CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Globally, the demand for diesel fuel reigns supreme among oil products, prompting

widespread reliance on this energy source. The Philippines actively addresses this demand by

importing diverse crude oils from numerous countries, underscoring the global significance of

diesel as a primary fuel. The pervasive demand and consumption of diesel fuel contribute to the

dynamic fluctuations observed in oil prices. This economic ripple effect, coupled with the

concerning repercussions of diesel exhaust, magnifies the urgency of exploring alternative,

sustainable energy solutions. Diesel exhaust, notorious for its adverse impact on both human

health and the environment, amplifies the need for innovative approaches in the energy sector.

In response to these challenges, the spotlight turns to emerging technologies, with

biodiesel production standing out as a promising solution. The innovative approach involves

blending biodiesel with traditional diesel fuel, offering a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative.

Biodiesel, distinguished by its renewability, biodegradability, and environmentally conscious

attributes, emerges as a beacon of hope in mitigating the dual concerns of resource depletion and

environmental degradation. With its low emission profile, biodiesel is poised to revolutionize the

energy landscape, presenting a viable path towards a more sustainable future. This research

initiative, therefore, takes center stage in the pursuit of practical solutions, seeking to design,

fabricate, and rigorously test a specialized machine. This machine is engineered with the purpose

of transforming waste cooking oil feedstock into biodiesel, with methanol and Potassium

Hydroxide serving as pivotal catalysts in the intricate chemical process. The adoption of waste

cooking oil as the primary feedstock not only addresses the ecological challenges posed by its

disposal but also accentuates the economic viability of biodiesel production by tapping into a

readily available resource. In essence, this study endeavors to propel sustainable energy practices

forward, recognizing the pivotal role of biodiesel as a transformative force in the global energy

landscape.

1
1.2 Statement of the Problem

This study addresses several key issues pertaining to the design, fabrication, and testing

of a biodiesel production device utilizing waste cooking oil. Specifically, this study aims to

answer the following questions:

1. Is Waste Cooking Oil an Effective Biodiesel Feedstock?

2. How Effective is Transesterification in Biodiesel Production?

3. What Challenges Arise in Designing and Fabricating Biodiesel Production Units?

4. Are the Quality and Performance of the Produced Biodiesel Up to Standards?

5. How Do Different Biodiesel Blends Perform in Comparison?

1.3 Objectives

The general objective of the study is to design, to fabricate and to test a device that will

produce biodiesel oil from waste cooking oil and to test the biodiesel produced. Specifically, it

aims:

1. To use waste cooking oil to produce biodiesel.

2. To use the method transesterification in producing biodiesel.

3. To design and fabricate a pre-treatment unit, mixing unit and reacting unit.

4. To conduct tests in the biodiesel produced.

5. To compare the performances of different biodiesel blends.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study addresses the pressing environmental concern of waste cooking oil disposal.

By repurposing this commonly discarded byproduct as a feedstock for biodiesel production, the

research contributes to reducing environmental pollution. Waste cooking oil is notorious for

clogging drains and causing ecological harm when improperly disposed of, and its conversion

into biodiesel offers a sustainable and responsible solution.

This study tackles the global demand for diesel fuel and the associated environmental

impact. As diesel fuel remains a primary energy source worldwide, the study's focus on

designing a device for biodiesel production aligns with the quest for cleaner and more

2
sustainable energy alternatives. Biodiesel, derived from waste cooking oil, not only diminishes

reliance on finite fossil fuels but also offers a renewable and eco-friendly substitute that

contributes to mitigating air pollution and combating climate change.

Economically, the study holds significance by exploring the viability of waste cooking oil

as a resource for biodiesel production. Given that waste cooking oil is abundantly available and

often treated as a waste product, its utilization for biodiesel can potentially offer a cost-effective

alternative to conventional diesel fuels. This economic angle is particularly relevant in the

context of fluctuating oil prices and the quest for more stable and sustainable energy sources.

Researchers emphasis on the transesterification method, along with the design and

fabrication of specific biodiesel production units, contributes to advancing the technological

landscape in sustainable energy production. The outcome of the study could potentially inform

the development of efficient and scalable biodiesel production technologies, fostering innovation

in the renewable energy sector.

