ABSTRACT

Key words :Earth–air heat exchanger; Passive cooling, Renewable energy; Earth’s undisturbed temperature (EUT)

The earth–air heat exchanger (EAHE) is a promising technique which can effectively be used to reduce the

heating/cooling load of a building by preheating the air in winter and vice versa in summer. Day to day advanced

cooling techniques and refrigerants makes the world to attain most desired cooling effects. But these advances will

induce the green house gasses in the environment which in turn causes Global warming. In order to reduce this,

passive cooling techniques using renewable energy resources can be a possible alternative. One such technique is

using underground heat exchangers.

Key words :Earth–air heat exchanger; Passive cooling, Renewable energy; Earth’s undisturbed temperature (EUT)

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 Contents

CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Electric Vehicles 1
1.2 Batteries 3
1.3 Lithium-ion batteries 4
CHAPTER 2 Literature Survey 11
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 13
3.1 Wireless power transfer (WPT) 13
3.1.1 Inductive charging 15
3.1.2 Solar Charging 21
3.2 Basic Structure 28
3.3 Converters 35
3.3.1 Introduction 35
Full wave rectifier 39
3.4.1 Applications of Rectifiers 41
3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 42
3.5 AC – DC Converters 43
3.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Inverter 45
3.5.3 Applications of Inverters 46
CHAPTER 4 49
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 49
CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION RESULTS 54
CHAPTER 6 56
CONCLUSION 56
CHAPTER 7 57
REFERENCES 57

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List of figures

Figure 1.1 Electric vehicle at charging station 1

Figure 1.2 Battery used in electric vehicle 3
Figure 1.3 Battery in detail 4
Figure 1.4 Lithium ion battery 6
Figure 1.5 Charging of EV 7
Figure 1.6 Wireless charging of EV 8
Figure 1.7 Solar Charging of EV 8
Figure 1.8 Wireless charging station 10
Figure 3.1 Wireless power transfer circuit 15
Figure 3.2 Inductive power transfer 17
Figure 3.3 radio frequency charging 22
Figure 3.4 Wireless solar charging 24
Figure 3.5 A coil connected to a bulb 26
Figure 3.6 Charging of electronic component top of form 28
Figure 3.7 Wireless charging of EV 28
Figure 3.8 N channel IGBT cross section 31
Figure 3.9 Symbol of IGBT 33
Figure 3.10 Exact equivalent circuit 33
Figure 3.11 Static VI characteristics 36
Figure 3.12 Switching characteristics of IGBT 37
Figure 3.13 Rectifier block diagram 40
Figure 3.14 Half wave rectifier circuit diagram 43
Figure 3.15 Output wave forms of half wave rectifier 44
Figure 3.16 Full wave rectifier circuit 45
Figure 3.17 Input and output wave forms 51
Figure 3.18 Single phase inverter 54
Figure 3.19 LC circuit diagram 54
Figure4.1 Proposed circuit configuration 60
Figure5.1 Output voltage and current 61
Figure5.2 Grid voltage and current 61
Figure 5.3 Transformer voltage and current 62

x
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) have been growing in popularity in recent years due to the
increasing concern for the environment and the desire to reduce our dependence
on fossil fuels. The electric vehicle market is expanding at an unprecedented rate,
and many automakers are now investing heavily in the production of electric
vehicles.

Figure 1.1 Electric vehicle at charging station

In the above fig(1.1) we can see that an electric vehicle is being charged by traditional
charging method. An electric vehicle is a vehicle that is powered entirely by
electricity, either through an electric motor or through a combination of an electric
motor and a combustion engine. EVs are typically recharged by plugging them into an
electrical outlet or charging station. There are several kinds of electric vehicles, plug-
in hybrid electric vehicles, and hybrid electric vehicles.

One of the biggest advantages of electric vehicles is that they emit far less greenhouse
gases than traditional gas-powered vehicles. This means that driving an electric
vehicle can significantly reduce a person's carbon footprint and contribute to a cleaner,
healthier environment. Furthermore, EVs are often much cheaper to operate than gas-
powered vehicles, as the cost of electricity is much lower than the cost of gasoline.
1
Another

2
advantage of EVs is that they are much quieter than traditional vehicles. This is
because they do not have an internal combustion engine, which is a major source of
noise in gas- powered vehicles. This can be especially beneficial for people who live
in densely populated areas and are tired of the constant noise of traffic.

However, there are also some disadvantages to EVs. One of the biggest concerns is
the limited range of electric vehicles. Additionally, charging an electric vehicle can
take several hours, which is much longer than it takes to refuel a gas-powered vehicle.
Despite these challenges, the future of EVs looks promising. There are already many
different models of electric vehicles available on the market, and many more are being
developed. In addition, the charging infrastructure is rapidly improving, and many cities
are installing charging stations in public places. This makes it easier for drivers to find
a place to charge their vehicles, even when they are on the go. The government is also
playing a role in promoting electric vehicles. Many countries offer incentives and tax
credits for drivers who choose to buy an electric vehicle. This can help us to reduce
the cost and make available to wider range of consumers.

In conclusion, electric vehicles are a promising alternative to traditional gas-powered

vehicles. They offer many advantages, including less emissions, less operating costs,
and a great driving experience. While there are still some challenges to be addressed,
the future of EVs looks bright, and we can expect to see more and more of them on
the road in the coming years.

3
1.2 Batteries

Figure 1.2 Battery used in electric vehicle

The batteries shown in the fig(1.2) are used in electric vehicles play a critical role in
the success and popularity of these vehicles. There are several kinds of batteries that can
be used in electric vehicles, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
The commonly used type of battery used in electric vehiicles is the lithium-ion
battery. Lithium-ion batteries are favored for use in electric vehicles because they are
lightweight, durable, and have a high energy density. This means that they can store
more energy in a little amount of space, which is ideal for use in electric vehicles. In
addition, lithium-ion batteries have a long life span and are less prone to losing their
ability to hold a charge over time compared to other types of batteries.

The other kind of battery used in electric vehicles is the nickel-metal Hydride (NiMH)
battery. NiMH batteries are similar to lithium-ion batteries in that they are lightweight
and have a maximum energy density. However, they are typically less expensive than
lithium- ion batteries, which makes them a more affordable option for some drivers.
Lead-acid batteries are also used in electric vehicles, although they are less common due
to their heavy weight and lower energy density compared to other types of batteries.

However, lead-acid batteries are still widely used in some electric vehicles, especially
in older models and in lower-priced electric vehicles. Regardless of the type of battery
used, it is important to keep in mind that the performance of an electric vehicle's
battery is directly tied to its driving range. In other words, the better the battery, the
farther an electric vehicle can travel on a single charge. This is why many automakers are
investing heavily in battery technology, with the goal of developing batteries that can
store more energy Another important factor to consider when it comes to batteries
in electric

4
vehicles is charging time. While charging times vary depending on the type of battery
and the charging system, most electric vehicles take several hours to fully charge.
However, there are now fast-charging systems available that can charge an electric
vehicle in just 30 minutes or less, making it possible for drivers to quickly recharge
their vehicles while on the go.

In conclusion, batteries which play a key role in the success and popularity of electric
vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries are the most common type of battery used in electric
vehicles, due to their high energy density, durability, and more life duration. However,
other types of batteries, such as NiMH batteries and lead-acid batteries, are also used
in some electric vehicles. Regardless of the kind of battery used, the driving range and
charging time are important considerations for drivers who are interested in buying an
electric vehicle. Here in fig(1.3) detailed battery is shown.

Figure 1.3 Battery in detail

1.3 Lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries have become the go-to power source for electric vehicles due to
their high energy density, durability, and long life span. Lithium-ion batteries have
revolutionized the electric vehicle industry and have been instrumental in making
electric vehicles more popular and accessible to consumers. Lithium-ion batteries are
made up of a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte solution.

5
During the charging phase of a lithium-ion battery, lithium ions migrate from the
cathode to the anode, while during discharging, these ions return to the cathode. This
ion movement is responsible for the generation of electric current within the battery.

One significant benefit of lithium-ion batteries is their exceptional energy density.

This characteristic allows them to store a substantial amount of energy within a
compact volume, making them highly suitable for electric vehicle applications.
Furthermore, lithium-ion batteries have a long life span and are less prone to losing
their ability to hold a charge over time compared to other types of batteries. Another
advantage of lithium-ion batteries is their durability. Lithium-ion batteries are
designed to last for many years, even under heavy use. This makes them ideal for use
in electric vehicles, which rely on their batteries for their primary power source.
Furthermore, lithium-ion batteries are relatively low maintenance, as they do not
require any special care or attention, unlike some other types of batteries.

Figure 1.4 Lithium ion battery

The Lithium-ion battery used in electric vehicles is shown in above fig(1.4). Despite
their many advantages, there are also some disadvantages to lithium-ion batteries. One
of the biggest concerns is their cost. Lithium-ion batteries are more costly than other
types of batteries, and this added cost can be a barrier for some consumers who are
considering purchasing an electric vehicle.

6
Another disadvantage of lithium-ion batteries is that they are relatively fragile. This
means that they need to be protected from damage, such as impacts, overheating, and
overcharging. This can add additional cost and complexity to the design of electric
vehicles, as the batteries need to be housed in protective casing.

