons learned/updates are easier to apply.
n They can incorporate intelligent questions that apply
filters to remove spurious items.
n They can incorporate a knowledgebase to help with risk
assessments.
n They can automatically tie isolations to permits to ensure
that permits cannot be released without isolations being in
place. They can also ensure that isolations cannot be
removed until all permitted activities are complete.
n They can link to monitoring activities such as post-issue
monitoring, fire watches and monitoring of defeats.
n They can provide better visibility of work, covering
exclusions and potential simultaneous operations (SIMOPS)
far more easily.
A digital permit to work (PtW) system is not just about
taking a paper system and converting it to digital forms
because, whilst some efficiency is gained, the only thing that is
optimised is that the route to an incident becomes faster.
Digital systems, such as Yokogawa’s RAP4 software for CoW,
offer users an easier-to-manage system that enhances the work
that they are already doing by enabling workers to concentrate
on what really matters, by removing items that are unnecessary
for the work at hand. Paper systems simply cannot achieve this,
which means the process of permitting can only be optimised
to a certain point before the next logical step in the continuous
April 2024 48 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
improvement process, which has to be the
digitisation of the system.
Improved ways of working
Change can be daunting, and the longer a
company becomes used to a particular way
of working, the harder it can be to change.
However, if the recent COVID-19 pandemic
taught organisations nothing else, it
certainly has exemplified that when there is
a need, companies can move towards new
ways of working. At its heart, this concern is
often a fear of starting the journey, which
may be borne from past experiences, fear
of having to learn new things, fear of
widening responsibility beyond a few key people, and more.
However, as noted earlier in this article, a good digital system
is really all about offering a more intelligent way to manage what
is already being done today and, in so doing, gaining the
advantages that it brings to safe working and optimisation of
processes.
Moving to a digital system offers a smoother path to the
future. The rules and regulations that companies abide by will
change over time and safety systems must also change to
keep up with the times. Digital systems offer the easiest way to
do this and maintain version control.
A required culture change
Plants often require a change or improvement to their culture,
but are not always sure how to achieve it. A core commitment
tends to make cultural change stand or fall: the need for a
complete and unwavering commitment from the organisation’s
management to get everyone involved.
This involvement does not just mean information-sharing,
which bulletins or newsletters can easily accomplish. Encouraging
and enabling workers to become genuinely involved in the
processes of safety leads to the opportunity for great strides in
the optimisation of their working processes.
This should extend to contractors too, as often sites do
improve culture and incidents drop, but they see contractor
incident numbers remaining stubbornly high. This stresses the
need to incorporate the complete supply chain into a single safe
way of working, where everyone has full visibility of where they
can work, and what they are allowed and required to do and
when.
Smarter, safer working
In summary, work process optimisation is all about smarter, safer
working. Yokogawa’s OpreX Control of Work solutions can help
companies to achieve the cultural and system improvements
necessary to achieve robust, repeatable, and consistent safer
working practices, which enable real optimisation of working
processes without risking worker safety.
Whilst the change to a digital system from the original
system – be that paper, older electronic systems, or a mixture of
the two – can be a cause for concern, a capable digital system,
such as Yokogawa’s RAP4 software – and the benefits that can
be gained by implementing its modules – will enable a critical
foundation of safety for the future.
 Eric Sallee, OsecoElfab, explores how advances in rupture disc
technology can help refineries and chemical processing facilities
minimise overpressure risks and reduce emissions.

I
n refineries and chemical processing facilities,
maintaining safety from over-pressure events and
preventing leaks and emissions is of paramount
importance. Over-pressure events and uncontrolled
releases present risks that could cause significant injury or
harm to people, the environment, equipment, and
operations. To mitigate these risks, plant operators install
safety devices such as pressure safety valves (or pressure
relief valves) and rupture discs.
This article examines how advances in rupture disc
technology minimise overpressure risks and actively reduce
leaks and fugitive emissions.
Why rupture discs are game-changers
Plugging, corrosion, product loss and contamination are just
some of the challenges caused by unchecked leaks and
fugitive emissions. The ramifications can be far-reaching,
including endangering employees and the public, incurring
fines or cleanup fees from regulatory agencies, and causing
unplanned shutdowns that lead to lost production. The
importance of minimising leaks and emissions cannot be
overstated.
Rupture discs serve as a critical line of defence in
ensuring the integrity and safety of industrial operations.
Also known as bursting discs, they are designed to safeguard

HYDROCARBON 49 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 against potential harm by activating or ‘bursting’ at a
predetermined pressure. This prevents excessive pressure
buildup to ensure the overall integrity of the equipment
and protect against catastrophic incidents. As the discs
remain leak-tight until activation, they are also highly
effective at minimising unwanted emissions.
Traditional rupture disc technology
Traditional rupture discs utilise a three-piece configuration,
consisting of the rupture disc plus an inlet and outlet
holder. Pre-torque holders are often used to ensure proper
Figure 1. Common three-piece rupture disc assembly
in holder installed.
Figure 2. Rupture disc being assembled into a welded
assembly.
Figure 3. Welded configuration of rupture discs.
April 2024 50 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
rupture disc seating and installation. These holders allow
controlled torque application to cap screws, ensuring an
optimal disc-to-holder seal. They also facilitate easier
cleaning, inspection, and orientation verification of the
disc. Proper device specification, correct installation, and
ongoing maintenance are crucial to ensuring the rupture
disc remains leak-tight.
For decades, pre-bulged and composite rupture discs
were the industry standard for refining and petrochemical
applications. However, while effective for simple
applications, they have limitations when it comes to
minimising leaks, reducing fugitive emissions, and
improving system performance. They are not ideal for
relief valve isolation, they are prone to fragmentation, and
they may cause damage or obstruction to sealing surfaces.
Additionally, these designs face challenges in cyclical
processes and negative pressure applications. Although
still used in certain holders, new technologies have
surpassed their capabilities.
Scoring technologies coupled with annealing processes
emerged, revolutionising rupture disc performance. The
new, scored rupture discs could be either forward-acting
or reverse-buckling, and offer significantly higher operating
ratios, non-fragmenting designs, and precise activation
pressures, outstripping the performance of pre-bulged and
composite discs.
Innovations in rupture disc technology
Welded assemblies consist of the rupture disc and holder,
but the components are pre-assembled at the factory
using high-integrity welds. The utilisation of one-piece
units offers several advantages including the following:
n Enhanced safety: the hermetically sealed assembly is
more reliable and removes potential leak points. The
likelihood of unplanned downtime due to leakage is
significantly reduced.
n Simplified installation: with the rupture disc and
holder already assembled, installation becomes more
efficient with less room for error. Improper torquing,
mismatched discs and holders, incorrect disc
orientation, inadequate cleaning, corrosion damage,
and worn-out holders are now a thing of the past.
n Reduced maintenance: the high-integrity welds and
sealed design minimise the need for frequent
inspections and maintenance, saving time and
resources. Maintenance teams can focus on other
critical tasks.
By combining a rupture disc and holder in a
factory-assembled configuration using high-integrity
welds, welded one-piece assemblies provide a hermetically
sealed assembly that eliminates many common issues
associated with overpressure-relief systems and can
effectively reduce potential leak points in their systems.
This hermetic sealing not only minimises the risk of
damage and injury, but also improves overall safety. With a
reliable and sealed assembly, the likelihood of unplanned
downtime due to leakage is significantly reduced. This
translates to improved operational efficiency and cost
savings.
 Another key advantage of one-piece units is the
elimination of installation errors that can occur with
other disc and holder configuration. Improper torquing,
mismatched discs and holders, incorrect disc
orientation, inadequate cleaning, corrosion damage, and
worn-out holders are all potential concerns that can
lead to leakage and compromise system integrity.
Moreover, with factory-assembled units, installers no
longer need to evaluate the condition of holders or
worry about wear, corrosion, or damage. This
streamlines the installation process and allows
maintenance teams to focus on other critical tasks.
Figure 4. Non-invasive burst detection sensor
installed on a rupture disc assembly.

