A

Seminar Report

On

Electro Motive Diesel Locomotive

Submitted in partial full-fillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

(Rajasthan Technical University, Kota)

In

Electrical Engineering

SESSION (2021-2024)

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Mr. Vishal Rohela Mohit Jangid

Assistant Professor 21EGJEE200

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

ITS-1, IT PARK RIICO SITAPURA, JAIPUR-302022

1
 Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby submit the seminar report, which is entitled “Electro Motive Diesel Locomotive” in partial full-
fillment for the award of Degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in Department of Electrical Engineering,
Global Institute of Technology, Jaipur, under the supervision of Mr. Vishal Rohela, Assistant Professor in
Department of Electrical Engineering, Global Institute of Technology Jaipur.

Mohit Jangid
21EGJEE200

The seminar report is hereby approved for submission.

(Mr. Vishal Rohela)

Assistant Professor

2
 Certificate

This is to certify that (Chetan Mahala ) student of B. Tech. (Electrical Engineering) has completed his
seminar entitled “Solar Thermal Energy ” towards partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of B. Tech. (Electrical Engineering).

Counter Signed by:

(Mr. Vishal
Rohela) Supervisor:
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical
Engineering Global Institute of
Technology Jaipur

Place: Jaipur

Date:

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide and supervisor Mr. Vishal Rohela,
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Global Institute of Technology, Jaipur for the
continuous support for my B. Tech. study, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense
knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this dissertation. I sincerely
acknowledge him for extending his valuable guidance, support for literature, critical review of the report and
above all for hope and assurance for achieving goals. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and
mentor for my work.
I sincerely acknowledge to Mr. Ravi Hada , Head Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Global Institute of
Technology, Jaipur for always “ready to support attitude”. In addition, she was always accessible and
willing to help his students. As a result, the research life became smooth and rewarding for me.
Again it is an honour for me to pay my gratitude to My Parent’s for sharp and strict vigilance to provide zero
error study environment. As a result, the research life became smooth and rewarding for me. I express my
sincere thanks to the whole Electrical Engineering Department, faculties, and management for immense
support whenever and where ever required. By long and deep discussions with my friends, I was able to
detect errors and rectify them. From the deep of my heart, I thank my God, Parents, family.

Mohit Jangid

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 PREFACE

The GM Locomotives have been included in the Diesel Locomotive fleet of Indian railway. Production

of GM locomotive has already started in DLW, Varanasi. The 4000 HP, computer controlled GM locomotive

has a large number of special and improved features vis-a-vis the Alco design diesel locomotive presently

running in Indian railway. All those in the field of diesel locomotive need to get acquainted with the GM

locomotive. This book "Introduction hand book on GM locomotive" prepared by the CAMTECH has been

prepared with the purpose of disseminating the introductory information to all those in diesel loco

maintenance field.

5
 Contents
Pages
Candidate Declaration ii

Certificate iii

Acknowledgment iv

Abstract

Chapter .1 . INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 1 . SOLAR ENERGY 2-10

2.1 Introduction 2

2.2 Solar Energy 2

2.3 Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics 2

2.4 Systems Integration Basics 3

2.5 Soft Costs Basics 3

2.6 Going Solar Basics 3

2.7 Solar Industry Basics 3

2.8 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics 3

2.9 Silicon Solar Cells 3

2.10 Thin-Film Solar Cells 4

2.11 Solar Cells 4

2.12 Next-Generation Solar Cells 4

2.13 Reliability and Grid Integration Research 4

2.14 Application of Solar Energy 5

2.15 A Typical Solar Energy System (Components) 7

2.16 Solar PV Advantages 9

Chapter 2 .Solar Photovoltaic 11-20

3.1 Introduction 11

3.2 Solar Cell(photovoltaic cell 11

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 3.2.1 Monocrystalline pv panels 12

3.2.2 Polycrystalline Solar Modules 12

3.2.3 Amorphous silicon panels (thin film) 14
3.3 V-I characteristics of a PV cell 15
3.4 Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell 16

3.5 Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell 17

3.6 Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell 17
3.7 Current at Maximum Power Point 17
3.8 Voltage at Maximum Power Point 17
3.9 Fill Factor of Solar Cell 17
3.10 Efficiency of Solar Cell 17

3.11 Power Electronic Converters for Solar Systems 18

3.11.1 Central inverter 18
3.11.2 String inverter 19
3.11.3 Multi-string inverter 19
3.11.4 Module integrated inverter 20

Chapter 3 THE SOLAR RESOURCES 21-26

4.1 Introduction 21

4.2 Solar Radiation: 21

4.2.1 Ultraviolet range 22

4.2.2 Visible range 22

4.2.3 Infrared range 22

4.3 Solar Spectrum 24

4.4 Earth Sun angles 25

4.5 Daily Rotation 25

4.6 SOLAR DAY LENGTH 25

4.6.1 Background- the variation in the length of the day. 26

Chapter 4 Solar geometry 27-30

5.1 Introduction 27

5.2 Declination angle 27

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5.3 Latitude angle 28

5.4 Hour angle 28

5.5 Zenith Angle (z) 28

5.6 Inclination Angle 28

5.7 solar azimuth angle 29

5.8 Effects due to the elliptical orbit 30

Chapter 5 Comparison of solar V/s other sources of energy 31-32

6.1 INTRODUCTION 31

6.2 Solar Energy versus Wind 31

6.3 Solar Energy versus Hydroelectricity 31

6.4 Solar Energy versus Biomass: 32

Chapter 6 CONCLUSIONS 33
REFERENCE 34

1. INTRODUCTION

Solar Thermal Energy, radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions, or
generating electricity. The total amount of Solar Thermal Energy incident on Earth is vastly in excess of the
world’s current and anticipated energy requirements. If suitably harnessed, this highly diffused source has
the potential to satisfy all future energy needs. In the 21st century Solar Thermal Energy is expected to
become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source because of its inexhaustible supply and its non
polluting character, in stark contrast to the finite fossil fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the largest source of energy received
by Earth, but its intensity at Earth’s surface is actually quite low. This is essentially because of the enormous
radial spreading of radiation from the distant Sun. A relatively minor additional loss is due to Earth’s.