In conclusion, lithium-ion batteries are an essential component of electric vehicles. They

offer many advantages, including a high energy density, a long life span, and
durability. Despite some disadvantages, such as their cost and fragility, lithium-ion
batteries have become the go-to power source for electric vehicles due to their many
benefits. The future of the electric vehicle industry is closely tied to the development
and improvement of lithium-ion batteries, and we can expect to see further

advancements in battery technology in the coming years.

1.3.1 Charging methods

Electric vehicles (EVs) offer a clean and efficient mode of transportation, but to make
them practical for everyday use, a convenient and reliable charging infrastructure is
necessary. There are different types of charging methods for EVs, each with its own
set of advantages and disadvantages. The charging of EV is shown in below fig(1.5).

Figure 1.5 Charging of EV

Level 1 Charging: Level 1 charging involves utilizing a regular 120-volt household

outlet to charge the vehicle. It is the slowest charging method, typically taking
between 8 to 12 hours to fully charge the vehicle. Despite its longer charging time,
it offers
7
convenience as it only requires a standard outlet and the charging cable provided with
the vehicle. Level 1 charging is well-suited for overnight charging at home or
workplace.

Level 2 Charging: Level 2 charging, on the other hand, utilizes a 240-volt outlet,
similar to the type used for electric dryers or stoves. This charging method provides
faster charging compared to Level 1, significantly reducing the charging time required to
fully charge the vehicle. Level 2 charging is faster than Level 1 charging, taking
anywhere from 3 to 8 hours to fully charge a vehicle, depending on the battery size
and charging system. Level 2 charging is ideal for home charging, as well as for

charging at work as 30 minutes, making it possible for drivers to quickly recharge

their vehicles while on the go. However, fast charging can be expensive, both for the
vehicle and for the charging station, and it can also put a lot of stress on the battery,
which can reduce its overall life span.

Figure 1.6 Wireless charging of EV

Wireless Charging: This type of charging uses magnetic induction to charge the
vehicle wirelessly. The vehicle is parked over a charging pad, which sends a magnetic
field to the vehicle's battery, charging it wirelessly. Wireless charging is a convenient
and easy- to-use option, but it is also more expensive than other types of charging and
requires specialized charging pads that are not yet widely available. As shown in
figure 1.6, an EV can be charged using wireless charging method. Solar Charging:
This type of charging uses solar panels to generate electricity that can be used to
charge the vehicle. Solar charging is a clean and renewable way to charge a vehicle,
but it is also relatively slow and requires a large amount of sunlight to generate
enough electricity to fully charge a vehicle. As shown in figure 1.7, an electric vehicle
can be charged using solar charging.

8
 Figure 1.7 Solar Charging of EV

Solar Charging: This type of charging uses solar panels to generate electricity that can
be used to charge the vehicle. Solar charging is a clean and renewable way to charge a
vehicle, but it is also relatively slow and requires a large amount of sunlight to
generate enough electricity to fully charge a vehicle. As shown in figure 1.7, an
electric vehicle can be charged using solar charging.

In conclusion, there are several different types of charging methods for EVs, each
with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. The best type of charging method
for a particular vehicle and driver will depend on their individual needs and
preferences, including charging speed, convenience, cost, and the availability of
charging infrastructure.

1.3.2 Traditional Charging:

An electric vehicle (EV) charging station takes electrical power from the grid and
transfers it to an electric vehicle using a connector or plug. The electric vehicle then
stores this electricity in a sizable battery pack, which supplies energy to the vehicle's
electric motor.

An electric vehicle (EV) charging station takes electrical power from the grid and
transfers it to an electric vehicle using a connector or plug. The electric vehicle then
stores this electricity in a sizable battery pack, which supplies energy to the vehicle's
electric motor.

9
Wireless charging methods

Wireless charging is a modern and convenient way to charge electric vehicles (EVs),
offering a clean, efficient, and easy-to-use solution for those who want to reduce their
carbon footprint and improve their driving experience. Wireless charging for EVs uses
magnetic induction to charge the vehicle wirelessly, making it possible to charge the
vehicle simply by parking it over a charging pad.

There are several different methods of wireless charging, including:

 Magnetic Resonance Charging: This method uses magnetic resonance to transfer

energy between the charging pad and the vehicle's battery. The charging pad
contains a coil of wire that creates a magnetic field, while the vehicle contains
a second coil of wire that receives the energy from the magnetic field.
 Inductive Charging: This is the most used method of wireless charging and
uses magnetic induction to transfer energy from the charging pad to the
vehicle's battery. The charging pad contains a coil of wire that creates a
magnetic field, while the vehicle contains a second coil of wire that receives
the energy from the magnetic field.
 Conductive Charging: This method uses direct electrical contact between the
charging pad and the vehicle's battery to transfer energy. The charging pad
contains metal contacts that touch the vehicle's battery, allowing energy to
flow from the charging pad to the battery.
 Radio Frequency Charging: This method uses radio frequency waves to
transfer energy from the charging pad to the vehicle's battery. The charging
pad contains a coil of wire that sends out radio frequency waves, while the
vehicle contains a second coil of wire that receives the energy from the radio
frequency waves.

10
 Figure 1.8 Wireless charging station

The above figure 1.8 shows us how a wireless charging station looks like. Each
method of wireless charging has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the best
method for a specific use will depend on the specific needs and requirements of the
vehicle and the driver. For example, magnetic resonance charging is more efficient
than inductive charging, but it requires a higher level of accuracy and precision when
parking the vehicle over the charging pad. Inductive charging is simpler and more
widely available, but it is slower than magnetic resonance charging. Conductive
charging is fast, but it is not as widely available or as convenient as inductive or
magnetic resonance charging. Radio frequency charging is efficient and fast, but it is
not as widely available or as well-developed as other methods of wireless charging.

11
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Simultaneously wireless power and data transfer for electric vehicles (EVs) has
become an increasingly researched topic in recent years, as the popularity of EVs
continues to grow and the demand for a more convenient and efficient charging
solution increases. This literature review aims to provide an overview of the current
state of research in the area of simultaneously wireless power and data transfer for
EVs and to identify the key challenges and opportunities for future development.

The concept of simultaneously wireless power and data transfer for EVs is based on
the idea of transferring both power and data wirelessly between the charging station
and the vehicle. The charging process is carried out automatically, without the need
for physical connections, and the transfer of power is carried out using magnetic
induction, resulting in a more efficient transfer of energy[1]. This technology has the
potential to revolutionize the way EVs are charged, providing a more convenient and
efficient charging experience for the vehicle owner.

Several research studies have investigated the technical feasibility of simultaneously

wireless power and data transfer for EVs. These studies have focused on the
development of the necessary technology and have explored the potential benefits of
this technology in terms of efficiency and convenience. For example, a study by Chen
et al. (2018) investigated the use of magnetic resonance coupling to transfer power
wirelessly to an EV. The study found that magnetic resonance coupling can provide a
high power transfer efficiency and can be used to charge an EV efficiently[2]. In
addition to the technical feasibility of simultaneously wireless power and data
transfer, a number of studies have also investigated the economic and environmental
benefits of this technology. For example, a study by We iet al. (2019) found that the
use of wireless charging for EVs can reduce the cost of the charging process and can
also reduce the environmental impact of the charging process by reducing the use of
energy for charging[3].

Despite the potential benefits of simultaneously wireless power and data transfer for
EVs, there are also a number of challenges that need to be addressed in order for this

12
technology to be widely adopted[3]. One of the main challenges is the cost of
implementing this technology. The cost of installing the charging stations and the
vehicles equipped with the necessary technology can be prohibitively high for some
consumers. Additionally, the technology is still in its early stages of development, and
there is a need for further research and development to improve the efficiency and
reliability of the technology.

Another challenge is the need for standardization. In order for this technology to be
widely adopted, it is important that there is a standardized approach to the technology
and the communication between the charging station and the vehicle[5]. This will ensure
that the technology is compatible with all EV models and charging stations, and that
the charging process is carried out smoothly and efficiently.

A number of studies have also explored the potential security issues associated with
simultaneously wireless power and data transfer for EVs. For example, a study by Liu
et al. (2020) investigated the security risks associated with the wireless transfer of data
and power between the charging station and the vehicle[4]. The study found that there
are a number of security risks associated with this technology, including the
possibility of data breaches and unauthorized access to the vehicle’s power and data.

In conclusion, the research in the area of simultaneously wireless power and data
transfer for EVs has shown that this technology has the potential to revolutionize the
way EVs are charged and to provide a more convenient and efficient charging
experience for the vehicle owner. However, in order for this technology to be widely
adopted, it is important that the challenges of cost, standardization, and security are
addressed. Additionally, further research and development is needed to improve the
efficiency and reliability of the technology[5]. As the popularity of EVs continues to
grow, it is expected that the research in this area will continue to evolve and that new
opportunities for the development of simultaneously.

13
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Wireless power transfer (WPT)

3.1.1 Introduction

Figure 3.1 Wireless power transfer circuit

In the above figure 3.1 we can see the construction of wireless power transfer circuit.
Wireless power transfer (WPT) is an innovative technology that enables the
transmission of electrical energy between a power source and an electrical load
without the need for physical connections. This technology has become increasingly
popular due to the demand for a convenient, efficient, and safe method of transmitting
power without the use of wires. Although the concept of wireless power transfer has
been around for some time, recent technological advancements have led to the
development of more efficient and affordable WPT systems.

