MODULE 7 – Alternating current machines

1. Introduction, Learning Objectives (Rationale)

On completion of this module, learners should be able to demonstrate

understanding of the operation of the different types of single-phase motors
and three-phase induction motors, how the direction of rotation of these motors
is achieved and how these motors are tested.

Content Learning Outcome

7.1 Types of AC machines 7.1.1 Name the two major categories of AC
machines.
7.2 Single-phase motors 7.2.1 State the different types of single-
phase
motors.

7.2.2 With the aid of suitable diagrams,

explain the construction and
operation of the following motors:

Split phase motors

Capacitor-start induction-run
motors
Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor
Shaded pole motors
Universal motors

7.2.3 State the applications of these

motors.

7.2.4 State how the direction of rotation of

these motors can be reversed.

7.2.5 Explain how single-phase motors are

tested.

7.3 Three-phase induction 7.3.1 Explain the construction and

motors operation of a three-phase induction
motor.

7.3.2 Show by means of circuit diagrams

how the stator windings are
connected.

7.3.3 State the applications of this motor.

7.3.4 Explain by means of circuit diagrams

how this motor is tested.
 7.3.5 State the advantages and
disadvantages
of three-phase motors over single-phase
motors.

2. Subject Content (Activities to Engage Students, Provide Information)

7.1.1 Name the two major categories of AC machines.

 Synchronous machines can be either Three-Phase or Single-phase

 Induction machines can be either Three-Phase or Single-phase

7.2.1 State the different types of single-phase motors.

 Split phase motors

 Capacitor-start induction-run motors
 Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor
 Shaded pole motors
 Universal motors

7.2.2 With the aid of suitable diagrams, explain the

construction and operation of the following motors:

Split phase motors

It consists of a stator, which contains the main and the starting windings,
a rotor ( usually squirrel cage) and end plates. The stator fields create a
split magnetic field (rotating). This cuts the metal rods of the squirrel-
cage rotor, inducing a current in them. A rotor field is created and a force
is exerted. This causes the rotor to turn in the same direction as the
stator field. After a certain speed, the centrifugal switch opens,
disconnecting the starting windings. The main windings will maintain
rotational torque.

Capacitor-start induction-run motors

An improvement can be made in the starting characteristics of a split-

phase motor by connecting a capacitor in series with the starting
winding. A motor of this type called a capacitor-start motor.
The current through the running winding lags the applied voltage, as in
the case of the resistance-start motor. By choosing a capacitor of
suitable size, the current through the starting winding may be made to
lead the voltage. The time-phase difference in the currents through the
two windings at starting can therefore be made to be almost 90°.

This approximates the action of a two-phase rotating field closer than the
resist start motor does and therefore results in a higher starting torque.
The capacitor start motor, like the resistance-start motor, has the starting
winding disconnected by means of a centrifugal switch as the motor
approaches full speed. This type of motor has become popular because
of the development a cheap, reliable electrolytic capacitor.

Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor

Some split-phase motors are designed to operate with the auxiliary

winding and its series capacitor permanently connected to the line. This
type of motor is called a capacitor motor. The capacitor in series with the
auxiliary winding may have one fixed value, or it may have one value for
starting and another value for running. As the motor approaches full
speed, the centrifugal switch disconnects the starting capacitor.

The capacitor motor operates in essentially the same way as a two-

phase motor, thereby producing a constant torque and not a pulsating
torque, as is the case in other single-phase motors. These motors are
often used in applications where a quiet operating motor is required.
The permanently connected capacitor also ca the motor to operate at a
good power factor.
Shaded pole motors

This is the simplest form of self-starting induction motor and is used

extensively where small outputs with light starting torques are
required.

The most usual form of a shaded pole motor has a C-shaped

laminated iron core on which the magnetising winding is wound. A
copper shading coil is embedded in the face of each of the poles. The
rotor is of the induction-type.

The actions of the magnetising winding and shading coils are similar to
the primary and secondary windings of a single-phase transformer. The
magnetising winding (primary) supplies the main flux, which links with the
shading coils (secondary windings on short circuit), inducing an emf in
each winding and a current is circulated through them.