Lastly, the comparative analysis of different biodiesel blends adds a layer of practical

significance. Understanding how various blends perform allows for informed decision-making

regarding the optimal composition of biodiesel, considering factors such as efficiency, emissions,

and overall performance. This comparative analysis contributes valuable insights to the ongoing

efforts to enhance the quality and efficacy of biodiesel as a viable alternative to traditional diesel

fuels.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

The study's scope is limited to the design, fabrication, and testing of a biodiesel

production device on a laboratory scale. Extrapolating findings to larger-scale industrial

applications may require further investigation.

The study may encounter limitations related to resource availability, including financial

constraints and access to specialized equipment. These limitations may influence the scale and

complexity of the fabricated biodiesel production device.

The study's findings may be influenced by specific environmental conditions, such as

temperature and humidity, which could impact the transesterification process and the overall

performance of the biodiesel production device.

3
 The study will focus on waste cooking oil as the primary feedstock; however, variations

in the composition of waste cooking oil may introduce some degree of variability in the biodiesel

production process.

The study's duration may limit the assessment of the long-term performance and

durability of the fabricated biodiesel production device. Long-term effects on components and

overall efficiency may require extended observation beyond the study period.

1.6 Definition of Terms

 Biodiesel: A renewable fuel from biological sources such as waste cooking oil, with

characteristics similar to traditional diesel fuel.

 Transesterification: The chemical process involved in converting waste cooking oil into

biodiesel, where triglycerides react with alcohol (methanol) in the presence of a catalyst

(Potassium Hydroxide) to produce biodiesel and glycerol.

 Biodiesel Production Device: A specialized machine designed and fabricated for the

purpose of transforming waste cooking oil into biodiesel, comprising pre-treatment,

mixing, and reacting units.

 Pre-treatment Unit: The component of the biodiesel production device responsible for

preparing waste cooking oil by removing impurities and enhancing its suitability for the

transesterification process.

 Mixing Unit: A component of the biodiesel production device that facilitates the thorough

blending of waste cooking oil, methanol, and catalyst to initiate the transesterification

reaction.

 Reacting Unit: The segment of the biodiesel production device where the

transesterification reaction takes place, leading to the conversion of waste cooking oil

into biodiesel and glycerol.

 Waste Cooking Oil: Cooking oil that has been used in food preparation and is no longer

suitable for its original purpose, often discarded as waste, but repurposed in this study as

a feedstock for biodiesel production.

4
  Methanol: A type of alcohol used as a reactant in the transesterification process, aiding in

the conversion of triglycerides in waste cooking oil into biodiesel.

 Potassium Hydroxide: A catalyst employed in the transesterification process to accelerate

the reaction between waste cooking oil and methanol, facilitating the production of

biodiesel.

 Efficiency: The measure of how well the biodiesel production device converts waste

cooking oil into biodiesel, considering factors such as yield, energy consumption, and

overall process effectiveness.

 Biodiesel Blends: Different combinations of biodiesel with traditional diesel fuel,

evaluated in the study to assess and compare their performances in terms of efficiency

and emissions.

5
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-depth

search done by the researchers.

2.1 Related Literature

Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living organisms. The

source of biofuels production is commonly known as biomass, this source can be ‘converted to

liquid or gaseous fuels such as ethanol, methanol, methane and hydrogen (Awogbemi et al,

2021a: Dahiya, 2015). Two biofuel products are mainly produced are knowns as ethanol and

biodiesel (Awogbemi and Kallon, 2021). Biodiesel is a fuel that is produced from vegetable oils

or animal fats, and it acts as an alternative for fuel for diesel engines (Awogbemi et al, 2021b:

Zanzi, et al., 2006 : Leidel, 2014). Ethanol is produced from sugarcane, corn, and sugar; is used

as an additive for automotive gasoline production (Awogbemi et al, 2021c: Manochio, et al.,

2017).

Biofuel is frequently promoted as a cost-effective and environmentally friendly

alternative to petroleum and other fossil fuels, particularly in light of rising petroleum prices and

growing concern about fossil fuels' impacts to global warming. Biofuels help to reduce the

carbon footprint of transportation and other businesses by utilizing our planet's carbon cycle.

Every gallon of biofuel that substitutes a gallon of fossil fuel contributes to a reduction in

greenhouse-gas emissions. Thus, substituting biofuels for fossil fuels has the potential to lessen

some of the negative elements of fossil fuel extraction and usage, such as conventional and

greenhouse gas (GHG) pollutant emissions, exhaustible resource depletion, and reliance on

unreliable foreign suppliers. (Kashmir, 2021).