Wireless power transfer technology can be broadly classified into two main types:
near- field WPT and far-field WPT. Near-field WPT involves the wireless
transmission of electricity in close proximity between a transmitter and receiver. On
the other hand,

14
far-field WPT allows energy transmission over longer distances. Far-field WPT systems
function based on the principles of electromagnetic induction.

One of the key benefits of WPT technology is its ability to provide an uninterrupted
supply of electrical energy. Unlike traditional power transmission methods, which
require physical connections between the power source and the electrical load, WPT
technology eliminates the need for physical connections. This results in a safer and more
convenient method of transmitting electrical energy.

Another benefit of WPT technology is its ability to reduce the use of cables and wires.
This not only reduces the cost and complexity of electrical systems but also reduces
the risk of electrical fires and other safety hazards associated with the use of electrical
wires. Additionally, WPT technology reduces the amount of electronic waste
generated by electronic devices, as it eliminates the need for multiple charging cables
and other associated equipment. The wireless power transfer technology also has
applications in the field of robotics and wearable technology. With the development
of wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers, the need for an
efficient and convenient method of charging these devices has become increasingly
important. WPT technology provides a solution to this problem by allowing these
devices to be charged wirelessly.

The far-field WPT systems make use of high-frequency electromagnetic waves, which
are transmitted from a power source to the receiver through the air. These waves are
transmitted by an antenna, and the energy is then picked up by the receiver's antenna,
which converts the electromagnetic waves back into electrical energy. This
technology is widely used for the wireless charging of mobile phones, tablets, and
other portable electronic devices. The major advantages of far-field WPT systems are
that they can transmit energy over large distances and are ideal for charging small
electronic devices. On the other hand, the near-field WPT systems make use of magnetic
resonances, which are created by alternating magnetic fields. These magnetic fields are
generated by the transmitter, and the energy is then transmitted to the receiver through
magnetic fields. The receiver is designed to have the same resonant frequency as the
transmitter, which

15
 allows the energy to be efficiently transferred between the two. This technology is
widely used for charging electric vehicles and other large-scale energy storage
systems.

3.1.2 Types of wireless power transfer

The wireless power techniques are:

 Inductive Charging
 Resonant Charging
 Radio Frequency Charging
 Solar Wireless Charging
 Magnetic Resonance Impedance Transfer
 Near Field Magnetic Induction

Inductive charging

Figure 3.2 Inductive power transfer

As shown in the above figure 3.2 an inductive power circuit consists of supply,
transmitter, two coils and a receiver. Inductive charging is a popular wireless power
transfer technique that utilizes magnetic fields to transfer electrical energy between
the transmitter and receiver. This method is commonly used for charging electronic
devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and smartwatches, as it provides a convenient
and safe way to charge these devices without the need for any physical connection. The
inductive charging process is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction, which
was first discovered by Michael Faraday in the early 19th century.

In inductive charging, the transmitter generates a magnetic field that is then

transferred to the receiver through the air. The receiver is equipped with a coil of wire
that is designed to pick up the magnetic field and convert it back into electrical
energy. This electrical energy is then used to charge the device's battery. To ensure

16
that the energy

17
transfer is efficient, the transmitter and receiver are designed to have the same
resonant frequency.

One of the key benefits of inductive charging is its ability to provide a convenient and
safe way to charge electronic devices. With inductive charging, there is no need for a
physical connection between the power source and the device, which reduces the risk
of electrical fires and other safety hazards associated with the use of electrical wires.
Additionally, inductive charging eliminates the need for multiple charging cables and
other associated equipment, making it a more efficient and cost-effective way to
charge electronic devices.

Another benefit of inductive charging is its ability to provide an uninterrupted supply

of electrical energy. Unlike traditional power transmission methods, which require
physical connections between the power source and the electrical load, inductive
charging eliminates the need for physical connections. This results in a safer and more
convenient method of transmitting electrical energy.

Inductive charging is also easy to implement and can be integrated into a variety of
electronic devices. The technology is compatible with a wide range of battery types,
making it an ideal solution for charging a variety of electronic devices. Additionally,
inductive charging can be used to charge multiple devices at the same time, making it
a more efficient way to charge multiple devices.

Despite its benefits, inductive charging is not without its limitations. One of the major
limitations of this technology is its low power transfer efficiency, which results in longer
charging times compared to traditional charging methods. Additionally, inductive
charging requires close proximity between the transmitter and receiver, which makes
it unsuitable for charging devices over a large distance.

Another limitation of inductive charging is its potential to generate electromagnetic

interference (EMI), which can affect the performance of other electronic devices. To
mitigate the risk of EMI, inductive charging systems are equipped with shielding and
filtering mechanisms, which reduce the emission of electromagnetic radiation. In
conclusion, inductive charging is a popular and convenient wireless power transfer

18
technique that provides a safe and efficient way to charge electronic devices. With its
ability to provide an uninterrupted supply of electrical energy, eliminate the need for
physical connections, and reduce the risk of electrical fires and other safety hazards,
inductive charging is poised to revolutionize the way we charge our electronic
devices. As technology continues to advance, it is expected that inductive charging
systems will become more efficient, cost-effective, and widely adopted in the future.
Advantages of Inductive Wireless Power Transfer Technique:
1. Convenience: One of the main advantages of inductive wireless power transfer
is its convenience. Users do not have to physically connect their devices to a
power source, which makes it easy to charge multiple devices at the same
time.
2. Safety: Inductive charging eliminates the risk of electrical fires and other hazards
associated with traditional charging methods. The absence of physical
connections also eliminates the risk of electrical shocks.
3. Efficiency: Inductive charging systems are designed to be energy-efficient, as
the energy transfer is done wirelessly through magnetic fields. This eliminates
the need for physical connections and reduces the loss of energy during
transmission.
4. Compatibility: Inductive charging is compatible with a wide range of battery
types, making it an ideal solution for charging a variety of electronic devices.
5. Integration: Inductive charging is easy to implement and can be integrated into
a variety of electronic devices, including smartphones, tablets, and
smartwatches.

Disadvantages of Inductive Wireless Power Transfer Technique:

 Low Power Transfer Efficiency: One of the main disadvantages of inductive

wireless power transfer is its low power transfer efficiency. The low efficiency
of this technology results in longer charging times compared to traditional
charging methods.
 Proximity Requirements: Inductive charging requires close proximity between
the transmitter and receiver, which makes it unsuitable for charging devices over
a large distance.
 Electromagnetic Interference: Inductive charging systems have the potential to
generate electromagnetic interference (EMI), which can affect the performance
19
 of other electronic devices. This requires the use of shielding and filtering
mechanisms to reduce the emission of electromagnetic radiation.
 Limited Distance: Inductive charging requires close proximity between the
transmitter and receiver, which limits the distance over which energy can be
transmitted.
 Cost: Inductive charging systems can be more expensive than traditional
charging methods, as they require specialized components, such as a transmitter,
receiver, and control electronics. Additionally, inductive charging systems
may require additional costs for licensing and certifications, as well as ongoing
maintenance and support costs.

 Top of Form

Resonant Charging
Resonant Charging is a type of wireless power transfer technology that uses resonant
magnetic fields to transmit energy from a power source to a receiving device. It is
based on the principle of resonance, which is the natural frequency at which an object
oscillates when subjected to a force.

In resonant charging, the transmitter and receiver are designed to resonate at the same
frequency. The transmitter produces a magnetic field with a specific frequency, which
is then captured by the receiver and converted into electrical energy. The resonant
frequency of the transmitter and receiver ensures that the maximum amount of energy
is transferred, while minimizing the loss of energy during transmission.

One of the main advantages of resonant charging is that it enables power transfer over
a much larger distance than other wireless power transfer technologies, such as inductive
charging. This makes it an ideal solution for charging devices that are located at a
distance from the power source, such as electric vehicles and wearable devices.

Another advantage of resonant charging is its higher efficiency compared to other

wireless power transfer technologies. The resonant frequency of the transmitter and
receiver enables a much higher power transfer efficiency, which reduces the loss of
energy during transmission and results in faster charging times.

20
Resonant charging is also compatible with a wide range of battery types, making it an
ideal solution for charging a variety of electronic devices. Additionally, resonant
charging systems can be integrated into a variety of electronic devices, including
smartphones, tablets, and smartwatches. However, one of the main disadvantages of
resonant charging is that it is more complex and expensive than other wireless power
transfer technologies. Resonant charging systems require specialized components,
such as a transmitter, receiver, and control electronics, which can increase the cost of
the system.

Additionally, resonant charging systems may also generate electromagnetic interference

(EMI), which can affect the performance of other electronic devices. This requires the
use of shielding and filtering mechanisms to reduce the emission of electromagnetic
radiation.

In conclusion, resonant charging is a promising wireless power transfer technology

that offers several advantages over other wireless power transfer methods. Its ability
to transfer power over a large distance and its higher efficiency make it an ideal
solution for a variety of applications, including electric vehicles and wearable devices.
However, the cost and complexity of resonant charging systems are important factors
to consider before implementing this technology.