The current through each shading coil causes the flux in the core,
enclosed by the shading coil, to be out of phase with the flux induced by
the magnetising winding. As there is a time phase displacement between
the fluxes in the two portions of each pole face, an elliptical rotating field
is set up in the air gap. Emfs and currents are therefore induced in the
rotor conductors and a torque is produced.

Universal motors

A universal motor works on either DC or single phase AC supply. When

the universal motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series
motor. When current flows in the field winding, it produces an
electromagnetic field. The same current also flows from the armature
conductors. When a current carrying conductor is placed in an
electromagnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Due to this
mechanical force, or torque, the rotor starts to rotate. The direction of
this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule.

When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque.

Because, armature winding and field winding are connected in series,
they are in same phase. Hence, as polarity of AC changes periodically,
 the direction of current in armature and field winding reverses at the
same time.

Thus, direction of magnetic field and the direction of armature current

reverses in such a way that the direction of force experienced by
armature conductors remains same. Thus, regardless of AC or DC
supply, universal motor works on the same principle that DC series
motor works.

7.2.3 State the applications of these motors.

 Split phase motors

 Motors for mixers

 Floor polishers
 Bench grinders
 Blowers
 Drilling and lathe machines
 Centrifugal pumps

 Capacitor-start induction-run motors

 Refrigerator compressor’s
 Drilling machines
 Compressor motors
 Grinding machines
 Belt-driven applications

 Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor

 Tumble dryers
 Washing machines
 Dishwashers
 Vacuum cleaners
 Air-conditioners
 Compressors
 Water pumps

 Shaded pole motors

 Small fans
 Washing machine water pumps
 Record players
  Hairdryers

 Universal motors

 Portable power drilling machine

 Angle grinders
 Vacuum cleaners
 Sewing machines
 Kitchen mixers

7.2.4 State how the direction of rotation of these motors can be reversed.

 Split phase motors

 Capacitor-start induction-run motors

 Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor

  Shaded pole motors

Shaded pole motor can only rotate in one direction and can’t be
reversed.

 Universal motors

7.2.5 Explain how single-phase motors are tested.

Visual inspection:

Electrical visual inspection

 Check that electrical cables are isolated and that the cover plates
holding the terminals are sealed.
 Check the motor starter for loose wires or broken terminals.
 Check for burn marks.
 Check that the capacitor is in good condition.

Mechanical visual inspection

 Check the mounting of the motor. Make sure all bolts are tight and that
there is no slop in the belts or pulleys.
 Check the condition of the rotor and shaft: key way, front bearing
and back bearing.
 Check the condition of the motor frame: termination box, front-/back-
end shield, stator/field housing, cooling fan, fan cover and cooling fins.

Electrical inspection

The continuity test

This test is performed using an insulation tester (megger) on the low-

resistance scale, a continuity tester or even a multi-meter. It determines
the continuity of the windings as well as the condition of the capacitor.
The value of this test should be low. The number of windings and the
size of the motor will influence the value of the reading.

Insulation test

This test has two components. Firstly, we test for insulation resistance
between windings. Secondly, we test for insulation resistance between
the windings and ea. as well as between the capacitor and earth. This
test is performed using an insulate tester (megger) on the high-
resistance range on the ±500-V DC setting. The value for these two
tests should be very high to infinity (1 MO or higher).
7.3.1 Explain the construction and operation of a three-phase induction motor.

Basic construction

The AC induction motor comprises 2 electromagnetic parts :

 Stationary part called the stator

 Rotating part called the rotor, supported at each end on bearings

The stator and the rotor are each made up of:

 An electric circuit, usually made of insulated copper or aluminium,

to carry current
 A magnetic circuit, usually made from laminated steel, to carry
magnetic flux

The stator

The stator is the outer stationary part of the motor, which

consists of:

 The outer cylindrical frame of the motor, which is made either

of welded sheet steel, cast iron or cast aluminium alloy. This may
include feet or a flange for mounting.