Case study: a petrochemical

facility’s journey to reducing
emissions
Take the case of a petrochemical facility in Louisiana,
US. After working with the operator, the rupture disc
manufacturer carried out a complete survey of all the
existing rupture discs in the facility and advised the
operator of the applications that would benefit from
moving to the welded one-piece configuration. By
transitioning from traditional three-piece discs to the
welded one-piece design, they cut fugitive emissions by
30 - 40%.
This move was not just environmentally sound, it
also aligned the facility with local regulations,
demonstrating full compliance and avoiding penalties.
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Choosing wisely: the right rupture disc
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Selecting the right rupture disc type for the equipment,
process and media is crucial for achieving optimal
performance and reliability in the pressure safety system. It
involves understanding factors such as a rupture disc’s flow
characteristics. The flow rate of a rupture disc upon
activation is described using the loss coefficient designation
‘KR’. A lower KR value indicates a lower resistance to flow
and therefore higher flow rate for the same nominal bore
size. When a rupture disc is used that has a lower flow
resistance value, or KR, the pressure drop through the disc
will be lower, thereby allowing more of the process media
to flow through in a certain set time-period.

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 A rupture disc featuring a lower KR value offers a trio of
critical benefits to operators at refineries and chemical
facilities:
n Pressure relief is both faster and safer.
n By keeping the pressure drops beneath the installed
pressure relief valve low, operators can effectively
combat valve chatter, ensuring reliable performance.
n A lower KR adds flexibility to the piping sizing by
enabling reduced line sizes while maintaining the
required flow rates, potentially unlocking cost-saving
opportunities during system design and upgrades.
The latest advancement in rupture disc technology
combines the lower KR disc technology into a sealed
one-piece welded assembly. This configuration gives
operators the benefits of both the lower flow resistance in
a design that enhances safety, simplifies installation and
reduces maintenance.
Beyond pressure relief
Burst detection is an important capability to be aware of
when selecting rupture disc technology. A burst detection
sensor will instantly detect when a disc ruptures due to an
overpressure or vacuum event and send a notification to
the operator.
Burst detection sensors work by having membrane
detectors installed on the vent side of rupture disc assembly.
When the rupture disc activates, or bursts, the process
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media then opens the circuit and sends a signal. This lets
operators know immediately where a pressure event has
occurred, enabling them to take swift action to replace the
disc, and minimise product loss and process downtime.
The human element: training for
installation and maintenance
No technology, however advanced, can operate in a
vacuum. Training to ensure proper rupture disc orientation
installation and maintenance is essential to prevent
hazardous leaks, resulting in loss of product, contamination,
fugitive emissions, and corrosion. Rupture disc
manufacturers often provide on-site training to ensure
thorough understanding and correct installations. They will
also typically conduct a site survey of a facility to inspect
and inventory the supply and condition of existing rupture
discs. Using the survey, they will be able to recommend the
best pressure relief technology to meet operational needs.
Safe, efficient, compliant
In summary, rupture discs are key in preventing catastrophic
damage and injury. However, selecting the right disc also has
the potential to unlock increased efficiency and
environmental compliance. Embracing innovations such as
the welded one-piece units and lower KR technology can
elevate the safety and operational performance of any
facility, enabling operators to make the best use of their
investments in pressure relief technology.
www.globalhydrogenreview.com
Sunil Musali, MOGAS Surface Engineering, USA,
discusses the use cases for thermal spraying and
laser cladding in surface engineering.

S
urface engineering is the science and art of enhancing surface
properties of a material by utilising one of many available processes
such as thermal spray, laser cladding, plating, thin films (chemical
vapour deposition, physical vapour deposition, plating, etc.). Process
choice is dependent on several factors including base material properties,
in-process conditions, end requirements of mechanical/chemical properties,
desired surface conditions and, most importantly, cost. Thermal spraying
and laser cladding play a significant role in surface engineering due to their
versatility of material choices and process conditions.

Thermal spraying
Thermal spray is a process technique used to enhance the surface
properties of a component by applying coatings to its surface. As the name
suggests, ‘thermal’ is the heat source and ‘spray’ is the feedstock utilised to
melt, partially-melt or soften the feedstock and accelerate towards a
prepared substrate to form coating and build up in layers (Figure 1).
Commercially available thermal spray processes include twin wire arc,
plasma (air plasma spray [APS], vacuum plasma spray [VPS], low pressure
plasma spray [LPPS] and Cascade), combustion spray, high velocity oxygen
fuel (HVOF), high velocity air fuel (HVAF), and cold spray, etc. Each one of
these processes exhibits unique operating conditions that produce a
versatile range of subsequent coating properties. Desired coating properties
including hardness, porosity, bond strength, toughness, ductility, etc. are
achieved by choosing one of the stated thermal spray processes and