Radio Frequency (RF) Charging

Radio Frequency (RF) Charging is a type of wireless power transfer technology that
uses radio frequency electromagnetic fields to transmit energy from a power source to
a receiving device. It is based on the principle of induction, where an alternating
current in a coil generates an electromagnetic field that can be used to transfer energy.

In RF charging, the transmitter and receiver are connected by a wireless link using
radio waves. The transmitter generates an alternating current in a coil, which creates a
magnetic field. This magnetic field induces acurrent in the coil of the receiver, which
is then used to charge its battery.
The below fig(3.3) describes the radio frequency charging. One of the main advantages

21
of RF charging is its ability to transfer energy over a relatively large distance
compared to other wireless power transfer technologies, such as inductive charging.
This makes it an ideal solution for charging devices that are located at a distance from
the power source, such as electric vehicles and wearable devices. Another advantage
of RF charging is its higher efficiency compared to other wireless power transfer
technologies. The high-frequency electromagnetic fields used in RF charging result in
a much higher power transfer efficiency, which reduces the loss of energy during
transmission and results in faster charging times.

Figure 3.3 Radiofrequency charging

RF charging is also compatible with a wide range of battery types, making it an ideal
solution for charging a variety of electronic devices. Additionally, RF charging
systems can be integrated into a variety of electronic devices, including smartphones,
tablets, and smartwatches.

RF charging is also compatible with a wide range of battery types, making it an ideal
solution for charging a variety of electronic devices. Additionally, RF charging
systems can be integrated into a variety of electronic devices, including smartphones,
tablets, and smartwatches.

However, one of the main disadvantages of RF charging is that it is more complex and
expensive than other wireless power transfer technologies. RF charging systems require
specialized components, such as a transmitter, receiver, and control electronics, which
can increase the cost of the system.

22
Additionally, RF charging systems may also generate electromagnetic interference
(EMI), which can affect the performance of other electronic devices. This requires the
use of shielding and filtering mechanisms to reduce the emission of electromagnetic
radiation.

In conclusion, RF charging is a promising wireless power transfer technology that offers

several advantages over other wireless power transfer methods. Its ability to transfer
power over a large distance and its higher efficiency make it an ideal solution for a
variety of applications, including electric vehicles and wearable devices. However, the
cost and complexity of RF charging systems are important factors to consider before
implementing this technology.

Solar Charging
Solar wireless charging is a type of wireless power transfer technology that uses solar
energy to charge electronic devices. This technology is based on the principle of
photovoltaic cells, which convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity generated by
the photovoltaic cells is used to charge a battery, which can then be used to power
electronic devices. Solar wireless charging systems consist of a solar panel, a battery,
and a control unit. The solar panel is placed in a location that receives direct sunlight
and converts the solar energy into electrical energy. The electrical energy is then
stored in the battery, which can be used to charge electronic devices wirelessly.

Figure 3.4 Wireless solar charging

The figure 3.4 describes the wireless solar charging. One of the main advantages of solar
wireless charging is that it is a clean and renewable source of energy. Unlike
traditional

23
power sources, such as coal and natural gas, solar energy does not emit harmful
pollutants into the environment. This makes solar wireless charging a more
environmentally friendly solution compared to traditional power sources.

Another advantage of solar wireless charging is its ability to operate in remote

locations where traditional power sources are unavailable. This makes it an ideal
solution for charging electronic devices in outdoor environments, such as camping
sites and remote areas.

Solar wireless charging is also relatively easy to install and maintain compared to
other wireless power transfer technologies. The solar panel and battery can be
installed in a relatively short amount of time, and the control unit can be programmed
to optimize the charging process.

However, one of the main disadvantages of solar wireless charging is that it is dependent
on the availability of sunlight. This means that solar wireless charging systems may
not work in locations with limited sunlight, such as northern climates during the
winter months. Additionally, solar wireless charging systems are relatively expensive
compared to other wireless power transfer technologies, which may make it difficult
for some consumers to adopt this technology.

In conclusion, solar wireless charging is a promising wireless power transfer technology

that offers several advantages over other wireless power transfer methods. Its clean
and renewable source of energy and its ability to operate in remote locations make it an
ideal solution for a variety of applications, including outdoor environments and remote
areas. However, the dependence on sunlight and the relatively high cost of solar
wireless charging systems are important factors to consider before implementing this
technology.

Magnetic Resonance Impedance Transfer

Magnetic Resonance Impedance Transfer (MRIT) is a technology that can be used for
wireless charging. MRIT works by creating a magnetic field that can transfer energy
between two objects that are in close proximity to each other. This transfer of energy
can be used to charge a device wirelessly, eliminating the need for physical connections.

MRIT technology uses magnetic resonance to create an oscillating magnetic field

between a transmitting coil and a receiving coil. This magnetic field induces an electrical
current in the receiving coil, which can then be used to charge a device. The
advantage of MRIT over other wireless charging methods is that it allows for a

24
greater distance

25
between the transmitter and receiver, making it possible to charge devices that are
farther away from the charging source.

MRIT technology is still in the early stages of development and is not yet widely
available in consumer devices. However, it has potential applications in a variety of
industries, including healthcare, transportation, and consumer electronics.

Near Field Magnetic Induction (NFMI)

Figure 3.5 A coil connected to a bulb

The above figure 3.5 shows a coil connected to a bulb. Near Field Magnetic Induction
(NFMI) is a technology used for wireless charging. It works by creating a magnetic
field between a transmitting coil and a receiving coil. When these two coils are placed
close to each other, the magnetic field induces an electrical current in the receiving coil,
which can then be used to charge a device. NFMI is a type of wireless charging
technology that is known for its high efficiency and low power consumption. Unlike
other wireless charging technologies that rely on radio waves, NFMI operates in the
magnetic field and is therefore less affected by external factors such as electromagnetic
interference.

NFMI technology is widely used in consumer electronics and has become a popular
choice for charging small devices such as smartphones, smartwatches, and earbuds.
Many manufacturers have adopted NFMI technology in their products, making it
easier for consumers to charge their devices wirelessly. Near Field Magnetic Induction
(NFMI) is a technology used for wireless charging. It works by creating a magnetic field
between a transmitting coil and a receiving coil. When these two coils are placed close
to each other, the magnetic field induces an electrical current in the receiving coil,
which can then be used to charge a device. NFMI is a type of wireless charging
technology that is
26
known for its high efficiency and low power consumption. Unlike other wireless
charging technologies that rely on radio waves, NFMI operates in the magnetic field and
is therefore less affected by external factors such as electromagnetic interference.

Overall, NFMI is a reliable and efficient method of wireless charging that has a wide
range of applications in the consumer electronics industry. It is a promising
technology that is likely to continue to grow and evolve in the coming years.

3.1.3 Applications of wireless power transfer

 Charging Appliances: Furthermore, WPT allows for more organized and
efficient use of space, as there is no need for cables and cords to be visible.
The durability of the appliances is also increased, as there is less chance for
damage to occur to the charging connectors. Additionally, WPT can provide
the convenience of on-the-go charging for portable devices such as laptops and
mobile phones. This makes it easy for users to charge their devices without the
need for a plug and socket.
 In addition to these benefits, WPT can also be applied to other household
appliances such as kitchen appliances, vacuum cleaners, and other portable
devices. This technology can also be integrated into furniture such as tables
and desks, to provide a charging surface for devices.
 Moreover, WPT can be integrated into smart homes, where devices can be
charged automatically as soon as they come in contact with the charging surface.
This can be done using a combination of sensors and wireless communication,
making the process even more convenient for the user. With the increasing
popularity of smart homes, WPT has the potential to play a vital role in powering
these systems.

27
 Figure 3.6 Charging of electronic components Top of Form

The idea is to install WPT systems on the road, for example in the form of charging
plates embedded in the road surface. This would allow EVs to charge while driving,
eliminating the need for frequent battery swapping or charging stops. This would greatly
enhance the driving range and convenience of EVs, making them a more viable option
for long distance travel. However, this application of WPT technology is still under
development and requires further research and development in order to become a reality.
It also involves a number of challenges such as the high power levels required, the safety
concerns and the cost of installation and maintenance of the charging infrastructure.

Figure 3.7 Wireless charging of EV

28
 Medical Devices: Wireless power transfer technology can be used to power
implantable medical devices such as pacemakers, insulin pumps, and other
wearable devices.
 Home Appliances: WPT can be used to power smart home devices such as
smart lights, thermostats, and security systems, without the need for physical
wiring.
 Automotive Industry: Electric vehicles can be charged wirelessly while
parked, eliminating the need for charging cables.
 Industrial Settings: WPT can be used to power sensors, robots, and other
equipment in industrial settings, reducing the need for physical wiring and
maintenance.
 Retail and Hospitality: Wireless charging stations can be installed in public
spaces such as cafes, airports, and hotels, allowing customers to charge their
devices without the need for cords.
 Military: Wireless power transfer technology can be used to power military
equipment such as drones, weapons systems, and communication devices,
improving mobility and reducing dependence on batteries.

3.1.2 Advantages of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT):

 Convenience: WPT eliminates the need for cords and cables, making it easier
and more convenient to charge devices.
 Portability: With WPT, devices can be charged wirelessly, allowing for greater
mobility and freedom of movement.
 Improved Safety: Wireless power transfer eliminates the risk of electrical
shock or short circuits that can occur with traditional charging methods.
 Increased Efficiency: WPT can be more energy-efficient than traditional
charging methods, as it eliminates energy losses associated with cables and
connectors.
 Better Interoperability: Wireless power transfer technology is compatible with
a wide range of devices, making it easier to charge multiple devices with a
single charger.