In the thermal- (climatic-) design of buildings the sun is one of the most important influences. Solar
radiation entering through windows gives a desirable heating effect in winter, but it can cause severe
overheating in summer. The assessment of its availability and its control are very important parts of
architectural design.

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Quantitative treatment of solar radiation is outside the scope of the present text (it will be the subject of a
future Note) - this one is restricted to solar geometry. The present work has two objectives:

1 to give an understanding of the geometrical relationship between the earth and the sun, thus to establish a
conceptual background

2 to provide a working tool for the design of shading devices, for the assessment of overshadowing and sun
penetration into buildings.

The first section presents the basic relationships and the second section discusses the various methods of
graphic representation: homing in on the stereographic projections. Section 3 is probably the most practically
useful part, its subject being shading design and it includes some worked examples. Section 4 gives a series
of algorithms for the calculation of various solar angles. Section 5 describes the stereographic sun-path
diagrams with the shadow angle protractor and introduces the program Shade Design , that can be
downloaded from the PLEA web-site.

For those with an inquisitive mind the derivations of these algorithms is presented in Appendix 1. Further
appendices give the construction method for the sun-path diagrams and describe some further applications
and uses of these diagrams.

Note that in the text some of the diagrams and examples are given for the southern hemisphere, some for the
northern. This is quite deliberate: it should assist in developing a global view.

9
2. SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY

2.1 Introduction

The amount of sunlight that strikes the earth's surface in an hour and a half is enough to handle
the entire world's energy consumption for a full year.
Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic (PV) panels
or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. This energy can be used to generate electricity
or be stored in batteries or thermal storage.
Below, you can find resources and information on the basics of solar
radiation, photovoltaic and concentrating solar technologies, electrical grid systems integration,
and the non-hardware aspects (soft costs) of Solar Thermal Energy.
You can also learn more about how to go solar and the Solar Thermal Energy industry. In
addition, you can dive deeper into Solar Thermal Energy and learn about how the U.S.
Department of Energy Solar Thermal Energy Technologies Office is driving innovative research
and development in these areas.

2.2 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar radiation is light – also known as electromagnetic radiation – that is emitted by the sun.
While every location on Earth receives some sunlight over a year, the amount of solar radiation
that reaches any one spot on the Earth’s surface varies. Solar technologies capture this radiation
and turn it into useful forms of energy.

Fig. 2.1 Solar Thermal Energy system

There are two main types of Solar Thermal Energy technologies—photo-voltaic (PV)
and concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP).

2.3 Concentrating Solar-Thermal Power Basics

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Concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) systems use mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight
onto receivers that collect Solar Thermal Energy and convert it to heat, which can then be used to
produce electricity or stored for later use. It is used primarily in very large power plants.

2.4 Systems Integration Basics

Solar Thermal Energy technology doesn’t end with electricity generation by PV or CSP systems.
These Solar Thermal Energy systems must be integrated into homes, businesses, and existing
electrical grids with varying mixtures of traditional and other renewable energy sources.

2.5 Soft Costs Basics

A number of non-hardware costs, known as soft costs, also impact the cost of Solar Thermal
Energy. These costs include permitting, financing, and installing solar, as well as the expenses
solar companies incur to acquire new customers, pay suppliers, and cover their bottom line. For
rooftop Solar Thermal Energy systems, soft costs represent the largest share of total costs.

2.6 Going Solar Basics

Solar Thermal Energy can help to reduce the cost of electricity, contribute to a resilient electrical
grid, create jobs and spur economic growth, generate back-up power for nighttime and outages
when paired with storage, and operate at similar efficiency on both small and large scales.

2.7 Solar Industry Basics

Solar Thermal Energy systems come in all shapes and sizes. Residential systems are found on
rooftops across the United States, and businesses are also opting to install solar panels. Utilities,
too, are building large solar power plants to provide energy to all customers connected to the grid.

Chapter 7 2.8 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics

Photovoltaic (often shortened as PV) gets its name from the process of converting light (photons)
to electricity (voltage), which is called the photovoltaic effect. This phenomenon was first
exploited in 1954 by scientists at Bell Laboratories who created a working solar cell made from
silicon that generated an electric current when exposed to sunlight. Solar cells were soon being
used to power space satellites and smaller items such as calculators and watches. Today,
electricity from solar cells has become cost competitive in many regions and photovoltaic
systems are being deployed at large scales to help power the electric grid.

2.9 Silicon Solar Cells

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The vast majorities of today’s solar cells are made from silicon and offer both reasonable prices
and good efficiency (the rate at which the solar cell converts sunlight into electricity). These cells
are usually assembled into larger modules that can be installed on the roofs of residential or
commercial buildings or deployed on ground-mounted racks to create huge, utility-scale systems.

2.10 Thin-Film Solar Cells

Another commonly used photovoltaic technology is known as thin-film solar cells because they
are made from very thin layers of semiconductor material, such as cadmium telluride or copper
indium gallium dieseline.
Thin-film solar cells can be flexible and lightweight, making them ideal for portable applications
— such as in a soldier’s backpack—or for use in other products like windows that generate
electricity from the sun. Some types of thin-film solar cells also benefit from manufacturing
techniques that require less energy and are easier to scale-up than the manufacturing techniques
required by silicon solar cells.

2.11 Solar Cells

A third type of photovoltaic technology is named after the elements that compose them. III-V
solar cells are mainly constructed from elements in Group III—e.g., gallium and indium—and
Group V—e.g., arsenic and antimony—of the periodic table. These solar cells are generally much
more expensive to manufacture than other technologies. But they convert sunlight into electricity
at much higher efficiencies. Because of this, these solar cells are often used on satellites,
unmanned aerial vehicles, and other applications that require a high ratio of power-to-weight.