HYDROCARBON 53 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 manipulating process parameters. Coatings can be designed to
withstand various severe service conditions such as wear
(abrasion, erosion, etc.), complex corrosion, thermal shock,
impact, and/or a combination of these.
Chrome carbides and tungsten carbides (Figure 2) are
desirable options in the valve industry where abrasive wear and
corrosion due to sulfidation, chloride and organic acids are
present. However, where corrosion and severe thermal shock are
Figure 1. Ball valve HVOF coating.
Figure 2. Chrome carbide microstructure
(200x magnification).
Figure 3. Spray and fuse microstructure
(200x magnification).
April 2024 54 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
the primary drivers, nickel and cobalt based spray and fuse
self-fluxing alloys perform better due to their denser
microstructure (Figure 3) and metallurgical bond to the substrate.
Laser cladding
Laser cladding is a hybrid process between welding and thermal
spray, which utilises laser as a heat source to melt the feedstock
and create a molten pool on the surface of the workpiece. The
result is a metallurgically bonded clad on the component with
very little heat affected zone (HAZ), and minimal to no post
treatment required. Due to less heat input than conventional
welding, distortion is minimal on the components. Higher build
rates are achieved and, in most cases, one layer of clad is
sufficient. Metals, alloys, metal matrix composites (MMCs),
carbides, etc., can be successfully clad.
When a metallurgical bonded coating/clad is necessary and
the components cannot be exposed/heat-treated at elevated
temperatures, laser cladding is a viable option.
Laser cladding is a fast moving technology in a variety of
applications such as cutting tools, drilling tools, automotive,
jet engine turbine parts, earth moving equipment, agriculture
machinery, oil and gas, refining, and several other industries due
to its versatility of material choices and metallurgical bond. Most
recent developments in the laser clad technology include high
speed lasers, where a flash clad can be applied to the
component at a quicker pace, reducing processing times and
minimising post finishing time as well. This may not be an ideal fit
across the board, but it is very attractive in some applications.
Thin films
Thin films are also a family of processes which deposit a micron
or less, such as electro plating, chemical vapour deposition
(CVD), physical vapour deposition (PVD), evaporation, sputtering,
etc. For decades, plating played a significant role in several
applications for corrosion, wear, electrical conductivity, etc.
However, the need to improve bond strengths, chemical
compatibility and much denser coating structures has driven
technologies further and resulted in PVD and CVD type coatings.
These types of processes produce chemical and metallurgical
bonds at microscopic level, and thicker than 1 µm coatings are
achieved (in some cases, several microns thick). These types of
processes open a blanket of materials (metals, alloys, carbides,
nitrides, etc.), which can be deposited while plating is limited to
pure metals. The need to phase out chrome plating due to
health and environmental factors associated with hexavalent
chrome has driven the demand for replacement where CVD and
PVD type coatings have found their place for some applications.
Summary
Thermal spray has proven to be widely used in the industry due
to its versatility of process conditions, wide array of materials,
minimal heat input, range of thicknesses, etc.
The laser clad process is starting to play a significant role in
the industry due to its ability to produce metallurgically bonded
clad with minimal HAZ and distortion to the components, and in
most cases, there is no need for post weld heat treatment due
to lesser heat input compared to traditional welding processes.
As industry needs are constantly evolving with challenging
service environments, technologies like CVD and PVD open a
new blanket of coatings and respective applications.
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 Paul Evans, Nozomi Networks, discusses the challenges faced by
the downstream oil and gas industry as it embraces digitisation.

April 2024 56 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
T
he downstream oil and gas industry is a critical
component of the global economy. There is no denying
that digitisation of operations has created tremendous
opportunities such as increased productivity, lower costs,
and enhanced profitability. However, the challenge is that
connecting operations and the business enterprise has opened
organisations up to a litany of cybersecurity risks. The increased
use of automation and remote monitoring has increased the attack
surface, making it necessary to take appropriate security measures
to guarantee uptime.
For oil and gas companies, maintaining operations is crucial to
their success, particularly for those in the downstream sector. The
risk of downtime extends beyond maintenance concerns – they
are extremely vulnerable to cyberattacks. The oil and gas industry
was the fifth most targeted sector by ransomware alone, according
to a recent study. The increased security measures that are now
required have the potential to identify cybersecurity risks that
increase the need for downtime while the issues are resolved in a
safe manner. Yet in understanding this growing risk, there are ways
to mitigate it.

The vulnerabilities of operational

technology
Operational technology (OT) refers to the hardware and software
systems used to monitor and control industrial processes. These
systems are used extensively in the downstream oil and gas
industry to manage everything from pipeline flow rates to refinery
temperatures. The infrastructure is often dispersed and includes
remote stations and legacy technology with different capabilities
that are being integrated into the IT infrastructure.
A substantial challenge lies in the historical development of OT
systems, which often predate the widespread availability of the
internet. Originally designed to operate in isolation, these systems
frequently lack fundamental security features such as encryption
and authentication. This vulnerability arises from the fact that
many OT systems were initially designed with serial-based
connections, which have since been replaced with IP-based
connections. Whilst this transition has been a crucial step towards
helping operators bridge the capabilities gap between these two
domains and gain greater situational awareness, there is a certain
irony that the greater use of technology has become both the
cause and solution to growing vulnerability for the sector. Visibility
does not necessarily lead to detection and detection does not
necessarily lead to the right response.
Therefore, whilst this transition has enhanced automation and
efficiency, the new vulnerabilities it has created are not fully
comprehended by many companies. This can have severe
consequences for the industry if left unchecked. Moreover, the
intricate nature of these systems complicates the implementation
of updates and patches, given their essential role in maintaining the
seamless operation of oil and gas facilities. The reluctance to
introduce changes originates from the potential financial
consequences of any downtime.
For instance, human machine interfaces (HMIs) linked to
remote terminal units (RTUs) – especially those influencing
volumetrics on pipelines – are considered to be one of the most
vulnerable. HMIs and RTUs were designed with a focus on
functionality rather than robust cybersecurity measures. The shift
from serial-based to IP-based connections, while enhancing
automation, concurrently introduced new vulnerabilities not fully