29
 3.1.3 Disadvantages of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT):

 Range Limitations: The effective range of WPT is limited and can be affected
by environmental factors such as metal objects and other sources of interference.
 Cost: The initial cost of WPT equipment and technology can be higher than
traditional charging methods.
 Complexity: WPT technology can be more complex than traditional charging
methods, requiring specialized knowledge and skills to install and maintain.
 Compatibility Issues: Wireless power transfer technology may not be compatible
with older or non-standard devices, limiting its usefulness.
 Interference: Other electronic devices and sources of interference can affect
the performance of WPT, leading to reduced efficiency or complete failure of
the system.

3.2 IGBT

3.2.1 Introduction

The IGBT is a three-terminal device, consisting of a p-type base layer, an n-type

emitter layer, and a p-type collector layer. The base terminal is the control terminal,
the emitter terminal is the main current path, and the collector terminal is the current
return path. When a positive voltage is applied to the base terminal, it attracts holes
from the p-type base layer to the n-type emitter layer, creating a channel of holes in
the base layer. This channel allows current to flow from the collector to the emitter,
turning the IGBT on.

By controlling the amount of current flowing through the base terminal, the IGBT can
be turned on and off, allowing it to act as a switch. The IGBT has several advantages
over other power switching devices. It has a low on- state voltage drop, which results
in high efficiency. It also has a fast switching speed and can handle high currents and
voltages. Additionally, the IGBT is immune to latch-up, a problem that plagues other
power switching devices. However, the IGBT also has some disadvantages, such as high
switching losses and a relatively high input capacitance.

In summary, the IGBT is a power switching device that combines the best features of
BJTs and MOSFETs. It is widely used in power electronics applications due to its
30
high

31
efficiency, fast switching speed, and ability to handle high currents and voltages. It is
however, not without its limitations and it's important to properly evaluate the suitability
of an IGBT for a specific application before using it.

3.2.2 Basic Structure

Figure 3.8 N-Channel IGBT Cross Section

The diagram displays the fundamental configuration of an IGBT, a power

semiconductor device that combines the advantages of BJTs and MOSFETs. It
possesses a high input impedance similar to a MOSFET, low on-state power loss like
a BJT, and is devoid of the second breakdown issue found in BJTs. Consequently,
power electronics engineers commonly opt for IGBTs. The structure of an IGBT
resembles that of a power MOSFET, except for a notable distinction in the substrate.
Rather than an n+ layer substrate at the drain, an IGBT utilizes a p+ layer substrate
known as the collector.

Similar to a power MOSFET, an IGBT comprises numerous basic structure cells

connected on a single silicon chip. The p+ substrate, referred to as the injection layer,
injects holes into the n- layer, called the drift region. The thickness of the n- layer
determines the IGBT's voltage blocking capability, while the p layer is referred to as
the body. The n- layer positioned between the p+ and p regions accommodates the
depletion layer of the pn-junction, also known as junction J2.

32
3.2.3 Equivalent Circuit

If we travel vertically up from collector to emitter, as shown by an analysis of We

encounter p+, n-, and p layer s. IGBT can therefore be conceptualised as a mix of
MOSFET and p+ n- p layers. IGBT can be conceptualised as a mixture of MOSFET
and Q1's p+ n- p transistor. Here, Rd stands for the resistance provided by the n-drift
region. approximate IGBT comparable circuit.

Figure 3.9 Symbol of IGBT

The symbol of IGBT is shown in figure 3.9. A second path from collector to emitter
exists; it consists of the following steps: collector, p+, n-, p (n- channel), n+, and emitter.
Thus, the IGBT structure includes a second intrinsic transistor Q2 as n- pn+. the link
between Q1 and Q2 of two transistors. This is the entire equivalent IGBT circuit. The
presence of the p region in an IGBT, denoted as Rby, facilitates the flow of hole
current Ih. The schematic representation of a two-transistor equivalent circuit
highlights the inclusion of a parasitic thyristor within the IGBT structure. The presence of
this parasitic thyristor is indicated in the diagram. Here the above figure 3.10 describes
the exact equivalent circuit of IGBT.

33
 Figure 3.10 Exact equivalent circuit

3.2.4 Working

Air-ground heat exchanger is an ecological, renewable and passive technique (without

energy consumption) used since 3000 years B.C by the population of arid regions for

conditioning and thermal comfort of their houses

The principle is simple, a pipe of good thermal conductivity (steel, PVC, etc.) is buried at

a certain depth where the annual temperature of the subsoil remains unchanged during the

year. Air, generally used as working fluid conducted heat transfers during its passage

inside the tube where the ground work as heat or sink source due to its heat storage

capacity . It result two main thermal regimes

During the day and the summer period (see Figure 1), the outdoor air temperature Text is

higher than the temperature of the subsoil Tsoil. The air is pulsed naturally (by prevailing

winds) or mechanically (by fan) inside the buried tube where it exchanges heat with the

surrounding layer by conduction and convection where ground works as sink source and

air loses some degree during its passage. Air will be injected directly into the building

which improves cooling or natural ventilation .

During night and winter period , outside air temperature is lower than the air temperature

inside the building. Ground in this case work as a heating source to increase the

temperature of the air passing through the device or the T airoutlet > Tairintlet. The result is a

preheating of air injected to the building, more airflow and improvement of occupant’s

34
thermal comfort. The ability to work during all seasons of the year (winter and summer)

shows the potential of this technique .

3.2.5 Latch-up in IGBT

The IGBT structure contains two intrinsic transistors, Q1 and Q2, which together
make up a parasitic thyristor, as seen above. A hole current passes through the
transistors p+ n- p and p- body resistance Rby when an IGBT is turned on. The hole
component of current Ih would be significant if load current Ic was high. This high
current would result in an increase in the voltage drop Ih. Rby, which would cause the
transistor Q2's base p- emitter n+ junction to be forward biassed. As a result, parasitic
transistor Q2 turns on, which helps parasitic transistor p+ n- p, designated Q1, switch
on as well.

When the total of Q1 and Q2's current gains equals unity, as in a typical thyristor, the
parasitic thyristor eventually latches on by regenerative action. IGBT latches up when
the parasitic thyristor is turned on, at which point the gate terminal no longer has
control over the collector emitter current. The forced commutation of current, as is
done in a traditional thyristor, is the only way to turn off the latched up IGBT at this
time. If this lock up is not stopped right away, the IGBT could be destroyed by
extreme power dissipation.

When the collector current Ice exceeds a specific critical value, the latch up described
below takes place. The maximum value of load current Ice that an IGBT is permitted
to handle without latching up is always specified by the device manufacturers.

3.2.6 IGBT Characteristics

The circuit displays the different IGBT characteristic parameters . IGBTs (n-channel
type) with static I-V or output characteristics display the plot of collector current Ic vs
collector-emitter voltage Vce for different gate-emitter voltages VGE1, VGE2, etc. The

35
following list illustrates these qualities. The output characteristics' form in the forward
direction resembles that of a BJT. IGBTs are voltage-controlled devices, although in
this case the regulating parameter is gate-emitter voltage VGE. When the device is
turned off, junction J2 blocks forward voltage, while junction J1 prevents reverse
voltage if it arises across the collector and emitter. The greatest reverse breakdown
voltage is Vrm.

Collector current Ic vs gate-emitter voltage VGE is shown to represent an IGBT's

transfer characteristic..This characteristics is identical to that of power MOSFET. When
VGE is less than the threshold voltage VGET, IGBT is in the off state. The static V-I
characteristics of IGBT are displayed in the below figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11 Static V-I characteristics

3.2.7 Switching Characteristics

Sketched are the switching characteristics of an IGBT during turn-on and turn-off.
The period of time between a forward blocking instance and a forward on-state is
known as the turn-on time. Turn-on time (tonne) is made up of the rise and delay
times (tdn and tr), respectively.

The duration it takes for the collector-emitter voltage to drop from Vce to 0.9 Vce is
referred to as the delay time. The initial collector-emitter voltage is Vce in this case. The
collector current's growth from its initial leakage current Ice to 0.1 Ic may likewise be
used to determine time tdn. Ic is the collector current's ultimate value in this instance.

36
The time from when the collector-emitter drops from 0.9 VCE to 0.1 VCE is known
as the rising time (tr). The time it takes for the collector current to increase from 0.1Ic
to its ultimate value Ic is another definition of IT. The collector current Ic and the
collector- emitter voltage decrease over time to a tiny value known as the conduction
drop, or VCES, where the subscript s stands for saturated value.

The shut-off time is a little complicated. There are three intervals

1. Delay time tdf

2. Initial fall time tf1

3. Final time tf2

that is, toff=tdf+tf1+tf2

Figure 3.12 Switching characteristics of IGBT

The above figure describes the switching characteristics of IGBT. The gate voltage's
descent to the threshold voltage, VGET, is known as the delay time. During tdf, the
collector current decreases from Ic to 0.9 Ic as VGE decreases to VGET. The
collector- emitter voltage starts to increase at the conclusion of the tdf. The collector
current falling from 90% to 20% of its original value Ic, or the collector-emitter
voltage rising from Vces to 0.1 Vce, is referred to as the first fall time, or Tf1.