2.12 Next-Generation Solar Cells

Solar cell researchers at NREL and elsewhere are also pursuing many new photovoltaic
technologies—such as solar cells made from organic materials, quantum dots, and hybrid
organic- inorganic materials (also known as perovskites). These next-generation technologies
may offer lower costs, greater ease of manufacture, or other benefits. Further research will see if
these promises can be realized.

2.13 Reliability and Grid Integration Research

Photovoltaic research is more than just making a high-efficiency, low-cost solar cell.
Homeowners and businesses must be confident that the solar panels they install will not degrade
in performance and will continue to reliably generate electricity for many.

2.14 Application of Solar Thermal Energy

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1. Solar water heating system
 Solar Water Heating System

Solar water heating system is a device that helps in heating water by using the energy from the
SUN. This energy is totally free. Solar Thermal Energy (sun rays) is used for heating water.
Water is easily heated to a temperature of 60-80o C. Solar water heater of Solar water heaters
(SWHs) of 100-300 liters capacity are suited for domestic use. Larger systems can be used in
restaurants, canteens, guest houses, hotels, hospitals etc. A 100 liters capacity SWH can replace
an electric geyser for residential use and may save approximately 1500 units of electricity
annually. The use of 1000 SWHs of 100 liters capacity each can contribute to a peak load saving
of approximately 1 MW. A SWH of 100 liters capacity can prevent emission of 1.5 tons of
carbon dioxide per year.

Fig 2.2 Solar Thermal Heater

Working Of a Solar Water Heater

The Sun’s rays fall on the collector panel (a component of solar water heating system). A black
absorbing surface (absorber) inside the collectors absorbs solar radiation and transfers the heat
energy to water flowing through it. Heated water is collected in a tank which is insulated to
prevent heat loss. Circulation of water from the tank through the collectors and back to the tank

13
continues automatically due to thermo siphon system. Based on the collector system, solar water
heaters can

14
be of two types: A solar water heater consists of a collector to collect Solar Thermal Energy and
an insulated storage tank to store hot water. The stored hot water can be used later any time.

Main components of solar water heater system are

1. Solar Collector (to collect Solar Thermal Energy)

2. Insulated tank (to store hot water)

3. Supporting stand

4. Connecting pipes and instrumentation etc.

Applications of Solar Water Heater

Water heating is one of the most cost-effective uses of Solar Thermal Energy. Every year, several
thousands of new solar water heaters are installed worldwide. Solar water heaters can be used for
Homes, Community Centers, Hospitals, Nursing homes, Hotels, Restaurants, Dairy plants,
Swimming Pools, Canteens, Ashrams, Hostels, Industry etc. Use of solar water heater can curtail
electricity or fuel bills considerably.

Usage of solar water heater for any application where steam is produced using a boiler or steam
generator can save 70-80% of electricity or fuel bills. A residence can save 70-80% on electricity
or fuel bills by replacing its conventional water heater with a solar water heating system. Solar
water heaters are known to have the fastest repayment of investment in 2 to 4 years depending
upon use and fuel replaced.

Types of Solar Water Heater

Basically two types of solar water heater are available in the market

Flat Plate solar water heater – Solar radiation is absorbed by flat plate collectors which consist
of an insulated outer metallic box covered on the top with glass sheet.

Evacuated Tube Collector – The Collector is made of double layer borosilicate glass tubes
evacuated for providing insulation.

Flat Plate Collector (FPC) Solar Water Heater

A black absorbing surface (absorber) inside the flat plate collectors absorbs solar radiation and
transfers the energy to water flowing through it. Bureau of Indian Standards has standardized this
type of solar collectors in IS 12933; 2003.

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Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC) Based Solar Water Heater

An ETC collector is made of double layer borosilicate glass tubes evacuated for providing
insulation. The outer wall of the inner tube is coated with selective absorbing material. This helps
absorption of solar radiation and transfers the heat to the water which flows through the inner
tube. However, these types of collectors have not been standardized and are sourced from the
suppliers who have been empanelled by the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy/Government
of India on the basis of performance testing of sample system.

Fig 2.3 Solar PV circuit block diagram

 Solar PV system

Solar PV systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity. The PV cell consists of one or two
layers of a semi conducting material, usually silicon. When light shines on the cell it creates an
electric field across the layers causing electricity to flow. The greater the intensity of the light, the
greater the flow of electricity. PV cells are referred to in terms of the amount of energy they
generate in full sunlight; known as kilowatt peak. On days of high solar availability there will be
a considerable volume of energy produced which you may not be able to use. Your PV system
will be connected to the electricity grid so that the grid can take any excess electricity that you
cannot use.
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A Typical Solar Thermal Energy System (Components):

Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels

A photovoltaic (PV) panel, also known as a module, is a unit consisting of special cells that
generate an electric current in sunlight that are linked together. When the sun shines over the
cells, an electric field is created. The stronger the sun, the more electric energy is produced.
Nevertheless, the cells do not need direct sunlight to work, and they can still produce electricity
on a cloudy day.

A group of modules wired in series is called a string. The string determines the operating voltage
of the system which is of great importance to your voltage drop and inverter type. The cell, the
modules and the string formation leads to the end result which is the Array.

The Inverter

The solar inverter is one of the most important components of the solar PV system and is the
brain of the system. Generally located in the loft space, it converts the direct current (DC) output
into alternating current (AC). The power from the array, converted by the inverter, is then
connected via isolators – one on the DC (PV module) side and another on the AC side - into the
consumer unit via an MCB (miniature circuit breaker).

Generation Meter

The generation meter is where you will be able to monitor what your system is generating. The
meter will have a flashing red light when your system is generating, the brighter the day the faster
the flashes will be.

Batteries

At the time of evening and night Solar Thermal Energy is not available, at this time consumer use
electricity by storage batteries which are charge during sunlight hours. It increase system
reliability and consumer has no disturbance in his daily energy consumption.

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 Fig 2.4 Solar PV system for domestic use

Cabling and connectors

During times of non-consumption of electricity generated there will be a supply of excess

electricity. This is usually exported back to the grid. However, on some occasions this export will
not be accepted by your District Network Operator. In these cases, an export limiter must be
installed. The export limiter caps or completely stops this exportation. The export limiter is fitted
next to your consumer unit.