HYDROCARBON 57 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 comprehended during the original design. Given that these
interfaces directly impact the flow rates and operations of
critical infrastructure like pipelines, any compromise in their
security poses a significant risk, potentially leading to
operational disruptions and environmental consequences.
Evolution of networks and IoT
components
Another challenge facing the downstream oil and gas industry
is the evolution of networks and the increasing use of IoT
components. As previously mentioned, OT systems were
conceived for isolated operation, so integration of IoT
components introduces a paradigm shift by expanding
connectivity. The infusion of IoT devices, with their ability to
gather and exchange data over the internet, enriches OT
systems with real-time insights and enhanced functionality.
Accurately documenting the network and asset
infrastructure of a supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) system like a long-distance pipeline used to be
time-consuming and difficult, especially in terms of keeping it
up to date. Now, due to technology advances, it is easier to
implement passive industrial network monitoring that
automatically provides real-time network visualisation and
asset discovery.
The same solutions can provide early detection of
operational problems and cybersecurity risks, and across critical
industries the number of IoT components is also increasing,
and networks are changing. This evolution of networks and the
increasing use of IoT components creates new vulnerabilities
that must be addressed. Every time a new asset is attached to
the network, the potential entry points for cyber threats
increase. The multitude of IoT components, often with diverse
communication protocols and varying security postures, adds
another layer of vulnerability to OT systems.
Companies must not only grapple with securing legacy
systems, but also address the evolving risks associated with the
integration of modern technologies like IoT. Ensuring the
security of each IoT component becomes crucial, demanding
robust measures to safeguard against unauthorised access, data
breaches, and potential disruptions to critical processes.
In order to effectively tackle the challenges that arise with
the deployment of IoT devices, it is crucial for organisations to
have a specialised team equipped with the necessary skills to
implement and sustain the technology. However, there is
currently a shortage of cybersecurity experts on a global scale,
which is particularly problematic across the oil and gas industry
where there are high numbers of temporary workers and
retiring baby boomers. As with many industries, there is a
growing problem of a digital and tech skills gap and sourcing
professionals who understand industrial control systems, IT
systems and related security is not an easy silver bullet. Yet,
while finding and hiring cybersecurity talent can be challenging,
by utilising technology that automates monitoring and threat
detection for OT and IoT networks, organisations can maintain
their reliability and cyber resiliency even amidst workforce
changes.
Ways to navigate OT security challenges
Navigating the challenges and securing the assets starts with
truly comprehending the industry’s unique needs and crafting
April 2024 58 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
solutions, teams, and strategies that align with its complexities.
The challenges faced by this sector go beyond standard
business operations; they extend to potential health and safety
impacts if a misstep occurs. While IT assets are undeniably
crucial, the criticality of OT assets takes precedence, as any loss
of control in this domain can unleash consequences on a scale
that is not only challenging to recover from, but may also have
far-reaching ramifications. This necessitates a shift from
contemplating ‘if it can happen’, to engaging in a proactive
dialogue about what will happen if it occurs.
Given the unique characteristics of OT and IoT systems, it
is impossible to conquer every cybersecurity challenge. Instead,
companies must focus on the priorities and have risk-based
conversations with the board and management. By carrying
out a risk analysis, companies can make the biggest impact to
reduce the overall portfolio of risks that an organisation has.
They can then focus their limited budget and time on the
most critical assets that have the highest risk and potentially
the highest probability of vulnerability.
Another factor worth mentioning is embracing the
changes and following the progress by adopting new
technologies and upgrading the existing ones. This is not only
crucial for improving efficiencies and decreasing costs, but also
helps to increase visibility of the assets and to stay ahead of
the threat actors by ensuring greater protection.
For example, cloud computing for OT systems of
downstream oil and gas for security reasons was previously
advised against. However, the role of cloud computing in
cybersecurity is now becoming increasingly important. Cloud
computing affords the ability to outsource a non-core
competency with greater capacity (both computationally and
storage-wise) and has become a more cost-effective option as
the cost of infrastructure has lowered significantly. This
technology effectively supports AI technologies such as
machine learning, and the major cloud providers have become
extremely proficient in cybersecurity, making cloud computing
a viable option for OT systems. Therefore, by embracing cloud
computing, companies can reduce their risk profile and
improve their ability to manage data on a different level.
The downstream oil and gas industry faces significant
cybersecurity challenges as it embraces digitisation and
integrates OT and IoT systems. The vulnerabilities of legacy OT
systems and the increasing use of IoT components create new
risks that must be addressed to ensure uptime and prevent
potential environmental and safety issues. Companies must
focus on risk-based conversations with their board and
management to mitigate any concerns caused by limited
budgets and time on the most critical assets.
New technologies have, without a doubt, enabled a more
streamlined and cost-predictive approach for downstream oil
and gas businesses. Yet its growing use has also created greater
risk to day-to-day business. Creating an in-house team to
navigate risk is costly and hard to source in the current talent
ecosystem. In 2024, cybersecurity can safely be outsourced to
trusted experts who know how to pre-empt and disarm risk by
working as partners, not mere suppliers. By working with those
who understand the complex and evolving industry needs, and
crafting solutions, teams, and strategies that align with its
complexities, organisations can navigate these challenges and
secure their assets effectively.