37
The collector current falls from 20% of Ic to 10% of Ic during the final fall time tf2,
or the collector-emitter voltage increases from 0.1 VCE to the final value VCE during
this period.

3.2.8 Advantages and disadvantages of Earth-Air Heat Exchanger:

Advantages :
1. Energy Efficiency

2. Sustainability

3. Stable Temperatures

4. Low Maintenance

5. Improved Indoor Air Quality

Disadvantages :
1. Residential Buildings

2. Commercial Buildings

3. Industrial Applications

4. Laboratories

5. Cold Storage Facilities

3.2.9 Applications of Earth-Air Heat Exchanger :

1. Residential Buildings

2. Commercial Buildings

3. Industrial Applications

4. Laboratories

5. Cold Storage Facilities

38
3.3 Converters

3.3.1 Introduction

Electric converters are devices that convert electrical energy from one form to
another, and are commonly used in a wide range of applications, from powering
everyday electronic devices to enabling large-scale industrial processes. There are
two main types of electric converters: AC-to-DC converters and DC-to-AC
converters.

Figure 3-13 Rectifier

Figure 3.13 Rectifier block diagram

39
The above figure 3.13 shows the block diagram of a rectifier. AC-to-DC
converters, also known as rectifiers, are used to convert alternating current (AC)
electrical energy into direct current (DC) electrical energy. This is necessary
because most electronic devices and appliances require DC energy in order to
function. AC-to-DC converters are used in a variety of applications, including power
supplies for computers, televisions, and other electronic devices, as well as in
battery chargers, motor control systems, and industrial power supplies.

DC-to-AC converters, also known as inverters, are used to convert DC electrical

energy into AC electrical energy. This is necessary in applications where AC
energy is required but is not available, such as in remote locations where power is
generated by a DC source, such as a solar panel or battery. Inverters are also used
in a variety of applications, including uninterruptible power supplies (UPS),
backup power systems, and renewable energy systems.

Both AC-to-DC and DC-to-AC converters are essential components in modern

electrical systems, and are critical for ensuring that electrical energy is effectively
and efficiently utilized. They play a crucial role in enabling electronic devices and
appliances to function, and in powering the industrial processes that drive
economic growth and development.

The design and implementation of electric converters is a complex and multi-

disciplinary field, involving expertise in electrical engineering, materials science,
and computer science. This is because electric converters must be designed to be
highly efficient, reliable, and cost-effective, while also meeting a wide range of
performance requirements.

One of the key challenges in designing electric converters is to minimize energy

losses, which can occur in the form of heat, electromagnetic interference (EMI),
and other forms of waste. To minimize energy losses, designers must carefully
select the materials and components that are used in the converter, and must
carefully optimize the circuit design and control algorithms.

Another important consideration in the design of electric converters is the need to

meet safety and regulatory requirements. For example, many countries have strict

40
regulations regarding the emission of electromagnetic radiation, which can
interfere with other electronic devices and systems. To ensure that converters meet
these r egulations, designers must carefully optimize the circuit design and control
algori thms to minimize emissions, and must also use specialized components and
mate rials that are designed to reduce electromagnetic interference.

The development of!electric converters has been driven by advances in materials

science, electronics, and computer science. For example, the widespread availabil
ity of!high- performance semiconductors, such as transistors, diodes, and
integrated circuits, has made it possible to design converters that are highly
efficient, reliable, and cost-effective.

In addition, advances in computer science and control algorithms have enabled the
development of advanced control systems that are capable of precisely regulating the
output of converters, ensuring that they perform optimally in a wide range of
conditions. Despite these advances, there is still much room for further
improvement in the design and implementation of electric converters. For example,
there is ongoing research into developing new materials and components that are
capable of reducing energy losses and improving performance, and into developing
new control algorithms that are capable of optimizing the performance of converters

in real-time.

3.4 Rectifier
The conversion of alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction,
into direct current (DC), which only flows in one direction, is known as rectifying.
Rectifiers have a wide range of uses, including as components of power supply and
radio signal detectors. Mercury arc valves, vacuum tube diodes, solid state diodes,
and other components can be used to construct rectifiers. When a single diode is used
to correct AC (by blocking the waveform's negative or positive component), there
is no difference between the terms "diode" and "rectifier," i.e., a diode that is being
used to convert AC to DC. Numerous diodes are typically organised in a specific
way in rectifiers to convert AC to DC more efficiently than is possible with just a
single diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum
tube diodes, copper (I) oxide, or selenium rectifier stacks were used. Early radio
receivers known as crystal radios used a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector"
that was a "cat's whisker" of thin wire pushed against a galena (lead sulphide) crystal.

41
 Sometimes, rectification serves purposes other than producing direct current. For
instance, flame rectification is utilised in gas heating systems to find the presence
of flame. Two metal electrodes in the flame's outer layer serve as a current route,
and the plasma will rectify an applied alternating voltage as long as the flame is
there to produce it.

Half wave rectifier

A half-wave rectifier is an electrical circuit that converts alternating current (AC)
into direct current (DC) by only allowing positive half-cycles of the AC wave to
pass through. The half-wave rectifier is a simple and inexpensive form of rectification
and is used in a variety of applications, including power supplies for electronic
devices, battery chargers, and industrial power supplies. The below figure
describes the half wave rectifier connected to R-load.

Figure 3.14 Half wave rectifier circuit diagram

Construction of a half-wave rectifier typically consists of a diode, a load resistor, and

a transformer. The diode is the key component of the rectifier, and its function is to
only allow current to flow in one direction, blocking the negative half-cycles of the AC
wave. The load resistor is used to convert the pulsed DC output of the rectifier into a
steady DC output, and the transformer is used to convert the AC voltage to the desired
level. The working of a half-wave rectifier can be understood as follows: when the AC
voltage is positive, the diode is forward-biased and allows current to flow through
the load resistor. However, when the AC voltage is negative, the diode is reverse-
biased and blocks the current flow, resulting in no output voltage across the load
resistor. This results in a pulsed DC output, with a ripple frequency equal to the input
AC frequency.

42
 Figure 3.15 Output waveforms of Half wave rectifier

The input and output waveforms are shown in the below figure 3.15. The pulsed DC
output of a half-wave rectifier can be smoothed out by using a filter circuit, such as a
capacitor filter, which stores energy during the positive half-cycles and releases it during
the negative half-cycles, resulting in a steady DC output.

One of the disadvantages of the half-wave rectifier is that it only uses half of the input
AC wave, resulting in significant loss of energy and reduced efficiency compared to
full- wave rectifiers. Additionally, the pulsed DC output of the rectifier contains
significant levels of ripple, which can cause interference with electronic devices and
systems.

In conclusion, the half-wave rectifier is a simple and inexpensive form of rectification,

and is used in a variety of applications. Despite its disadvantages, it remains a useful
tool for converting AC into DC, and is widely used in many electrical systems and
devices.

Full wave rectifier

A single-phase full-wave rectifier is a type of power rectifier that converts alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC) using a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit. The
rectifier circuit is commonly used in power supplies for various applications,
including lighting, battery charging, and electronics.

In a single-phase full-wave rectifier, an AC voltage is supplied to a circuit known as a

four-diode bridge rectifier. This rectifier consists of four diodes arranged in a bridge
configuration. The primary function of these diodes is to enable the flow of current in
a single direction, thus converting the AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage.

The full-wave rectifier circuit operates by utilizing two diodes during each half-cycle of

43
the AC voltage waveform. In the positive half-cycle, diodes D1 and D2 conduct
current, while diodes D3 and D4 remain in a reverse-biased state and do not allow
current flow. Conversely, in the negative half-cycle of the AC voltage, diodes D3 and
D4 conduct current, while diodes D1 and D2 are reverse-biased and prevent current
flow. By alternately conducting current during both the positive and negative half-
cycles of the AC voltage, the full-wave rectifier effectively converts the AC voltage
into a pulsating DC voltage. The input and output waveforms are shown in the figure
3.17.

Figure 3.16 Input and output waveforms

The result of this rectification process is a pulsed DC voltage, which is smooth and
continuous, with no gaps or interruptions. This pulsed DC voltage is then filtered
using a filter circuit, such as a capacitor filter, to produce a steady DC voltage.

The capacitor filter circuit operates by storing energy during the positive half-cycle of
the pulsed DC voltage, and then releasing it during the negative half-cycle to produce
a continuous DC voltage. The capacitor filter circuit helps to reduce the ripple voltage,
which is the fluctuation in the DC voltage caused by the pulsing of the rectified AC
voltage.

The efficiency of a single-phase full-wave rectifier is determined by the degree of

filtering provided by the filter circuit. The larger the value of the filter capacitor, the
greater the degree of filtering, and the lower the ripple voltage. However, larger filter
capacitors also increase the cost and size of the power supply. In addition to the four-
diode bridge rectifier circuit, there are several other types of full- wave rectifier
circuits, including the center-tapped full-wave rectifier and the voltage- doubler full-
wave rectifier. These rectifier circuits operate in a similar manner to the four- diode
bridge rectifier circuit, but they have different configurations and produce different
results.