6
 A Biofuel Plant is a machine that is used to convert biomass into liquid fuel, known as

“biofuels”. Biodiesel is made under the process called transesterification, where oil goes through

five chambers namely: reactor, separator, methanol removal, neutralisation and washing, and

finally a dryer. The process allows the removal of the glycerine component of the oil, to allow

thinner, less viscous solutions which remain liquid in lower temperatures (Awogbemi et al,

2021d: Balasubramanian, et al., 2016)

Mono-alkyl esters, also known as methyl esters, of vegetable oils, animal fats, or other

materials mostly composed of triacylglycerols, known as biodiesel, are an alternative to

traditional petrodiesel for use in compression-ignition engines. Many significant fuel qualities

are determined by the fatty acid esters that make up biodiesel. Because feedstocks with widely

variable fatty acid compositions can be utilized for biodiesel synthesis, the composition of the

biodiesel is dependent on the composition of the parent feedstock. The utilization of various

feedstocks is also important in terms of boosting biodiesel supply and socioeconomic challenges

(Knothe, 2017).

2.2 Related Studies

O.G. Tiro, et al (2021) "Designing a Domestic Biodiesel Generation Machine for Rural

Communities". Three designs of the biodiesel pilot plant were generated in converting the waste

cooking into biodiesel. The most convenient design was the pilot plant ‘one reactor tank’ since it

is cost-efficient due to fewer components. The Biodiesel production machine has one reactor

tank, whereby it operates as a multifunctional reactor tank unit. There is one motor pump, that is

used for transporting oil from the filtering tank to the processor tank and used for recirculation of

the biodiesel for the purification process. The inline filter is connected to the recirculation pipe

7
system to filter out the solid catalyst. The stirrer is used for mixing oil, methanol and catalyst and

used again for the washing process.

Khan, et al (2022) in their study "Innovative biodiesel production plant: Design, development,

and framework for the usage of biodiesel as a sustainable EDM fluid" The conversion reaction

was carried out for 20 L of used cooking oil and 4 L of methanol. The biodiesel production yield

of 95.8% was observed for a 1:6 M ratio of methanol and used cooking oil using 200 gm of KOH

catalyst at 60 °C for 1 h. Using biodiesel during the spark machining process can reduce

pollution and also enhances the sustainability of the process.

Abijith, et al (2019) it shows that the design and fabrication of a small-scale equipment

which is fully automated, rather than a simple laboratory apparatus. A yield of 95 wt% biodiesel

was achieved at 1 wt% KOH, 60 C, 9:1 methanol: fish oil ratio and 30 min reaction time .The

biodiesel so obtained was evaluated for the physical properties such as density, viscosity and

flash and fire point. The castor oil biodiesel produced was blended with different concentrations

of petrol-diesel to obtain B5, B10 and B2.

8
 Chapter III

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLGY

This chapter presents the method of research, the method of gathering data, and the

research tools.

3.1 Research Locale

The design and fabrication of the prototype is conducted in Barangay Ayala and Triplet

Street, Zamboanga City. The data gathering is conducted in one of the researchers house in Putik

Zamboanga City.

3.2 Research Design

Figure 3.0 Biodiesel Machine Design

3.3 Product Description

9
 The design consists of two tanks namely the filtering tank (black) and the processor tank.

There are two motor pumps, with the first one transporting oil from the filtering tank to the

processor tank, and the second one recirculating the biodiesel for the purification process.

The catalyst soot filter is connected in line with the motor pump to the catalyst soot filter

after the production of biodiesel. The motor is connected to the stirrer via a pulley system since it

would not be safe to connect it directly to the stirrer on top of the processor tank. The stirrer

helps with mixing the reactants to produce biodiesel. This machine is mobile, this makes it easy

to be moved and placed at any location, the pipes are transparent, and this helps in discharging of

glycerine to be able to separate glycerine from biodiesel. Some valves control the flow of the

mixture.

3.4 Production Process

In the first stage, the waste cooking oil is filtered to remove debris, this is achieved by

using the carbon filter sheet placed at the inlet of the tank. The valve below the storage tank will

be opened to allow the oil to be siphoned by the motor pump to the processor tank through a

pipe. After the transportation of oil is complete, the oil inlet valve on the processor tank is

closed. Due to the strict budget, the system used to mix catalyst and methanol will not be

included in the project, therefore the catalyst and methanol will be prepared outside the current

machine. The mixture is poured manually at the inlet located at the top of the processor tank. The

motor is activated to allow the rotor to mix the reactants. The heater is used to increase the

temperature of the reactants to meet the minimum temperature for activation of the

transesterification process at 55 ℃ for at least 2 hours.