Mary Sebastin and Saltanat Mashirova,
Honeywell OT Cybersecurity, explain
why cyber-physical risk assessments are
essential in protecting petrochemical
and oil and gas facilities from
cybersecurity threats.
I
n the summer of 2017, industrial companies received a
huge jolt when aggressive malware targeted the safety
instrument systems (SIS) controls of a petrochemical
plant in the Middle East. This was different than any
attack against industrial control systems (ICS) detected in the
past. Named Triton, the malware was the first attack
designed to specifically infiltrate production facilities’ safety
systems.1 The attack awakened many companies to how new
cybersecurity threats can shut down production while
potentially creating serious risks to people in and around a
plant.
The capability to disrupt production in oil and gas
facilities is not new. With the increasing connections of
information technology (IT) and operational technology (OT),
and with newly designed cyber-physical systems, the risks of
such disruptions have increased. A 2023 report by Honeywell
found that almost 82% of all malware can disrupt crucial
industrial operations.2
Disruptions can be costly, as companies can lose huge
amounts of money per hour during an unplanned shutdown.
Cyber attacks on petrochemical plants can be financially
devastating for the plant owners and can have significant
negative impacts on society. An attack can lead to the
disruption of essential services. In a worst-case scenario, an
attack can cause a security incident that severely harms
employees, community members, and the surrounding area.
It is not a coincidence that OT-targeted attacks have
increased as investments in digitalisation have accelerated.3
As many petrochemical plants pour capital into digitalisation,
the connectivity provides a larger attack surface for bad
actors. Additionally, many organisations continue to use
legacy devices that may be decades old. These legacy assets
often have well-known vulnerabilities that can no longer be
HYDROCARBON 59 April 2024
ENGINEERING
 addressed with patches and lack security measures more
common in current software and firmware.
These factors create an environment that exposes more
cyber attack opportunities. It is essential that companies
continue to invest in cybersecurity resiliency programmes. To
do so, the companies must better understand how a
cyber-physical attack can impact their process operations
and safety.
Cyber-physical risk assessment
Without understanding risks, companies are almost
positioning themselves like 16th century sea captains sailing at
dark around an unmapped coast without knowledge of rocky
reefs. They might avoid some of the dangers, but at some
point, they will hit a rocky outcropping that is big enough to
rip a hole in their vessel. Cyber attacks can strand
organisations and potentially sink them as well.
In the process industry, the understanding of risks related
to process safety is well established. Process safety
professionals commonly use the hazard and operability study
(HAZOP) and layers of protection analysis (LOPA) methods.
These two methods are designed to focus on assessing how
an accidental event that causes a process incident can occur
and what safety precautions need to be taken to reduce the
risk of the negative consequences to a level that corresponds
to the company’s internal and external tolerable risk levels.
The challenge arises when the cause of the process
incident is no longer an accidental event, but a series of
deliberate actions by malicious actors designed to cause
harm.
How can these actions be included in a
traditional HAZOP or LOPA?
This can be achieved by examining hundreds of cyber attack
scenarios against industrial control and safety systems,
identifying process loss scenarios and existing protections
that cyber attacks can manipulate, whilst also considering the
asset criticality, dependency, and interconnections.
These scenario-based risk assessments are used to
evaluate cyber-physical risk by linking the consequences of a
Figure 1. Cybersecurity HAZOP assessment.
April 2024 60 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
cyber attack (i.e., functional deviation) from cyber attack
scenarios with process loss scenarios. Semi-quantitative risk
assessments such as these are designed to provide companies
with quantitative results regarding the cybersecurity resilience
of a given system.
For example, companies can model cyber attack
scenarios against process automation functions. With this
type of analysis, companies can estimate the attack severity
based on the impact on the process automation function,
such as loss of intended design or operation. The result is a
calculated value expressed as a risk priority number.
Why does risk priority matter?
Risk priority is designed to help organisations identify the
highest-priority risks that must be addressed. By design, the
risk priority number should correspond to a matrix that
compares probability with severity. The higher the priority
number, the greater the risk. The probability ranges from
current to unpredictable, and the severity from catastrophic
to negligible.
When companies model cyber attack scenarios against
process losses, it is recommended that they factor in the
impact of cybersecurity attacks on the causes and
protective measures in LOPA scenarios. In this type of
analysis, companies should be able to use the target
mitigated event likelihood (TMEL) risk criteria to determine
the risk priority. The risk categories for process losses
include individual, societal, environmental, and financial.
Each category has a different range. As an example,
individual risk is rated from fatality to minor injury, whereas
environmental risk is rated from environmental disaster to
no impact.
Honeywell’s cyber-physical risk assessment is designed to
estimate the quantitative success rate of a cybersecurity
attack by considering the design of the process automation
system and actions of threat actors with unique profiles who
use different tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP).
Honeywell also considers the frequency of the threat actions’
triggering event, which is statistically dependent on the TTP
frequency. The summary provided in Figure 1 is designed to
illustrate how all of
the considered risk
estimates can come
together as part of
the cybersecurity
hazard and operability
study.
Observations
from
assessments
For more than a
decade, Honeywell’s
OT cybersecurity
teams have worked
with industry teams to
conduct
cyber-physical risk
analyses that go
beyond traditional
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 HAZOP or LOPA assessments. Each site is unique, but there
are some commonalities:4
n On average, 50% of process loss scenarios can be caused
by an intentional cyber attack.
n In two of three cyber attack scenarios that could lead to
fatalities, adequate cybersecurity countermeasures were
not taken.
n Protecting SIS from cyber attacks is critical, as 98% of
scenarios that could lead to fatalities involved an attack
on the SIS.
n An insider threat with malicious intent is likely to cause
cyber incidents which have serious impact.
n Functions such as advanced process control, open
platform communications (OPC), historian, alarm server,
remote server, etc. can be initial foothold(s) which can
lead to similar impacts on process control scenarios.
No single cybersecurity countermeasure alone can help
meet the risk criteria, so a thorough defence and solid
understanding of countermeasures (e.g., monitor, detect,
protect, recover) are essential.
Conclusions
Oil and gas, chemical, and other industrial facilities have used
process safety risk assessments for decades to understand
what precautions need to be taken to help reduce the risk of
serious incidents. Unfortunately, these assessments are no
SEEING IS
BELIEVING
longer sufficient unless the impact of intentional cyber
attacks is considered and thoroughly analysed.
Using results from a qualitative cybersecurity risk
assessment with a number-based process safety risk
assessment is usually not fully effective. However, with the
right focus on what is known, a semi-quantitative
cybersecurity assessment can be performed and tightly
integrated into a facility’s otherwise comprehensive HAZOP
or process hazards analysis (PHA).
The result of such an assessment should be identification
of what countermeasures can help reduce the risk of a
process incident caused by a cyber attack to a tolerable risk
level. This is extremely valuable in helping to create a more
effective OT cybersecurity programme.
Ultimately, companies must strengthen their cyber
defences and focus on the essentials. A comprehensive
cybersecurity risk reduction programme that meets their
goals should be based on regular OT cybersecurity
assessments.
References
1. GIBBS. S., ‘Triton: Hackers Take Out Safety Systems in Watershed
Attack on Energy Plant,’ The Guardian, (15 December 2017).
2. ‘Industrial Cybersecurity USB Threat Report 2023’, Honeywell
Cybersecurity team, (November 2023).
3. ALLEN, J., ‘Digital Transformation and the Expanding Attack
Surface of Critical Infrastructure’, Government Technology Insider,
(14 November 2022).
4. Data collected and analysed by Honeywell OT Cybersecurity
Operations team, (2023).
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Avoiding the cybersecurity problem
is no longer a viable strategy, but
putting protections in place is
more straightforward than it seems.
Alexandre Peixoto, Emerson, explains.
F
or years – arguably even decades – many
operational technology (OT) teams have practiced
cybersecurity by obscurity. Systems were explicitly
air-gapped to segregate every level of OT operations,
and to provide the best protection against intrusion and
interruption. Systems that never saw the outside world
never needed to fear external attacks.
HYDROCARBON 63 April 2024
ENGINEERING
 Today, however, the OT paradigm is changing. The
most successful organisations around the globe are
embracing connectivity to the wider world to unlock the
operational efficiencies that drive competitive advantage
in a global marketplace. These companies are
implementing new technologies that unlock seamless
data mobility from field to edge to cloud.
Nowhere is this more apparent than in the
hydrocarbon processing industry, where technologies are
rapidly changing to help organisations improve
performance and continue to thrive in an unstable
market. Successful organisations need connectivity to
drive critical visibility and analytics both at the edge and
in business systems, but navigating this change means
finding new ways to ensure systems are cybersecure.
The new normal
Gone are the days where oil and gas, chemical, and
petrochemical operations had deep benches of highly
experienced personnel to drive efficient operations.
Now, experienced analysts, operators, and technicians
command a premium – in the rare instances they can be
found. As a result, today’s operations run very differently
than those of just a decade or two ago. In many places,
small crews of personnel are centralised and cover a
wider area than ever before. Many of those individuals
are coming from a new generation raised on constant
Figure 1. Modern digital workers expect constant