 The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel

laminations pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer
frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents,
lower losses and lower heating.

 A set of insulated electrical windings, which are placed inside

the slots of the laminated magnetic path. The cross-sectional area
of these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the
 motor. For a 3-phase motor, 3 sets of windings are required, one
for each phase.

Stator and rotor laminations

The rotor

 This is the rotating part of the motor. As with the stator above,
the rotor consists of a set of slotted steel laminations pressed
together in the form of a cylindrical magnetic path and the
electrical circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor can be either:

 Wound rotor type, which comprises 3 sets of insulated windings

with connections brought out to 3 sliprings mounted on the shaft.
The external connections to the rotating part are made via brushes
onto the sliprings. Consequently, this type of motor is often
referred to as a slipring motor.

 Squirrel cage rotor type, which comprises a set of copper or

aluminium bars installed into the slots, which are connected to an
end-ring at each end of the rotor. The construction of these rotor
windings resembles a ‘squirrel cage’. Aluminium rotor bars are
usually die-cast into the rotor slots, which results in a very rugged
construction. Even though the aluminium rotor bars are in direct
contact with the steel laminations, practically all the rotor current
flows through the aluminium bars and not in the laminations.

The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor
are:

 Two end-flanges to support the two bearings, one at the drive-end

(DE) and the other at the non-drive-end (NDE)
 Two bearings to support the rotating shaft, at DE and NDE
 Steel shaft for transmitting the torque to the load
  Cooling fan located at the NDE to provide forced cooling for the
stator and rotor
 Terminal box on top or either side to receive the external electrical
connections

Operating principle of a three-phase induction motor.

 When a three-phase voltage is applied to the stator windings of a three-

phase induction motor, the main rotating magnetic field is produced.
 This magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed and cuts the stationary
rotor bars, inducing an emf in them.
 This induced emf produces a rotor current.
 The rotor current produces the secondary magnetic field.
 The two magnetic fields interact with each other to produce the force
necessary to set the rotor in motion.
 Energy is transferred from the stator to the rotor entirely magnetically.
 The rotor will rotate at actual speed (N).

7.3.2 Show by means of circuit diagrams how the stator windings are
connected.
7.3.3 State the applications of this motor.

 Lifts
 Cranes
 Hoists
 Large-capacity extractor fans
 Driving lathe machines
 Crushers
 Water pumps
 Air-conditioning systems
 Industrial blowers
 Escalators
 Conveyers

7.3.4 Explain by means of circuit diagrams how this motor is tested.

Visual inspection:

Electrical visual inspection

 Check that electrical cables are isolated and that the cover plates
holding the terminals are sealed.
 Check the motor starter for loose wires or broken terminals.
 Check for burn marks.

Mechanical visual inspection

 Check the mounting of the motor. Make sure all bolts are tight and that
there is no slop in the belts or pulleys.
 Check the condition of the rotor and shaft: key way, front bearing
and back bearing.
 Check the condition of the motor frame: termination box, front-/back-
end shield, stator/field housing, cooling fan, fan cover and cooling fins.

Electrical inspection
 Continuity resistance test.

Readings are taken between a1 and a2, then between b1 and b2, then
between c1 and c2. The readings taken must not differ by more than 10%
of each other. The testing instrument should be set to the OHMS scale.

Insulation resistance test between windings

A megger is connected between a1 and b1, then between a1 and c1, and
finally between b1, and c1. Each reading should be high (  500 KΩ) or
higher.

Insulation Resistance to Earth Test

A megger is connected between earth and a1, then between earth and b1,
and finally between earth and c1. Readings will be high (  500 KΩ) or
higher.

7.3.5 State the advantages and disadvantages of three-phase motors over

single-phase motors.

MOTOR ADVANTAGES DISADVATAGES

 Single-phase supplies  Available in small sizes only.
are readily available.  Less efficient
 Electrical installation is  Are not self-starting
SINGLE-
simple.  More expensive for the same
PHASE  Electrical control is output.
simple.  Physical size is bigger for the
same output.
 Have a lower starting torque for
the same output.