Energy Monitoring

Monitoring the system provides a good way of verifying correct system operation. Monitoring
can be as simple as noting down the output of the PV system once a month and comparing it
against the expected output. A significant difference must be investigated as a possible problem
in which case please contact the office.

Solar PV Advantages

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A CLEAN AND GREEN ENERGY SOURCE. The most prominent advantage of PV cells is the
clean and green energy it provides. ...

1. Free raw materials.

2. Versatility.

3. Significant impact on smart energy networks.

4. Reduced costs.

5. Low in maintenance.

6. Silent.

7. Easy to install.

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 3.Solar Photovoltaic
3.1 Introduction :
What is photovoltaic (PV) technology and how does it work? PV materials and devices convert
sunlight into electrical energy. A single PV device is known as a cell. An individual PV cell is
usually small, typically producing about 1 or 2 watts of power. These cells are made of different
semiconductor materials and are often less than the thickness of four human hairs. In order to
withstand the outdoors for many years, cells are sandwiched between protective materials in a
combination of glass and/or plastics.

To boost the power output of PV cells, they are connected together in chains to form larger units
known as modules or panels. Modules can be used individually, or several can be connected to
form arrays. One or more arrays is then connected to the electrical grid as part of a complete PV
system. Because of this modular structure, PV systems can be built to meet almost any electric
power need, small or large.

PV modules and arrays are just one part of a PV system. Systems also include mounting
structures that point panels toward the sun, along with the components that take the direct-current
(DC) electricity produced by modules and convert it to the alternating-current (AC) electricity
used to power all of the appliances in your home.

The largest PV systems in the country are located in California and produce power for utilities to
distribute to their customers. The Solar Star PV power station produces 579 megawatts of
electricity, while the Topaz Solar Farm and Desert Sunlight Solar Farm each produce 550
megawatts.

3.2 Solar Cell(photovoltaic cell):

It is a device that converts photons from sun (Solar Thermal Energy) into electricity.
Fundamentally, the device needs to full fill only two functions: photo-generation of charge
carriers (electrons and holes) in a light-absorbing material, and separation of the charge carriers to
a conductive contact that will transmit the electricity. Till now, solar cells have been used in
situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power
systems, Earth orbiting satellites, consumer systems, e.g. handheld calculators or wrist watches,
remote radio-telephones and water pumping applications .
There are currently four commercial production technologies for PV cells

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3.2.1 Monocrystalline pv panels:
Like their given name, the monocrystalline solar panels are composed of monocrystalline cells.
They are that type of cell that, a simple view, can be identified by its “black” colour and with the
corners cut with a chamfer (result of the cut of the cell).
The most common mode of manufacture of monocrystalline silicon cells (sc-Si) consists of
starting from a single crystal silicon ingot, obtained by the methods of Czochralski (Cz) or the
floating zone (FZ), and cut into wafers which constitute the substrate on which all the remaining
process takes place (union “ pn ” , metallization, etc.).

Fig.3.1. monocrystalline

The above image is an example of this type of cell that we discussed. In addition to this, note that
monocrystalline solar panels are the most efficient of all available in the sector.

3.2.2 Polycrystalline Solar Modules:

As we discussed with monocrystalline models, polycrystalline solar panels are composed, in this
case, of polycrystalline cells. We can differentiate it by its “bluish” colour and do not have the
chamfer in the corners like the monocrystalline ones.

Polycrystalline silicon (mc-Si) cells also use silicon wafers as a substrate, but unlike mono
crystallin , they come from cutting a silicon block that has been slowly allowed to solidify in a
crucible and is made up of many small crystals of silicon.

This type of processing is less costly than the previous one, but considerably reduces the
efficiency of the cells.

Fig.3.2.polycrystalline

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We see in the image the visual difference between a polycrystalline cell and the previous
monocrystalline cell from the previous point.

More recent advances, such as diamond wafer cutters, used by manufacturers such as Solar
World, have led to an improvement in the silicon utilization efficiency (less material is wasted)
and to wafer thickness of less than 200 microns, although this thickness is close to its physical
limit because we must take into account that the cell must be strong enough not to break in its
subsequent manipulation for the manufacture of the panel.

In addition to this, it has been possible to improve the losses by reflection and a better capture of
the light inside the cell by means of texturizing techniques and antireflective treaties.

As can be seen in the image, a series of micro-perforations with the aspect of an inverted pyramid
have been practiced on the cell, which they do is to help improve the uptake of sunlight from the
cell and, consequently, from the solar panel.

As we have already mentioned in previous articles, the conducting grid that forms the front
contact of the cell usually consists on a series of “fingers” that are in direct contact with the
semiconductor and that are connected between them by means of metallic strips (what is usually
called Bus Bar).

The design of these “fingers” and the Bus Bar that cover the cell affects the solar panels
efficiency in two ways:
On the one hand, it involves a shading that prevents some of the available radiation from reaching
the interior of the cell and, on the other hand, introduces a resistance, due to the metal-
semiconductor junction and the resistance of the material used. In this sense, it has evolved from
the conventional technique of screen printing to laser buried contact, achieving a 25%
improvement in the efficiency of the cell without raising the cost of manufacturing.

Both the mono and polycrystalline cells described have approximately 0.5 volt open circuit (Voc)
and about 3 amps short current (the current is directly proportional to the cell area).

22
 Fig.3.3.PV Panel

Of course, once the cells are obtained, they are assembled and passed a production process to
give rise to what we end up seeing in our photovoltaic installation, which are the monocrystalline
or polycrystalline solar panels depending on the type of cell.

3.2.3 Amorphous silicon panels (thin film):

Although the most common types of panels are the ones described, mono and polycrystalline, we
must not forget also amorphous silicon solar panels, or also called “thin film”.

The operation of a thin film solar cell of amorphous silicon is the same as the crystalline but its
elaboration is very different. The characteristic aspects of this technology are:

Simple manufacturing process and easy automation.

Need for little active material and reduction of energy and cost.