connectivity, in the control room and in the field, for
enhanced decision support.
Figure 2. Cybersecurity is not set-and-forget. Any implemented
solutions should be regularly re-evaluated for effectiveness via
scheduled cyber assessments.
April 2024 64 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
connectivity and instant access to data, and workers of
all ages require these features to perform their work
efficiently (Figure 1).
To meet the needs of this diverse workforce, data
must be highly mobile. Edge solutions must contextualise
data and deliver it to mobile devices in the field – and to
business analytics systems in corporate offices – for
constant awareness of plant health, instant mobilisation
of resources, and enhanced collaboration, all to drive
operational efficiency. This new connected, mobile
workforce is the solution to increasing efficiency in the
modern era, but it cannot work when companies must
fear that bad actors may be able to insert themselves in
the middle of the communication networks and wreak
havoc.
Many organisations know they need to move in the
direction of a boundless automation future, but they
also see the ever-increasing number of cyberattacks now
targeting OT assets. They know cybersecurity solutions
can enable connectivity, but the same shortage of
personnel necessitating change also impacts an
organisation’s ability to properly assess their need and
build a roadmap for success. And even for organisations
that may still have a deep bench of expert personnel,
those people rarely have the time to commit to
researching, identifying, implementing, and maintaining
the cybersecurity solutions that will fit their unique
needs, especially when threats change seemingly
constantly.
But while implementing and maintaining secure yet
connected operations is not a simple task, neither is it an
insurmountable one. To succeed, teams must start by
charting their journey, while also not being afraid to
make course adjustments along the way. Several
strategies can help them start and maintain those goals.
Define a starting point
The cybersecurity journey is key to navigating the
external threats that can disrupt operations.
Successfully navigating that journey requires teams to
understand their necessary cybersecurity architecture
and to know the steps they need to take. Air-gapping
has long been a non-starter for OT systems, but
interconnecting enterprise networks to everything else
without a clear cybersecurity strategy is not an
acceptable approach either.
One of the first steps of a cybersecurity
journey is knowing the organisation’s
starting point. Every organisation – and in
many cases each plant within an
organisation – starts from a different place.
A well-executed cybersecurity assessment
can help teams successfully map out the key
elements of their entire journey, while
keeping in mind that a cybersecurity journey
is an evergreen process because the threat
landscape is evolving continuously.
For example, one of the key ways to
identify critical steps on the cybersecurity
journey is to understand the organisation’s
 existing cybersecurity posture. For some organisations,
this might simply mean the development of policies and
procedures that OT system users must follow. For others,
it might be a complex environment of previously
installed information technology (IT) solutions, each with
varying levels of effectiveness. A cybersecurity
assessment can help teams put a frame around existing
solutions to determine what is working and what is not,
and to show what is missing (Figure 2).
Define needs
One of the most common missteps on a cybersecurity
journey is trying to find and implement solutions before
defining the organisation’s overall cybersecurity needs.
Exciting, new cybersecurity solutions emerge each day,
and it can be tempting to think that one appliance will fit
every need across the environment, but this is rarely true.
To implement solutions that work over the system’s
lifecycle, teams need to define the ‘why’ of their
cybersecurity journey before they define the ‘how’.
Need definition must consider the unique
requirements of operating cybersecurity solutions in an
OT environment. Whether an organisation has a deep
bench of expert IT personnel, or a single person
managing all of the company’s technology, OT typically
needs tailored solutions. All-in-one solutions engineered
for the flexibility of IT systems typically do not function
well within OT. Moreover, companies designing solutions
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for IT environments are rarely prepared to properly
support OT issues. When defining need, it is important
to consider the uptime requirements, safety concerns,
and business drivers that are unique to OT. Although
having similar cybersecurity goals, IT prioritises data
confidentiality and record keeping, while OT prioritises
system availability and safety.
Build the roadmap
After OT teams have defined their unique cybersecurity
and business needs, they can begin to lay out the
architecture to meet those requirements. As a team
builds out its cybersecurity implementation roadmap, it
is important to consider not only the solutions they will
put in place, but also a plan to monitor those solutions.
For example, an intrusion detection system reporting to
a rarely used workstation is unlikely to draw the quick
attention necessary when an attack occurs. Similarly,
antivirus solutions put in place but never checked will
have a very short window of efficacy.
To address these types of issues, organisations should
develop written policies for monitoring and response of
cybersecurity systems to ensure they will work properly
and at full efficacy across their entire lifecycle. Patching
is critical for cybersecurity solutions as well, so keeping
these systems up to date is essential. Not implementing
these and other best practices will hinder the overall
cybersecurity posture of protected systems.
 Build a cybersecurity culture
Once a path is defined and the OT team begins putting
architectures and monitoring policies in place,
organisations need to focus on compliance. The three
pillars of cybersecurity – technology, process, and
people – are all interlinked. The right technologies and
processes must be in place to ensure security, but
people must also be trained to use the technology
properly and understand the value of a cybersecurity
mindset.
Cybersecure behaviour is not intuitive – it is learned.
A key part of any cybersecurity journey should be
developing training to teach personnel how to properly
use the new solutions that are put in place. Moreover,
part of that training should help users understand how a
cybersecure operation protects and supports them.
When technology, process, and people are all working
together, users are more alert to how global changes may
impact their ability to operate securely, and how that
secure operation improves their own lives.
Users who see personal value are more likely to
faithfully follow processes and procedures to help keep
the organisation secure. With the right technology in
place to help them maintain cybersecure operations,
users can meet the organisation’s benchmarks much
more easily (Figure 3).
Identify key partners
Many of today’s OT groups are choosing not to define,
develop, and implement their cybersecurity journeys
alone. With this approach, it is very difficult to stay
up-to-date with the most current threats and their
mitigations, and as more governments around the world
increase cybersecurity regulation, keeping up with the
mandates also becomes increasingly complex.
To address this and related issues, many of today’s
most successful organisations are partnering with
automation solution providers who operate in both the
OT and IT space to relieve the burden of developing a
cybersecurity journey that fits their unique OT needs.
Organisations partnering with experienced automation
solution providers can count on expert guidance to help
them select, install, maintain, and monitor the
Figure 3. Comprehensive training highlights the value
of cybersecurity processes and procedures, facilitating
buy-in from personnel across the organisation.
April 2024 66 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
technologies that will work best for their unique
environment.
Prepare for the future
In contrast to the isolationist cybersecurity policies of
the past, modern cybersecurity solutions in the OT space
are designed to enable connectivity, rather than prevent
it. Organisations moving toward connectivity strategies
enabling widespread OT connectivity and real-time
monitoring have created a fundamental shift in the way
teams approach security – requiring them to thread the
needle between uber-security and full convenience.
Concepts like the zero-trust network architecture are
securing identities, data, applications, networks, etc, in a
more customised way, enabling enhanced connectivity
and monitoring in real time.
To meet this new normal, both OT teams and their
partners are considering more forward-thinking
strategies. A team that needs to wait for every solution
to be fully vetted, readily available, and tested by every
major customer in the market will always be behind.
Instead, modern users need ways to implement the
pieces of larger cybersecurity initiatives, like zero trust,
today, and then continue to evolve those solutions over
time.
To meet this need, automation solution providers are
now exploring ways they can plot zero trust
architectures that will not be executed in a single year.
They know the direction of the architecture and are
building it piece by piece. As those pieces emerge, they
can be implemented to update the existing architecture
of their users. This agile development will help meet new
threats as they arrive.
And while this new flexible model does create some
uncertainty, it is also far more effective at adjusting to
meet emerging threats, regulations, and shifting control
architectures by empowering OT teams to meet their
ever-changing security needs, without having to rip and
replace entire architectures every time a significant new
threat emerges. These types of cybersecurity solutions
will be both more adaptable, and more cost-effective.
The most successful journey starts
today
A rise in incidents around the globe has put the spotlight
on OT cybersecurity, and few organisations still think
they can hide from threats. Instead, forward-thinking
organisations are taking steps to build a strong
cybersecurity posture by shoring up defences as
efficiently and effectively as possible. Doing so not only
creates a work atmosphere that protects personnel and
production from harm, but also fosters a more agile
environment, unlocking the tools that allow OT teams to
do more with less by driving better visibility and
collaboration across their enterprise.
The tools and strategies necessary to successfully
execute a cybersecurity journey are available today, but
the journey takes time. The sooner an organisation starts
to build its roadmap, the sooner it will be ready to
operate in the modern economy.
 Hydrocarbon Engineering presents a selection of the
most advanced sulfur technologies and services that are
currently available to the downstream sector.