44
The center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit uses a center-tapped transformer to produce

45
two equal-magnitude half-cycles of the AC voltage. The two half-cycles are then
rectified using two diodes, one for each half-cycle. The center-tapped full-wave rectifier
circuit produces a pulsed DC voltage with less ripple voltage than the four-diode
bridge rectifier circuit, but it is more expensive and requires a center-tapped
transformer.

The voltage-doubler full-wave rectifier circuit uses two capacitors to double the peak
voltage of the rectified AC voltage. The voltage-doubler full-wave rectifier circuit
produces a pulsed DC voltage with less ripple voltage than the four-diode bridge
rectifier circuit, but it is more complex and requires more components.

In conclusion, the single-phase full-wave rectifier is a simple and effective method for
converting AC voltage to DC voltage. The four-diode bridge rectifier circuit is the
most commonly used full-wave rectifier circuit, but there are several other types of
full-wave rectifier circuits that can be used for specific applications.

3.4.1 Applications of Rectifiers

 Power supplies: Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies to convert

alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This allows the DC voltage to
be stabilized and regulated for use in various electronic devices and
appliances.
 Charging batteries: Rectifiers are also used in charging circuits for batteries, such
as those found in automobiles and backup power systems. The rectifier
converts AC voltage from the power source into DC voltage that can be used
to charge the batteries.
 Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS): Rectifiers play a key role in
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), which provide backup power in the
event of an interruption in the main power supply. The rectifier converts AC
voltage from the backup generator or battery into DC voltage that can be used
to power connected devices.
 Electroplating: Rectifiers are used in the process of electroplating, where a metal
coating is deposited onto a substrate by passing an electric current through a
solution containing metal ions. The rectifier converts AC voltage into DC
voltage to provide a consistent current flow during the electroplating process.
 Solar panels: Rectifiers are used in solar panels to convert the AC voltage
generated by photovoltaic cells into DC voltage that can be stored in batteries

46
or used to power electronic devices.

47
  Medical equipment: Rectifiers are used in many types of medical equipment,
such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) machines, to provide a constant and
stable DC voltage for various treatments.
 Welding machines: Rectifiers are used in welding machines to provide a stable
DC voltage for welding processes, such as TIG and MIG welding.
 Wireless power transfer: Rectifiers are used in wireless power transfer systems
to convert AC voltage from a transmitting coil into DC voltage for use in battery-
powered devices.
 Power factor correction: Rectifiers are used in power factor correction (PFC)
circuits to improve the power factor of AC voltage and reduce the amount of
reactive power that is wasted.
 Electrolysis: Rectifiers are used in electrolysis processes to convert AC
voltage into DC voltage to provide a constant and stable current flow for the
separation of chemical elements.

3.4.2 Advantages and

Disadvantages Advantages of

Rectifiers:

1. Direct Current Output: Rectifiers provide a direct current output, which is

essential for many applications such as charging batteries, powering electronic
devices, and electroplating.
2. Improved Power Factor: Rectifiers can improve the power factor of AC
voltage, reducing the amount of reactive power that is wasted and increasing
the efficiency of the system.
3. Stabilized Voltage: Rectifiers can stabilize the voltage of the output, providing
a consistent and reliable power supply for various applications.
4. Increased Reliability: Rectifiers can increase the reliability of a power system by
providing a constant and stable voltage, even in the event of fluctuations or
interruptions in the AC power supply.
5. Cost-Effective: Rectifiers can be cost-effective for certain applications,
especially when compared to other alternatives such as DC-DC converters.

48
Disadvantages of Rectifiers

1. Complex Circuit Design: Rectifiers can be complex to design and implement,

requiring specialized components and knowledge of electronics.
2. Increased Power Losses: Rectifiers can result in increased power losses due to
the conversion of AC voltage to DC voltage, which can result in a reduction of
overall system efficiency.
3. Harmonic Distortion: Rectifiers can introduce harmonic distortion into the AC
voltage waveform, which can result in issues with power quality and affect the
performance of other devices connected to the power system.
4. Heat Generation: Rectifiers can generate heat during the conversion process,
which can result in increased thermal losses and decreased reliability of the
rectifier and other components in the system.
5. Voltage Ripple: Rectifiers can result in a certain amount of voltage ripple in
the DC output, which can impact the performance of certain applications that
require a smooth and stable DC voltage. This can be mitigated through the use
of filters or other techniques, but they can also add to the complexity and cost
of the system.

3.5 AC – DC Converters

Solid-state inverters are widely used in various applications due to their absence of
mechanical components. These inverters use appropriate transformers, switching, and
control circuits to convert direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC) at desired
voltage and frequency levels. They find applications in both small-scale devices like
computer power supplies and large-scale systems such as high-voltage direct current
used by electric utilities for transmitting significant amounts of electricity. Inverters
are commonly employed to supply AC power from DC sources like solar panels or
batteries.

Inverters come in two primary categories. A modified sine wave inverter's output is
comparable to a square wave's output, with the exception that it briefly drops to 0
volts before flipping to positive or negative. Except for sensitive or specialist equipment,
such some laser printers, it is easy, inexpensive ($0.10 USD/Watt), and suitable with
the majority of electrical gadgets. A pure sine wave inverter generates output that is
almost
49
identical to grid electricity from a utility (total harmonic distortion of less than 3%).

As a result, it works with all AC-powered electrical gadgets. The grid-tie inverter uses
this kind. It has a more intricate design and costs between $0.50 and $1.00 USD per
watt, depending on how much more power it uses. An electronic oscillator with high
power makes up the electrical inverter. It received its name because early mechanical
AC to DC converters were designed to operate backwards, or "inverted," in order to
convert DC to AC. The inverter serves the rectifier's opposite purpose.

3.5.1 Single phase inverter

A single-phase inverter is an electronic device that converts direct current (DC) to
alternating current (AC). It is commonly used in power supplies, uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS), and renewable energy systems, such as solar panels and wind
turbines. The construction of a single-phase inverter typically includes a DC input, an
inverter circuit, and an AC output. The DC input can be supplied from a battery, a
solar panel, or any other DC source. The inverter circuit is the heart of the inverter and
includes components such as power transistors, IGBT, and capacitors . The AC output
is fed to the load, such as an electric motor, a lamp, or a home appliance.

The working of a single-phase inverter is based on the principle of pulse width

modulation (PWM). In PWM, the average value of the output voltage is controlled by
changing the duty cycle of the output pulses. The duty cycle is defined as the ratio of
the on-time to the total cycle time of the pulses. By controlling the duty cycle, the
average value of the output voltage can be varied, which in turn controls the AC
voltage waveform. The figure 3.18 describes the single phase inverter.

Figure 3.17 Single phase inverter

50
In a single-phase inverter, the inverter circuit generates a series of pulses with varying
duty cycles. The pulses are then smoothed by a low-pass filter to produce a sinusoidal
AC voltage waveform. The frequency of the AC voltage waveform is determined by
the switching frequency of the inverter circuit.

The power transistors in the inverter circuit are responsible for switching the DC voltage
to the load. The transistors are turned on and off rapidly, in a sequence, to produce the
pulses with varying duty cycles. The diodes in the inverter circuit are used to prevent
reverse current flow and to prevent the output voltage from being shorted to the DC
input voltage.

The capacitors in the inverter circuit are used for filtering and smoothing the output
voltage. They store energy during the on-time of the pulses and release it during the
off- time, which helps to produce a smooth and continuous AC voltage waveform.

In conclusion, the single-phase inverter is a crucial component in many power

systems and is used to convert DC voltage to AC voltage. Its working is based on the
principle of PWM and it is constructed with components such as power transistors,
diodes, and capacitors. The inverter circuit generates a series of pulses with varying
duty cycles, which are then smoothed to produce a sinusoidal AC voltage waveform.

3.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of

Inverter Advantages of Inverters:
1. AC Output: Inverters provide an alternating current (AC) output, which is
essential for many applications such as powering electrical appliances and
tools.
2. Portable Power: Inverters are portable and can be used as a backup
power source in the event of a power outage or when AC power is not
available.
3. Ease of Use: Inverters are simple to use and do not require specialized
knowledge or training to operate.
4. Cost-Effective: Inverters can be cost-effective for certain applications,
especially when compared to other alternatives such as generator sets.
5. Energy Efficiency: Inverters can be energy-efficient, converting DC
voltage from a battery or other source into AC voltage with minimal power
losses.

51
Disadvantages of Inverters:
1. Complex Circuit Design: Inverters can be complex to design and
implement, requiring specialized components and knowledge of
electronics.
2. Increased Power Losses: Inverters can result in increased power losses due
to the conversion of DC voltage to AC voltage, which can result in a
reduction of overall system efficiency.
3. Harmonic Distortion: Inverters can introduce harmonic distortion into
the AC voltage waveform, which can result in issues with power quality
and affect the performance of other devices connected to the power
system.
4. Heat Generation: Inverters can generate heat during the conversion
process, which can result in increased thermal losses and decreased
reliability of the inverter and other components in the system.
5. Voltage Regulation: Inverters may not provide a stable and regulated AC
voltage, which can impact the performance of certain applications that
require a consistent and stable power supply. This can be mitigated
through the use of voltage regulators or other techniques, but they can
also add to the complexity and cost of the system.