For the separation process, the stirring system and heater are turned off for the mixture to

be allowed to settle down for 24 hours. Due to gravity and different densities, the product in the

mixture will separate. The glycerine will situate itself at the bottom, while the biodiesel will be at

the top. The discharge valve situated at bottom of the processor tank is opened to allow the

glycerine to be removed, with the help of the transparent pipe it will be easy to notice the colour

change during a discharge, to know that all the glycerine has been fully removed then the valve

is closed.

10
 For biodiesel purification, warm water is employed for the washing process to remove all

the impurities, contaminants, and volatile substances to decrease the possibility of emulsification,

the mixing take about 1 hour. The mixture is allowed to settle for 24 hours for the water by-

products to be drawn to the bottom of the container by gravity. The discharge valve at bottom of

the processor tank is opened again, but this time the water by-products to be removed and

afterwards the valve is closed. The motor pump linked to the processing tank is turned on, and

the valve in line with that motor is opened, allowing the biodiesel to recirculate for purification.

This process can take some time, and the quality of the biodiesel can be seen via transparent

pipes. The biodiesel is then ready for usage after it has been purified.

3.5 Design Calculation

According to (Awogbemi et al, 2021b: Chuah et al, 2015) the properties of waste cooking oil are

given in Table 1.

Table 3.0 Properties of Waste Cooking Oil

Interpolation using the values in Table 1 the mean density of waste cooking oil at 25 ℃ (room

temperature) and flow velocity are estimated in equations 1 and 2.

ρ2=(t 2−t 1)¿ ¿

(25−20)(901.95−915.67)
ρ 2= +915.67
(40−25)

3
ρ2=911.11kg /m

11
 V k 2=(t 2−t 1 )¿ ¿

(55−40)(26.28−51.04)
V k 2= +51.04
(60−40)

2
V k 2=32.47 mm /s

Calculations for mass of waste cooking oil occupying 88% capacity of 500 litres as shown in the

equation below;

m
ρ=
V

m=ρV

m=( 911.1 ) (0.37)

m=337.12 kg

According to Engineering tool box, 2021, the densities of methanol are given as Table 2.

Table 3.1 Properties of Methanol

Mass of methanol,

m=ρV

m=( 786.3 ) (0.74)

m=58.19 kg

Energy requirement,

q=(mC p ∆ T )oil +(m C p ∆ T )methanol

q=(∆ T )[(mC p) ¿ ¿ oil +(mC p)methanol ]¿

12
 q=( 65−25 ) [ ( 337.12 ) (1.67 ) + ( 58.19 ) ( 2.53 ) ]

q=28408.44 kJ

3.5.1 Shaft Design

Stirring Speed of 350 rpm is suitable for this reaction as it induces high biodiesel yields

for the first minutes of reaction and at the same time no foam is formed (Peiter, et al., 2020). For

shaft connected to the motor, assuming that the power is 1.5 kW (Table 3).

Table 3.2 Specifications of a Shaft

Shaft Parameter and properties Specification

Height 1078.46 mm

Diameter 25 mm

Modulus of rigidity (stainless steel) 77.2 GPa

Total Resisting Torque,

P
T=
2 πN

1500
T=
2 π (350)

T =0.68 N ∙ m

Polar Moment of Inertia,

4
πd
T=
32
4
π (0.025)
T=
32
−8 4
T =3.835 x 10 m

Maximum Shear Stress,

13
 Tr
τ=
J

(0.68)(0.0125)
τ=
3.835 x 10−8

τ =0.222 x 106 N /m2

2
τ =0.222 MN /m

Angle of Twist,

TL
θ=
GJ

(0.68)(1.07846)
θ=
(77.2 x 109 )¿ ¿

θ=4 ° x 10−7

3.6 Cost Analysis

The cost analysis was used to give the estimated cost of components based on the raw

materials, manufacturing processes, and distribution costs. The components of the lowest costs

offered by various suppliers were chosen to construct the analysis based on the findings of

product cost research. The price shown in Table 5 is for a single quantity of a component,

whereas the total cost is for the entire number of quantities desired. The overall cost of the

machine is the sum of the total costs of all desired component amounts.