Easy to realize flexible modules and with optimal quantum efficiency in a wide range of the
spectrum.

Amorphous silicon cells have been the first thin-film cells to be marketed. However, due to the
drop in prices experienced by crystalline solar panels, they have been losing positions in the
market and are currently very small.
A-Si amorphous silicon technology has a considerably lower efficiency than those based on
crystalline silicon, mainly due to the poor quality of the silicon used, whose internal structure
makes it difficult to collect the photogenerated carriers. However, they are especially suitable for
use in cloudy places, in dusty atmospheres, etc.

23
 Fig.3.4. amorphous

As can be seen in the picture, amorphous silicon solar panels do not consist on the attachment of
individual cells as in the crystalline solar panels, but in a tailor-made sheet in which thin strips are
seen separating the cells, created and connected to each other during the elaboration of the
module itself, whose framing facilitates the handling and assembly thereof. The range of voltages
is also wider than in crystalline silicon, ranging from a few volts to tens of volts and makes them
interesting also for solar pumping systems.

Commercially, solar panels are classified by their peak power (Wp), which is the power they can
generate under standard conditions of measurement (STC), in other words, the power indicated in
the product data sheet. Another of the data that usually look at the nominal voltage, which will
indicate if the panel will be suitable for isolated systems of 12V, 24V or for network connection
and self-consumption.

3.3 V-I characteristics of a PV cell:

Solar cell is the basic unit of Solar Thermal Energy generation system where electrical energy is
extracted directly from light energy without any intermediate process. The working of a solar cell
solely depends upon its photovoltaic effect, hence a solar cell also known as photovoltaic cell. A
solar cell is basically a semiconductor p-n junction device. It is formed by joining p-type (high
concentration of hole or deficiency of electron) and n-type (high concentration of electron)
semiconductor material. at the junction excess electrons from n-type try to diffuse to p-side and
vice-versa. Movement of electrons to the p-side exposes positive ion cores in n-side, while
movement of holes to the n-side exposes negative ion cores in the p-side. This results in an
electric field at the junction and forming the depletion region. When sunlight falls on the solar
cell, photons with energy greater than band gap of the semiconductor are absorbed by the cell and
generate electron-hole (e-h) pair. These e-h pairs migrate respectively to n- and p- side of the pn
junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the junction. In this way a potential
difference is established between two sides of the cell. Typically a solar or photovoltaic cell has
negative front contact and positive back contact. A semiconductor p-n junction is in the middle of
these two contacts like a battery. If these two sides are connected by an external circuit, current
will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar cell. This is basic working
principle of a solar cell. For silicon, the band gap at room temperature is Eg = 1.1 eV and the
diffusion potential is UD = 0.5 to 0.7 V. Construction of a Si solar cell is depicted in Fig.5.

24
 Fig. 3.5: Construction of a solar cell

Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curve is the superposition of the I-V curve of the solar cell diode in
absence (dark) and in presence of light. Illuminating a cell adds to the normal "dark" currents in
the diode so that the diode law becomes

where I0 = "dark saturation current" or diode leakage current in absence of light

q = electronic charge
V = applied voltage across the terminals of the diode
n = ideality factor
k = Boltzmann’s constant
T = temperature
IL = light generated current.

Fig3.6. Circuit for I-V characteristics of solar cell

Fig.3.7.
3.4 Short Circuit Current of Solar Cell:

The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own constriction. It is
measured by short circuiting the terminals of the cell at most optimized condition of the cell for

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producing maximum output. The term optimized condition I used because for fixed exposed cell
surface the rate of production of current in a solar cell also depends upon the intensity of light and
the angle at which the light falls on the cell. As the current production also depends upon the
surface area of the cell exposed to light, it is better to express maximum current density instead
maximum current. Maximum current density or short circuit current density rating is nothing but
ration of maximum or short circuit current to exposed surface area of the cell.

Where, Isc is short circuit current, Jsc maximum current density and A is the area of solar cell.

3.5 Open Circuit Voltage of Solar Cell :

It is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals of the cell when no load is connected to
the cell. This voltage depends upon the techniques of manufacturing and temperature but not
fairly on the intensity of light and area of exposed surface. Normally open circuit voltage of solar
cell nearly equal to 0.5 to 0.6 volt. It is normally denoted by Voc.
3.6 Maximum Power Point of Solar Cell:

The maximum electrical power one solar cell can deliver at its standard test condition. If we draw
the v-i characteristics of a solar cell maximum power will occur at the bend point of the
characteristic curve. It is shown in the v-i characteristics of solar cell by Pm.

Fig.3.8.
3.7 Current at Maximum Power Point :

The current at which maximum power occurs. Current at Maximum Power Point is shown in the
v-i characteristics of solar cell by In.

3.8 Voltage at Maximum Power Point :

The voltage at which maximum power occurs. Voltage at Maximum Power Point is shown in
the v-i characteristics of solar cell by Vm.

3.9 Fill Factor of Solar Cell :

The ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum power point to the
product of short circuit current and open circuit voltage of the solar cell.

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3.10 Efficiency of Solar Cell :

It is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the radiation power input to the
cell and it is expressed in percentage. It is considered that the radiation power on the earth is
about 1000 watt/square metre hence if the exposed surface area of the cell is A then total radiation
power on the cell will be 1000 A watts. Hence the efficiency of a solar cell may be expressed as

PV modules generate DC current and voltage. However, to feed the electricity to the grid, AC
current and voltage are needed. Inverters are the equipment used to convert DC to AC. In
addition, they can be in charge of keeping the operating point of the PV array at the MPP. This is
usually done with computational MPP tracking algorithms.
3.11 Power Electronic Converters for Solar Systems:
There are different inverter configurations depending on how the PV modules are connected to the
inverter . The main types are described in this chapter. The decision on what configuration should be
used has to be made for each case depending on the environmental and financial requirements. If the
modules are not identical or do not work under the same conditions, the MPP is different in each panel
and the resulting voltage-power characteristic has multiple maxima, which constitutes a problem,
because most MPPT algorithms converge to a local maximum depending on the starting point. If the
operating point is not the MPP, not all the possible power is being fed to the grid. For these reasons
each case has to be carefully studied to optimize the plant and obtain the maximum performance.