AMETEK Process Instruments focused emission lines and a

AMETEK Process Instruments has released
an innovative photometric analyser
designed to measure gas species at various
sample points within gas processing,
refining and steel/coke amine plants and
sulfur recovery units (SRUs), using
ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy, while also
supporting the addition of other
measurement technologies. The 993X is a
versatile gas analyser, capable of
continuously measuring up to seven
components utilising multiple
measurement technologies, without
consumables.
UV measurements of H2S, SO2, NO,
NO2, NOx, COS, CS2, and NH3 utilise
AMETEK optical bench configurations that
have been proven in challenging
applications for decades. Drift and noise are
minimised through the use of highly
temperature-controlled optical bench,
which provides stability when ambient
temperatures fluctuate.
Because it supports the use of IR
sensors and a thermal conductivity
detector (TCD), the 993X is also capable of
measuring known components that do not
absorb UV light, such as CO2 and H2.
Designed for installation inside or
outside of a temperature-controlled
enclosure, the 993X has an ingress
protection (IP) rating of IP66 and NEMA 4X,
protecting against harsh operating
environments.
The wall mountable 993X, with
integrated heater (capable of maintaining
sample temperatures of up to 165°C, to
prevent the formation of liquids) and
sample conditioning system, is designed
to operate unattended.

HYDROCARBON 67 April 2024

ENGINEERING
 Delta Controls Corp.
Delta Controls Corp. is an internationally recognised expert
in the design and manufacturing of process instrumentation.
Delta Controls’ instrumentation design expertise allows the
company to provide innovative and reliable solutions for
demanding applications such as sulfur recovery units (SRUs).
The company’s newest product for sulfur recovery
service is the Model HRC ProSpection video monitoring
system developed for Claus reactors. It provides continuous
online monitoring of the interior of a Claus reactor. The
HRC probe places the camera lens inside the thermal
reactor directly at the refractory hot face, allowing for a
wide-angle view of critical vessel components such as the
burner, refractory, and tubesheet.
IPCO
IPCO is a global industrial process company developing high
productivity solutions across a range of applications
including sulfur solidification and handling. The company
offers a comprehensive range of systems and services to
the oil and gas industry, ranging from leading sulfur
solidification equipment to end-to-end solutions covering
everything from receipt of molten sulfur to storage and
loading of solid material.
For small to mid-size capacity operations, IPCO’s
Rotoform system is a single step, liquid-to-solid process
that delivers SUDIC premium product pastilles and
environmentally friendly operation. The system also offers a
predictable high bulk density, which is an advantage for
Merichem Technologies
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) will begin
significantly strengthening limits on fine particle matter (also
known as soot) – one of the US’ most widespread deadly air
pollutants. Refineries, power plants and other polluting
facilities will be mandated to cut soot emissions to reduce
deadly air pollution. Some of the compounds in soot,
primarily sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, are precursors
to acid rain, which can acidify lakes and rivers causing havoc
for a variety of different ecosystems.
Merichem Technologies (based in Houston, Texas, US)
has advanced the technology of sulfur reduction and
perfected the process of sulfur removal. Merichem’s LO-CAT
Optimized Gas Treating Inc.
Following development of ProTreat®, the first fully
mass-transfer rate-based simulator for amine gas treatment,
Optimized Gas Treating Inc. (OGT) expanded into almost all
facets of downstream gas treating, including glycol
dehydration, absorption by physical solvents,
caustic treating, and sulfur recovery marked by the release
of SulphurPro® in 2016.
When developing SulphurPro, the original philosophy
underlying ProTreat was retained to ensure the simulator is
April 2024 68 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
The Model HTX Thermocouple is internationally
recognised as a premier purged thermocouple for
measuring SRU temperatures. The Model HTV Unpurged
Thermocouple provides accurate temperature
measurement from turnaround to turnaround without a
purge system. The Model HIR Pyrometer employs a
dual-wavelength infrared ratiometric measurement
system that is unaffected by partial nozzle obstructions
or coated windows.
Delta Controls’ sulfur instrument products are installed
in over 155 sulfur plants worldwide. These products are
engineered to provide improved process uptime and
reduced maintenance, resulting in lower maintenance costs
for SRU plant operations.
storage and transportation. This is the world’s most widely
used sulfur granulation process with more than 700
installations to date.
For higher capacity requirements, the IPCO SG drum
granulation system is an automated process capable of
processing up to 2000 tpd of sulfur – making it the world’s
highest capacity sulfur drum granulator.
Bulk materials handling solutions include everything from
conveyor components to rectangular/circular stackers and
reclaimers, as well as loading solutions for truck, rail and ship.
IPCO can undertake end-to-end project management
from feasibility studies and front end engineering design
(FEED) through to complete engineering procurement and
construction (EPC) packages.
is a highly trusted, green solution for converting hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) to elemental sulfur. The LO-CAT’s Auto
Circulation design has a small carbon footprint yet achieves
very high removal efficiencies (>99.9%). There are no liquid
waste streams, so it does not require treatment and disposal.
THIOLEX is also a Merichem technology that effectively
removes mercaptan compounds (RSH), H2S, carbon dioxide
(CO2), carbonyl sulfide (COS), and elemental sulfur. The
company’s FIBER FILM Contactor, which is used in
conjunction with THIOLEX, creates a significantly larger
interfacial surface area, using minimum mixing energy,
allowing for enhanced microscopic diffusion and a
continuous renewal of the aqueous phase.
truly predictive. Each equipment item in the Claus SRU has
been carefully developed to include fundamental reaction
kinetic rates and conductive, convective, and radiative heat
transfer.
The thermal reactor uses reaction kinetics to calculate
accurate ammonia destruction, hydrocarbon destruction,
and COS/CS2 formation. The waste heat boiler, steam
reheater, and condenser operations all use rigorous heat
transfer rates to accurately calculate outlet temperatures
from exact equipment dimensions. Both the sulfur
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 converter and the hydrogenation reactor contain
extensive reaction sets to calculate the kinetic reaction
rates of both the Claus reactions and the hydrogenation
reactions. These models also include catalyst ageing and
poisoning to give the most accurate representation of the
catalyst in a plant.
Servomex
Acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) must be removed from natural gas to prevent safety
issues such as pipeline corrosion. Accurate gas analysis helps
to ensure these contaminants are removed effectively,
protecting product quality and safeguarding pipelines.
The Claus process allows elemental sulfur to be
extracted from the gaseous H2S, allowing it to be used in
chemical manufacturing, medical, and agricultural
applications. Tail gas treatment turns unconverted sulfur
compounds back into H2S and recycles it back into the
sulfur recovery unit, for more efficient recovery.
Servomex has many years of experience in empowering
productivity and efficiency in this sector, supporting these
Shell Catalysts & Technologies
Shell has been operating and actively developing
technologies for sour gas facilities since the 1960s. Much early
development was in North America, but the fastest growing
area is now the Middle East. The increasing requirement to
meet growing energy demand sustainably means integrating
technologies for CO2 capture, sequestration and enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) while minimising SO2 emissions.
Shell has supported numerous Middle East operators
with innovative solutions to make sour gas production more
sustainable. Shell’s gas treating solutions, such as Sulfinol*-X
and ADIP* ULTRA, and the sulfur recovery and tail-gas
treating technologies such as Shell Claus off gas treating
(SCOT*) and SCOT ULTRA, have been applied in many of the
region’s largest projects over several decades. Shell
continually strives to make these technologies more
Unicat Catalyst Technologies LLC
Dedicated to revolutionising catalyst technology for
enhanced customer, financial, and environmental
performance, UNICAT Catalyst Technologies LLC leads the
charge in sulfur removal solutions. The company provides
robust supply chain security through several key supply sites
across the globe, ensuring short delivery times and a
reduced carbon impact from transport.
UNICAT prioritises listening and learning from its
customers, shaping its innovation pipeline to deliver
tangible value across the industry. Its sustainable catalyst
technologies not only improve operational efficiency but
also reduce environmental impact.
With a keen focus on supply chain security, UNICAT
guarantees reliable access to essential purification products
April 2024 70 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
SulphurPro is a complete and comprehensive Claus SRU
model. By using state-of-the-art reaction kinetics and
rigorous heat transfer, sulfur plant engineers and designers
can now get an extremely accurate representation of their
plant to help make important decisions for optimisation,
new projects, and troubleshooting.
applications with innovative and reliable gas analysis. The
rugged and flexible SERVOTOUGH SpectraExact 2500
photometric analyser uses infrared and gas filter correlation
sensing technologies to provide measurements of CO2,
H2S, and water in amine for control and quality
measurements.
Designed for ease of use, the SpectraExact 2500 is
suitable for demanding process applications, including
monitoring continually flammable sample streams in
hazardous areas.
In addition, the SERVOTOUGH Oxy 1900 and
OxyExact 2200 non-depleting paramagnetic analysers can
be applied in a safety system to monitor oxygen in natural
gas during storage and transportation.
efficient, achieve tighter specifications and lower energy
consumption. One of the key technologies in its portfolio is
the CANSOLV* CO2 Capture System. This technology has
recently been selected for a key capture project in the
region that has taken final investment decision (FID) in 2023
and should be in operation by 2027.
These technologies are helping those projects to meet
their carbon intensity mandates and SO2 emissions limits,
and ensure resilient and sustainable production.
With more than 60 years of sour gas processing
experience and its continually evolving process
technologies, Shell Catalysts & Technologies is uniquely
positioned to ensure sour gas resource holders contribute
sustainably to meeting global energy demand.
*Sulfinol, ADIP, SCOT and CANSOLV are Shell
trademarks.
from strategic locations worldwide. The company’s
innovative solutions elevate sulfur removal processes,
fortify supply chains, and unlock growth opportunities in
shaping a cleaner, more sustainable future.
UNICAT commercialised Magcat® Textured Sphere
reformer catalysts and its UK counterpart was awarded the
Queens Award for Enterprise – Innovation in 2022. This has
been followed by transformative innovation to
Advanced Filtration System (AFS) technology, to significantly
improve the protection of hydrotreaters, delivering step
change uptime benefits. UNICAT is continuing its innovation
launch process with new pre-reforming catalyst technology,
which is focused on significantly enhancing bed lifetime and
performance. This will be followed with more revolutionary
technology in pressure swing adsorption (PSA).
 Worley Comprimo
Sustaining the world for generations to come through
technological and environmental innovation,
Worley Comprimo offers a broad gas processing and sulfur
recovery technology portfolio. Its solutions provide the
lowest CAPEX and OPEX levels while meeting local sulfur
recovery efficiency regulations.
Established in 1924, Worley Comprimo is celebrating its
100th anniversary in 2024. Ever since the 1950s, its technology
has been featured in more than 1200 sulfur recovery units
(SRUs). With five execution centres and a comprehensive
global expert network, its customers enjoy responsive
technical support and access to over 100 dedicated sulfur
experts.
Worley Comprimo’s sulfur degassing technologies
cover the full range of performance guarantees and
applicability. Notably, its portfolio includes a
technology that can be installed in both sulfur pits and
sulfur collection vessels, ensuring compliance with less
than 10 ppmw H2S in the product sulfur. This is an ideal
solution for very low-emission SRUs, where vent
streams from the degassing unit do not require
complicated controls to the main burner.
Simultaneously, it offers an easy-to-implement,
cost-effective approach to reducing emissions from
sulfur loading stations in smaller SRUs.
This latter technology, marketed as the
High Efficiency Sulphur Degassing Process, was installed
and tested at a refinery in the US. The results were
transformative, enabling a shift in sulfur loading
operations to a degree where breathing masks are no
longer required.

AD INDEX
Page Number | Advertiser 51 | OsecoElfab

62 | ABC 22, 52 | Palladian Publications

31 | AMETEK Process Instruments IBC | Paratherm

47 | AUMA 17 | Alleima

21 | Black & Veatch 33 | Servomex

OBC | Endress+Hauser 07 | Shell Catalysts & Technologies

02 | Eurotecnica 61 | Sulzer Chemtech

65 | Global Energy Show Canada 43 | Tracerco

OFC & 12 - 13 | Halliburton Multi-Chem 25 | Trillium Flow TechnologiesTM

27 | HTRI 69 | Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia

41 | IPCO 71 | UNICAT Catalyst Technologies, LLC

55 | MOGAS Industries Inc. IFC | Union Tech

11 | Optimized Gas Treating, Inc. 04 | Zeeco Inc.

April 2024 72 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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