Table 3.3 Cost Analysis of the Combined Biodiesel Machine

Component Quantity Material Price (R) Total Cost

Caster Wheel 4 Rubber 1226 4904

Motor 1 Various Material 1397 1397

Hydraulic Motor Pump 2 Various Material 2040 4080

Valve 5 Steel 185 925

14
 Catalyst Soot Filter 1 230 230

Conical Tank in Frame 1 Polyethylene 4843 4843

Inlet Filler 1 Carbon 30 30

Oil Drum 1 Steel 1890 1890

Flexible Pipe 4 meters Nylon 29 29

Recirculation Pipe 1 Stainless Steel 687 687

Base 1 Stainless Steel 1095 1095

Square Frames 1 Stainless Steel 846 846

Circular Frames 1 Stainless Steel 900 900

Overall Cost 18343

3.7 Other Design considerations

The recommended safety precautions to be applied are as follows:

The Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) should be utilised.

 The machine should be used in a ventilated area.

 The caster wheels should be locked, when doing the production of the biofuel.

 Avoid the use of devices that can generate sparks near an open container of

methanol.

 When adding the catalyst, make sure the methanol is not exposed to air by closing

the valve connecting the methanol tank and pre-mixing the methanol and catalyst

tank.

 The operation and maintenance manual must be provided to the buyer.

 Before use, the machine should be calibrated.

 The wastewater used for washing, should not be used for other purposes.

 The motors should be operated at a suitable speed.

 The in-line filter should be cleaned after use.

 The valves should be handled with care.

15
 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Comparison to Standard Fuel

The results were obtained and compared with EN14214 standards. Ten samples were

tested to take the average value of each component.

Table 4.0 Comparison with the Standards

Criteria Bio Diesel EN14214 Bio Diesel Sample of B100

Density at 15 oC g/cm3 0.86-0.9 0.88

Viscosity at
3.5-5 4.2
40oC mm2/s

Flash point oC <136 138.7

Sulphur % 0.01 0

Water ml/kg Less than 500 427

Calorific Value 37.27 38.22

The samples were tested according to B100, B80, B60, B40, B20 blends and compared the

ariations of density, viscosity and calorific value as shown in the Table II.

Table 4.1 Density, Viscosity and Calorific Values of Different Biodiesel Samples

Biodiesel Samples Density (kg/m3) Viscosity (mm2/s) Calorific Value(MJ/kg)

B100 880 4.2 38.22

B80 873 3.9 39.02

B60 864 3.7 40.1

16
 B40 855 3.5 40.38

B20 840 3.2 41.55

Density of the biodiesel samples were varied between the range of 840-880 kg/m 3 and

viscosity of the samples were differed between 3.2-4.2 mm 2/s. Average calorific value of the

B100 samples was 38.22 MJ/kg and average calorific value B20 samples was 41.55 MJ/kg which

is almost identical with biodiesel.

Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 describe the variation of power and break specific fuel consumption of the

B100, B60 blend and biodiesel sample. The fluctuations are well established under the range of

required standards and break specific fuel consumption of biodiesel is significantly higher than

the petro diesel.

80

70

Power(kW)
60

50

40

30

20

10

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

Engine Speed (rpm)

Diesel B60 B100

Figure 4.0 Engine Power versus Engine Speed

17
 500
Consumption(g/kWh)
Break Specific
450 Fuel

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

Engine Speed (rpm)

Diesel B60 B100

Figure 4.1 Break Specific Fuel Consumption versus Engine Speed

18
 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Biodiesel production is not a new concept for the modern world of technologies.

Transesterification process is becoming increasingly vital part of biodiesel production, there

remains considerable inefficiencies in existing transesterification processes. This should have to

considerably control in the small-scale biodiesel production. Identification of some key

parameters (acid value and FFA content, viscosity and fatty acid profile of the used oil) is

important to determine the viability of biodiesel production.

The process parameters of biodiesel production are changing due to fluctuation of FFA value of

the oil samples. Once the FFA value is identified, the defined equations of the experiment can be

used to calculate the exact amount of alcohol and catalyst quantities. Other than that design

parameters of the pilot scale model explain the process requirements of an actual design. This

plant can be implemented in large scale biodiesel production with required modifications.

Extraction of biodiesel from waste cooking oil would be an immense advantage specially for

developing countries where the disposal of waste cooking oil can be measured in higher number.