The different configurations are described shortly in this chapter because they are not the focus of
this thesis. More information about all the following topologies can be found in and .

3.11.1 Central inverter:

It is the simpler configuration: PV strings, consisting of series connected PV panels, are connected in
parallel to obtain the desired output power. The resulting PV array is connected to a single inverter, as
is shown in Figure 9. In this configuration all PV strings operate at the same voltage, which may not be
the MPP voltage for all of them.
The problem of this configuration is the possible mismatches among the different PV modules. If
they are receiving different irradiation (shading or other problems), the true MPP is difficult to
find and consequently there are power losses and the PV modules are underutilized.

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 Fig.3.9. Central configuration
3.11.2 String inverter
:
In this configuration, every string of PV panels connected in series is connected to a different
inverter, as can be seen in Figure 10. This can improve the MPP tracking in case of mismatches
or shading, because each string can operate at a different MPP, if necessary, whereas in the
central inverter there is only one operating point which may not be the MPP for each string, thus
leading to power losses. On the other hand, the number of components of the system increases as
well as the installation cost, as an inverter is used for each string.

Figure 3. 10 - String configuration

3.11.3 Multi-string inverter
In this case each string is connected to a different DC-DC converter, which is in charge of the
MPP tracking of the string, and the converters are connected to a single inverter, as depicted in
Figure
11. The advantages related to MPP tracking are the same as in the string configuration; each
string can have a different MPP. The disadvantages, an increase in the price compared to the
central inverter, as a converter is used for each string.

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 Fig.3.11.- Multi-string configuration.
3.11.4 Module integrated inverter
In this configuration, as shown in Figure 12, each PV module is connected to a different inverter
and consequently the maximum power is obtained from each panel as the individual MPP is
tracked by each inverter. This configuration can be used when the differences in the operating
point of the different modules are large. However, it is more expensive because each panel has its

own inverter.
Fig.3.12. Individual inverter.

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 4. THE SOLAR RESOURCES
4.1 Introduction :
Solar Thermal Energy, radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions,
or generating electricity. The total amount of Solar Thermal Energy incident on Earth is vastly in
excess of the world’s current and anticipated energy requirements. If suitably harnessed,
this highly diffused source has the potential to satisfy all future energy needs. In the 21st century Solar
Thermal Energy is expected to become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source because of
its inexhaustible supply and its non polluting character, in stark contrast to the finite fossil
fuels coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the largest source of energy
received by Earth, but its intensity at Earth’s surface is actually quite low. This is essentially because
of the enormous radial spreading of radiation from the distant Sun. A relatively minor additional loss is
due to Earth’s atmosphere and clouds, which absorb or scatter as much as 54 percent of the incoming
sunlight. The sunlight that reaches the ground consists of nearly 50 percent visible light, 45
percent infrared radiation, and smaller amounts of ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation.

The potential for Solar Thermal Energy is enormous, since about 200,000 times the world’s total daily
electric-generating capacity is received by Earth every day in the form of Solar Thermal Energy.
Unfortunately, though Solar Thermal Energy itself is free, the high cost of its collection, conversion,
and storage still limits its exploitation in many places. Solar radiation can be converted either into
thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy, though the former is easier to accomplish.

4.2 Solar Radiation:

The sun is sending us radiation over a wide range of wavelengths at varying intensities. The electro-
magnetic solar radiation impinging on the upper edge of the atmosphere is called extra-terrestrial
radiation. The mean integral for the complete spectrum is 1,367 W/m² (the Solar Constant).

The normal measurement of the wavelength of solar and atmospheric radiation is the nanometer (nm,
10-9 m) and for infrared radiation is the micrometer (μm, 10-6 m). The range is shown in below table.
In astronomy and older books you may see wavelengths in Ångström (Å, 10-10 m).

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 The meteorologically significant spectral range extends from 300nm to 3000nm (short-wave
radiation). Approximately 96% of the complete extra-terrestrial radiation is situated within this spectral
range. The maximum radiation intensity of the solar spectrum occurs at 500 nm, towards the blue end
of the visible range.

The complete spectrum comprises the ultraviolet (UV), visible (Vis) and infrared (IR) wavelengths.
However, these wavelength ranges need to be sub-divided depending on the individual application
fields. Best known are the prismatic colours of visible light, the colours of the rainbow. IR is split into
near infrared (NIR) and far infrared (FIR).
UV is normally sub-divided into UV-A, UV-B and UV-C radiation. Approximately 6% of the total
solar radiation falling on the earth is ultraviolet. Shorter wavelengths (higher frequency) have higher
energy, thus increasing the effect on biological and chemical systems.
The attenuation of solar radiation passing through our atmosphere is due to the following processes:

4.2.1 Ultraviolet range

Scattering by molecules and aerosol particles and absorption by Ozone, Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen
Dioxide and trace gases.

4.2.2 Visible range

Scattering by molecules and aerosol particles, little absorption by aerosol particles, Ozone and other
trace gases.

4.2.3 Infrared range

Absorption by water vapour and aerosol particles but little scattering.

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 Fig.4.1.

Molecular Ozone in the upper layers of our atmosphere functions as a filter for ultraviolet radiation
and the effect increases with shorter wavelengths. Whereas almost all UV-A radiation reaches the
ground surface, nearly 90% of the UV-B radiation is absorbed by the Ozone, and all of the UV-C.
During this process, new Ozone (O³) is also produced from atmospheric Oxygen and this reinforces
the process.
Changes of the atmospheric Ozone content will especially affect the amount of UV-B. An increasing
Ozone layer concentration means decreasing UV-B radiation and a decreasing Ozone layer means
increasing UV-B radiation reaching the surface.
Solar radiation is the driver for many chemical, biological and physical phenomena in the atmosphere,
on the ground and in the seas.
A major effect of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface is that it is warming it up, which is vital
for our existence. 30% of the extra-terrestrial radiation solar radiation (yellow in Illustration below) is
reflected back into space but approximately 51% is absorbed by land and water and another 19% is
absorbed by the clouds and atmosphere.