3.5.3 Applications of Inverters

1. Backup Power: Inverters are commonly used as backup power sources for
homes and businesses during power outages.

2. Renewable Energy Systems: Inverters are an essential component in

renewable energy systems, such as solar panels and wind turbines, to
convert DC voltage from the panels or turbines into AC voltage for use
or storage.
3. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): Inverters are used in UPS systems
to provide a constant and reliable power supply to critical devices and
systems during power outages.
4. Portable Power: Inverters are used to provide portable power for camping,
RVing, and other outdoor activities.
5. Industrial and Commercial Applications: Inverters are used in a variety
of industrial and commercial applications, such as machinery,
production
52
 processes, and data centers, to provide a reliable power supply.
6. Automotive Applications: Inverters are used in automotive applications,
such as electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles, to convert DC voltage
from the battery into AC voltage for use in the vehicle.
7. Medical Equipment: Inverters are used in medical equipment, such as
patient monitors and ventilators, to provide a reliable and stable power
supply for critical medical devices.
8. Telecom Systems: Inverters are used in telecom systems, such as cell
phone towers and other communication systems, to provide a reliable
and stable power supply for the equipment.
9. Aerospace and Defense: Inverters are used in aerospace and defense
applications, such as military vehicles, aircraft, and satellites, to provide
a reliable and stable power supply for critical systems.
10. Consumer Electronics: Inverters are used in consumer electronics, such
as laptops and portable devices, to convert DC voltage from the battery
into AC voltage for use in the device

3.6 LC FILTER

Figure 3.18 LC circuit diagram

A resonant or tune circuit is an LC circuit. When they are joined at the circuit's resonance
frequency, an electric current can alternate between them. The LC circuit is shown in
the above figure 3.19. LC circuits are used to create or extract a signal at a certain
frequency from a larger signal. Oscillators, filters, tuners, and frequency mixers are only
some of the uses for them. Because it assumes no energy loss owing to resistance, an
LC circuit is an idealised model.
Operation:
Schematic of the LC Electrical energy vibrating at the resonance frequency of an LC

53
circuit may be stored. Based on the voltage supplied to it, a capacitor stores energy in
the electric field between its plates. A device that carries electricity is known as an
inductor. on the other hand, depends on the current it receives to store energy in the
magnetic field.

54
 CHAPTER 4

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 Introduction

In continuous time, sampled time, or both (sequence + sampled time), it may display
linear and nonlinear systems. Matlab will employ mouse button operations to generate
models with a graphical user interface, such as block diagrams (GUI). We may start
by looking at the scheme at a high level, then exploring the levels and investigating
the model by double- clicking on blocks. This approach explains how a model is put
together and how its parts work together.

4.2 Block Diagram

A block diagram can have as many Any type of block can be used as an example as is
required to depict a system. Simulink is capable of modelling fundamental dynamic
systems that are represented by blocks.
A block comprises one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs.

The block type of which the block is an instance determines the function that links a
block's output to its inputs, states, and time. Discrete blocks vs. continuous blocks. On
the contrary, discrete blocks only react to input changes at integral multiples of their
sampling period. Discrete blocks maintain a steady output between sampling intervals.
A sample time option is available for each discrete block, allowing you to regulate the
sample rate.
The largest fractional quotient of a set of labelled the term "times" is used to describe
a period of time. basic sample time Among the collection of periods that have been
labelled. The block contains the block name, icon, and block library that includes the
block, as well as the block's purpose.

4.3 Block libraries for Simulink

 The Sources collection contains signal-generating components.
 Blocks for displaying and writing block output may be found in the Sinks library.

49
  The Discrete library has blocks that may be used to represent discrete-time
components.
 Linear function explanation blocks are available in the Linear library.
 There are blocks in the Math library that teach basic mathematical functions.
 General functions and table look-up processes are described in the Functions
& Tables library.
 Multiplexing and demultiplexing blocks, as well as blocks for implementing
Moving data to different regions of the model via external input/output.
 The Subsystems library contains a variety of subsystem construction parts.
4.4 Sub Systems
It is possible to create subsystems that are only activated when a The input transition
is triggered or enabled.
4.5 Solvers
Simulink is a programme that mimics a dynamic system determining Its states are
finished a specific time span using model data. Solving The process of estimating a
system's eventual states given its model is known as modelling. There is no one-size-
fits-all solution to solving a model for any system. Simulink comes with a variety of
solver programmes, each with its own approach to model solving.

Integral number approaches were developed by mathematicians to solve ordinary

differential equations (ODEs) that depict dynamic systems' continuous states.
Simulink has a number of fixed- and variable-step continuous solvers for solving ODEs in
various methods.

The duration of the simulation is split into time steps (major and minor) in certain
continuous solutions, A subset of the main time step is the minor time step. It
increases the accuracy of the main time step result by using minor time step results.

They simply determine the model's next simulation time-step. Because of this a
discrete solution is unable to cope with continual states. Simulink disregards your
input discrete solution option for a continuous model and instead offers an integrated
solver to solve the model. The fixed-step solution chooses a step height, and as a
result, that is the simulation rate is adequate to keep up with by default, state

50
changes in our model's

51
quickest block. The variable- step technique modifies the size of the simulation phase
to correspond to the pace of intermittent state transitions in my model. This can help
multi-rate models run faster by avoiding unnecessary phases.

4.6 Model execution phase

Simulink uses information given by the model during the simulation model execution
phase to compute the system's The states and outputs are determined in time steps, which
are discrete time periods. The length of time between each step is referred to as step
size. The step size is influenced by the programme that was used to determine the
continuous states of the system, whether the system's continuous states include
discontinuities, and the fundamental sampling time (Zero Crossing Detection). The
model defines the simulated system's be before that and outputs now at beginning of
the test. The model is then updated to include the new values, states, and outputs. The
model displays sometime near the end of the simulation, the ultimate inputs, states, and
outputs of the system's inputs, states, and outputs. Using Matlab software throughout
every interval what the model's results are blocks are updated in a sorted sequence
Simulink uses the block's transformation matrix to compute the block's outputs. To the
output function, Simulation software retains track of the current time, but also the
block's imports and states since the structure's conclusion may necessitate these
parameters. If this step is a multiple of the one before it, Simulink adjusts the results of a
separate block using the block's integral sampling moment.

 Sorts and updates the model's block states. Simulink uses the decision variable
problem or issue being addressed for compute individual block's discrete
states. Simulink calculates the unbroken states of a block by dynamically
averaging the current states' time derivatives. It computes the states' temporal
derivatives using the structure's ongoing derivatives function.
 Simulink detects singularities in uninterrupted environments using a method
named slowly varying detection.
 Calculates the very next timing step's time.

52
4.7 Block Sorting Rules

Each block must also be modified before these streaming server over blocks it drives.
When Updates are made to direct-feed via blocks this rule ensures that the inputs remain
valid.

The use of non-direct-feed via blocks is possible altered in any kind of order, provided
that they push any direct-feed via blocks are updated first. This rule may be achieved
by placing all semi fed via the blocks in any order at the front of the current queue. As
nothing more than a consequence, Simulink can discard – anti passthrough blocks
even during filling process.

The results of putting these guidelines into practise are in Associate in Nursing
reorganise the list of non-direct-feed via blocks seem at the pinnacle Blocks that allow
direct feed are at the in no particular sequence, at the top of the list. within the order
required to produce valid inputs in Nursing affair of an instantaneous, It is
immediately fed via the block linked or laterally to at least one of the inputs to the
block Similarly impasse since Simulink's inception wants the input of an
instantaneous feed through block. mathematics circle will represent a group of
contemporaneous The input and affair of the block are both unknowns, pure
mathematics equations (thus the name). Furthermore, these equations will always
provide accurate results. As a result, Simulation software considers that rings
containing direct feeding algebra equations are unproductive and attempts to block
them wherever possible.

53
Figure 4.1 Proposed circuit configuration

The simulation of the proposed circuit is shown in the above figure 4.1.

54
 CHAPTER 5
SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure 5.1 Grid voltage and current

The input voltage and current waveforms are shown in the above figure 5.1. The
AC voltage is applied on the input side.

Figure 5.2 Grid voltage and current

In the above figure the top waveform shows the output voltage and the bottom figure

shows the input voltage and dc current.

55
 Figure 5.3 Transformer voltage and current

In the above figure the top waveform shows the transformer current and the
bottom figure shows the transformer voltage.

54
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

In this project, a wireless power transmission system for electric vehicle charging is
proposed.
The suggested system has the following benefits:
 The layout is useful. In order to accomplish steady-state compensation at the
secondary side via wireless communication, the controller at the primary side
can regulate and modify the output current.
 The suggested approach increases energy charge security. The system may
immediately notify the main side with the highest priority channel when an
emergency scenario arises at the secondary side.
 The energy exchange between automobile batteries and an apartment
complex's energy storage tank will be done using contactless charging and
discharging technologies (V2G and G2V). The apartment building's energy
storage tank might get extra energy from the car battery, and the other way
around, using a contactless energy transfer mechanism. Data on battery status,
vehicle status, or ID codes, among other things, can be simultaneously sent
between the grid and the car in real time in addition to electricity. The suggested
design's applicability has been effectively verified through experimental testing.

56
 CHAPTER 7

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57