The results of the research obtained within the limits of standard values. Because of that it can be

concluded the process development of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil is well

optimized. Blended samples of B40 and B20 maintain a close relation towards the petro diesel

where it can be directly used for the compression ignition engines without having any

modifications. Biodiesel production and usage will significantly reduce unburned hydrocarbons,

carbon monoxide, and particulate matter from tail pipe emissions. The results on engine power

and break specific fuel consumption of B100 and B60 biodiesel are in the range of comparable

limitations with respect to the biodiesel. This emphasized that any blended samples can be used

as an alternative source of biofuels.

The major focus of the research based on the development of a well optimized pilot scale

biodiesel production plant where small and medium industries can be engaged with. Comparable

19
budget, easy handling of process requirements, optimized process parameters and availability of

resources will be the added advantages for the local consumers comparing to the conventional

processes. Most of developing countries are reluctant of using biodiesel and the defined process

parameters will be prime aspects of get used to this technology. This process can be considered

as an important solution for the energy crisis as well as the environmental pollution.

5.2 Recommendation

As a result of the findings and conclusion of this study, the following are hereby recommended:

1. The heating coil must be placed in a location that it can fully heat the liquid in the

container.

2. Provide more tests in the biodiesel fuel such as emission test. Use dynamometer to

test the torque and rpm of the diesel engine tested.

3. Find an alternative adhesive for the pipes.

20
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aamir, J. B., Shehzad, A. and Nigar, M. Design and fabrication of pilot plant for the production

of biodiesel from waste cooking oil at domestic level, Proceedings of International

Conference on Energy Systems and Policies (ICESP), pp. 1-5, Islamabad, 2014.

Awogbemi O., Kallon D.V.V., and Aigbodion V.S. Trends in the development nnd utilization of

agricultural waste as heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production, Journal of the

Energy Institute, Volume 98, pp. 244-258, 2021a.

Awogbemi O, and Kallon D.V.V. Impact of Fourth Industrial Revolution on Waste Biomass

Conversion Technique. Proceedings of SAIIE Steps, pp. 352-365, Gauteng, South Africa,

October 4-6th, 2021.

Awogbemi O., Kallon D.V.V., Aigbodion V.S., and Mzozoyana V. Property determination and

NMR characterization of palm oil used palm oil and their methyl esters, Processes, Vol 10,

Issue 1, Pp 11, 2021b.

Awogbemi O., Kallon D.V.V., Aigbodion V.S., and Panda S. Advances in Biotechnological

Applications of Waste Cooking Oil, Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental

Engineering, Pp 100158, 2021c.

Awogbemi O., Kallon D.V.V., Onuh E.I., and Aigbodion V.S. An Overview of the Classification,

Production and Utiization of Biofuels for Internal Combustion Engine Applications,

Energies, Vol 14, issue 18, Pp 5687, 2021d.

Balasubramanian, B. et al. Optimization of biological transesterification of waste cooking oil in

different solvents using response surface methodology, Management of Environmental

Quality, 27(5), pp. 537-550, 2016.

Chuah, L. F. et al. Performance and emission of diesel engine fuelled by waste cooking oil

methyl ester derived from palm olein using hydrodynamic cavitation, Clean Technologies

and Environmental Policy, 2015.

Dahiya, A. Bioenergy Biomass to Biofuels, Cambridge: Academic Press publications, 2015.

De Paola, M. G. Small-Scale Biodiesel Production Plants—An Overview. Energies,

21
 14(1901), pp. 1-20, 2021.

Engineering tool box, Methanol - Density and Specific Weight. Available:

https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/methanol-density-specific-weight-temperature-

pressured_2091.html?vA=20&degree=C#. Accessed October 10, 2021.

Leidel, J. Biodiesel Processor System Manual, 2 ed. Oakland: Oakland University, 2014.

Manochio, C., Andrade, B. R., Rodriguez, B. P. and Moraes, B. S. Ethanol from biomass: A

comparative Overview, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80, pp. 743-755,

2017. Peiter, A. S. Stirring and mixing in ethylic biodiesel production, Journal of King

Saud University – Science, 32(1), pp. 54-59, 2020.

SABS, Complete Collection of Standards and Related Documents. Available:

http://0sabsdb.uj.ac.za.ujlink.uj.ac.za/ Accessed May 18, 2021.

Zanzi, R., Aguilar, P. J., Díaz, I. L. and Moya, H. Biodiesel fuel production, Volume 1, pp.

1-3, 2006.

Y. P. Upadhyay, R. B. Sharma, and A. Pal, “Production of Biodiesel from Non Edible Cottonseed

Oil by Mechanical Stirrer Technique,” vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 22–26, 2013.

22