Fig.4.2.

Long-wave far infrared radiation (FIR) is shown in red and is mostly transformed short-wave energy
that is re-radiated from the land, water, clouds and atmosphere. Only a small amount of the total
energy remains on the earth but this is enough to maintain all the biological processes on our planet
and to drive the weather systems.
Variations in the reflected and re-radiated energy do, of course, influence the energy balance between
ground and atmosphere. This energy balance, in turn, influences meteorological conditions and other
processes, for example the growth of plants.
Rising concern for the survival of our environment and way of life, together with the desire for higher
crop yields, makes it necessary to have available precise information on incoming and reflected
radiation. In this respect the distribution of the radiation intensity at different wavelengths can be of
the utmost importance.

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Nowadays, measuring solar radiation is extremely important in many different fields of application,
such as climatology, meteorology, hydrology, pollution forecasting, Solar Thermal Energy, agriculture
and material testing.
The Sun emits radiation from X-rays to radio waves, but the irradiance of solar radiation peaks in the
visible wavelengths (see figure below). Common units of irradiance are Joules per second per m2 of
surface that is illuminated per nm of wavelength (e.g., between 300 nm and 301 nm), or W m–2 nm–1
for the plot below. These units are the units of spectral irradiance, which is also simply called
irradiance, but as a function of wavelength. To get the total irradiance in units of W m–2, the spectral
irradiance should be integrated over all the wavelengths.

There are large wavelength bands in which water vapor, CO2, and O3 absorb infrared irradiance.
For solar wavelengths at which the absorptivity is high, the solar irradiance at sea level is small. Note
that the big absorbers of infrared irradiance are water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone.

Fig.4.3.

4.3 Solar Spectrum

The energy in solar irradiation comes in the form of electromagnetic waves of a wide spectrum.
Longer wavelengths have less energy (for instance infrared) than shorter ones such as visible light or
UV. The spectrum can be depicted in a graph, the spectral distribution, which shows the relative
weights of individual wavelengths plotted overall wave lengths, measured in W / m (wavelength).

The diagram displays the spectrum of a sun ray just outside the entry into the earth’s atmosphere. The
peak of the spectrum is within the visible spectrum, but there are still significant amounts of shorter
and longer wavelengths present.

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 Fig.4.4. Solar Spectrum

4.4 Earth Sun angles

The angle under which the sun is observed from a point on the earth’s surface is affected by the earth’s
daily rotation, the annual rotation of the tilted earth and the latitude of the surface in question.

4.5 Daily Rotation

The solar hour angle Ω expresses the daily rotation of the earth. As the earth rotates 360° within 24
hours, every hour adds another 15° to the solar hour angle. When the sun is in its highest point in the
sky, the solar hour angle is zero. Angles before noon count negative, after noon positive.
As the earth rotates, the angle between the sun and due south, the solar azimuth angle, α, varies from -
90° at sunrise (east) to +90° at sunset (west).

Fig.4.5. Earth Sun anglel

4.6 SOLAR DAY

LENGHT
which is the natural day measured by the rising and setting of the Sun isn’t always 24 hours. It varies
slightly throughout the course of the year and the days in mid September are the shortest solar days in
the year. This post discusses this curiosity, which is not widely known.

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4.6.1 Background- the variation in the length of the day.

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 Although a day for practical timekeeping purposes is always 24 hours, the actual length of a solar day,
which is the time difference between two successive occasions when the Sun is at its highest in the
sky, varies throughout the year. As shown in the graph below, it is at its longest, 24 hours 30 seconds,
around Christmas Day and is at its shortest, 23 hours 59 minutes 38 seconds, in mid-September

Fig .4.6. How the length of a solar day differs from the average value of 24 hours

The y-axis shows the difference in seconds between the length of a solar day and 24 hours on a given
date measured in seconds. So, for example:
10 means 24 hours 10 seconds

20 means 24 hours 20 seconds

-10 means 23 hours 59 minutes 50 seconds.

If we look in detail around the middle of September then we get the following

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September 18 is the shortest day of the year, although the difference in day length between September 18 and
the days either side is extremely small!

5. Solar geometry
5.1 Introduction:
Solar geometry is a crucial tool to help find the best tilt and orientation of solar cells and to evaluate
the impact of shadows. This article introduces some key basic concepts associated with solar
geometry.
The students will comprehend, analyze and handle the following main
aspects: Solar Systems. Solar radiation. Apparent sun motion, parameters and angles of Solar
Geometry. Sun path diagrams. Tools for Solar Geometry Design and Methods of Analysis and
Evaluation of Sun Control Devices.
There are some angles which is shown the angles of earth and sun .
5.2 Declination angle:
The declination angle, δ, is the angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the plane of the
equator. It varies from -23.45° at winter solstice to +23.45° at summer solstice according to:

where d is the day of the year with Jan 1 as d = 1

Fig.5.1.-

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5.3 Latitude angle Angle ( )

made by radial line joining the given location to the center of earth with it sprojection on the equator
plane. Latitude angle is denoted by It is Positive in northern hemisphere and negative in southern
hemisphere

Fig .5.2. –

5.4 Hour angle: It is the angular displacement of sun towards the east or west of local
meridian(Due to rotation of earth about its axis) at any moment. Since the earth rotates about its
axis once during 24-hours, therefore

5.5 Zenith Angle (z) :

It is the angle between sun’s rays and perpendicular to the horizontal.

Fig .5.3.-

5.6 Inclination Angle

:
The angle between sun’s rays and it’s projection on horizontal surface is known as inclination angle.

5.7

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 Fig 5.4.

5.8 Effects due to the elliptical orbit

:
The Earth takes roughly 23 hours and 56 minutes to make a complete rotation on its axis. However a
day is clearly not 23 hours and 56 minutes long! This is because during the time it has performed one
rotation the Earth has moved around the Sun a little. So if we take the point in time when the Sun is at
its highest in the sky the Earth needs to make slightly more than one complete turn for the Sun to be at
the highest point in the sky on the following day (0.00274 of a turn to be precise). It takes an extra 4
minutes to make this extra small fraction of a turn, which is why a day is, on average, 24 hours long.
This is shown in the diagram below.

Fig.5.5.-

If we take a point on the Earth when the Sun is highest in the sky, then after 1 rotation the Sun won’t be at the
highest in the sky again. The Earth has to make slightly more than one rotation for this to happen
.
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In fact it is a little more complicated than this because the Earth’s orbit is oval shaped its distance from the
Sun varies throughout the year. It is at its closest in early January and its furthest away in early July. When
the Earth is closest to the Sun it moves more rapidly in its orbit and, when it furthest away, it moves more
slowly. This is shown in the diagram below.

Fig.5.6.-

In January, when the Earth is moving faster in its orbit, if we take a point in time when the Sun is at its
highest in the sky the Earth needs to make slightly more than 1.00274 of a turn for the Sun to be at the
highest point in the sky on the following day. So a solar day is slightly longer than 24 hours.
In July, when the Earth is moving more slowly in its orbit, the Earth needs to make less than 1.00274 of a
turn for the Sun to be at the highest point in the sky on the following day. This would make a day shorter
than 24 hours.
If the over ness of the Earth’s orbit were the only effect then the length of a solar day would be the longest
on Jan 2 at 24 hours and 10 seconds and the shortest at 23 hours 50 seconds on July 4. However, this isn’t
the only effect, the tilt of the Earth’s axis causes a larger variation in the length of a solar day than the
ovalness of the Earth’s orbit and I’ll talk about that now.

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 6. Comparison of solar V/s other sources of energy
6.1 INTRODUCTION:

Renewable energy can play a significant role in meeting potential energy demands in both rural and urban
areas. Renewable energy production and use, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric energy, should be
prioritized, particularly in light of increased awareness of the negative environmental impacts of fossil-
fueled generation. The world's demand for renewable energy production is increasingly growing. In both
developing and developed countries, widespread use of renewable energy is critical for achieving energy
sector sustainability.
The sun is the most abundant source of energy on the planet, generating 173,000 terawatts of Solar Thermal
Energy every second. That's more than 10,000 times the overall cumulative energy usage of the entire planet,
and it's completely replenishable. Fossil fuels, on the other hand, are polluting and non-renewable. They will
either vanish or the expense of locating and removing them will be prohibitively costly for our already
strained population. Moreover, solar installations do not affect the environment and can be built in a few
months compared to other energy plants. Land or rooftop installation is easy to maintain and can be set up
almost anywhere as sunshine in India fluctuates far less frequently compared to other renewable energy
sources.

6.2 Solar Thermal Energy versus Wind:

Even though wind energy has been on the market for a long time, it has had some problems. While wind
power is less costly to generate initially, wind turbines need much more maintenance than solar cells.
Furthermore, wind power plants are built in remote areas with little to no proximity to the end-user, so
transmission lines must be built to bring electricity to the end-user. Additionally, the effectiveness of a wind
turbine in generating electricity is dependent on the weather. Predicting how much electricity a wind turbine
can produce over time can be difficult. The turbine's rotor will not spin if wind speeds are too low on any
given day. This means that during periods of peak electricity demand, wind energy isn't always available for
transmission.

6.3 Solar Thermal Energy versus Hydroelectricity

While hydroelectricity is effective, it is typically generated by large dams, resulting in a high initial
installation cost. Furthermore, dam construction has the potential to change an entire ecosystem. Hydro
plants also alter the natural flow of the rivers they take over, resulting in the formation of new lakes and a
reduction in downstream water flow. These structures can also affect local wildlife, obstructing fish
migration and altering habitats. Photovoltaic panels, on the other hand, have a little environmental impact
41
and are much smaller than dams. One of the benefits of Solar Thermal Energy is its adaptability. A land or
roof installation may be set up easily.

42
6.4 Solar Thermal Energy versus Biomass:

Since biomass is green in several ways, burning it to produce electricity has some appeal. The logistics and
overall energy balance, on the other hand, refute this point, as it takes a lot of energy mainly fossil-based to
harvest and transport the mass to the power station.

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 -7. CONCLUSIONS

Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices and increasing government support arriving
increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. Solar thermal energy accounts
for one of the major forms of renewable energy utilization. The mayor applications of it are heating
swimming pools, heating water for domestic use and space heating of building. Current research and
development is focused on improving solar heating technologies to make them even more efficient and of
Affordable, with special emphasis on:

Testing material for durability, much research efforts include glazing and absorbers.

Conducting thermal analysis of solar water heating technologies that function in different climates.

Developing advanced applications such as low cost solar water heating and collectors.

Solar savings fraction is very important in dealing about Solar Thermal Energy, which is the amount of
energy provided via the solar technology divided by the total energy required. Passive solar technologies
often yield high solar saving fractions for space heating, when combined with active solar technologies even
higher conventional energy savings can be achieved.

The electricity generation from Solar Thermal Energy is also an important feature that is available with
different technologies such as solar tower and solar ponds. However solar dish/starling engine has the
highest energy efficiency. The one installed at Sandia National Laboratories produces as much as 25kW of
electricity with conversion efficiency of 40.7%. As a solar power plant does not consume any fuel, the cost
mainly consists of capital cost and some operational costs. If lifetime of plant and interest are known then
cost for kWh can be calculated.

Solar technologies have the potential to be mayor contributer to the global energy supply. The ability to
dispatch power allows large scale central solar technologies to provide 50% or more of the energy needs in
sunny regions around the world. Large scale solar technologies can provide energy price stability as well as
quality jobs to the local community. Solar Thermal Energy has the potential to become mayor a domestic
energy resource in the 21st century.

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 REFERENCE
 Patel R.,” Wind and solar power systems : design,
analysis, and operation ” , Taylor Francis, 2006
 John Twidell and Tony Weir.,” Renewable
energy resources”, Taylor Francis, 2006
 es.wikipedia.org
 www.jupiterimages.com
 www.slideshare.net

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