 Are self-starting  Usually only found in large

 Have higher starting installations.
torque for the same  Electrical installation is more
output. difficult.
 More efficient  Electrical control is more
THREE-  Available from small to complicated.
PHASE
very large.
 Cheaper for the same
output.
 Physical size is smaller
for the same output.

Lecturer Tips:
3. Exercises (Students need to Practice, Apply, Synthesise)

1. A three-phase, four-pole induction motor rotates at 24 r/s. Calculate the

following for a frequency of 50 Hz:

𝐺𝐼𝑉𝐸𝑁: 𝑝 = 2; 𝑛 = 24 𝑟/𝑠; 𝑓 = 50Hz

1.1. The actual speed of the motor in revolutions per minute.

𝑁 = (60)(𝑛) = (60)(24) = 1440r/min

1.2. The synchronous speed of the magnetic field.

60𝑓 (60)(50)
𝑁s = = = 1500r/min
𝑝 2

1.3. The percentage slip at which the rotor is operating.

𝑁𝑆 −𝑁
%𝑠 = 𝑁𝑆

1500−1440
= × 100%
1500

= 4%

2. A 1,1 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase induction motor runs at 1 200 r/min.

Calculate the number of poles if the motor is operating at a slip of 33%.

𝐺𝐼𝑉𝐸𝑁: 𝑉L = 1100V; 𝑓 = 60Hz ; 𝑁 = 1200r/ min; %s = 33%

𝑁s − 𝑁
%𝑠 = × 100%
𝑁s

𝑁s − 1200
33 = × 100%
𝑁s

0,33𝑁s = 𝑁s − 1200
0,33𝑁s (0,33 − 1) = −1200

𝑁s = &1791,045r/min

60𝑓
𝑁s = &
𝑝

60(60)
𝑝=
1791,045

=2
Lecturer Tips:

4. Assessment (Student Reflection/Review/Inner-perspective)

You should be able to answer / do the following:

1. Name the two major categories of AC machines.

2. State the different types of single-phase motors.

3. With the aid of suitable diagrams, explain the construction and operation
of the following motors:

Split phase motors

Capacitor-start induction-run motors
Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor
Shaded pole motors
Universal motors

4. State the applications of these motors.

5. State how the direction of rotation of these motors can be reversed.

6. Explain how single-phase motors are tested.

7. Explain the construction and operation of a three-phase induction motor.

8. Show by means of circuit diagrams how the stator windings are

connected.

9. State the applications of this motor.

10. Explain by means of circuit diagrams how this motor is tested.

11. State the advantages and disadvantages of three-phase motors over

single-phase motors.

Additional summative questions you should be able to answer.

1. A three-phase, four-pole induction motor rotates at 32 r/s. Calculate the

following for a frequency of 50 Hz:

1.1. The actual speed of the motor in revolutions per minute.

1.2. The synchronous speed of the magnetic field.
1.3. The percentage slip at which the rotor is operating.

2. A 1,8 kV, 50 Hz, three-phase induction motor runs at 1 600 r/min.

Calculate the number of poles if the motor is operating at a slip of 43%.
Lecturer Tips:

5. Summary
 Three-phase induction motors are the most popular motors used in
industry.
 The stator is the stationary part of the motor and is made up of the stator
frame, stator core and the stator windings.
 The function of the stator windings is to produce the main rotating
magnetic field.
 The rotor is the rotating part of the motor and there are two types:
squirrel-cage rotors and wound-rotors.
 The stator winding of a three-phase induction motor can be connected in
either star or delta.
 The difference between rotor speed and synchronous speed is called
slip.
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑟 (𝑛 − 𝑛𝑟 )
𝑆= 𝑂𝑅 𝑆 =
𝑁 𝑛
 In order to change direction of a three-phase motor, it is necessary to
reverse TWO of the supply lines to the stator.
 Three-phase induction motors are used for the following:
 Cranes
 Hoists
 Large-capacity extractor fans
 Driving lathe machines.
 Squirrel cage rotors are used in motors driving lathes, fans, blowers etc.
 There are four electrical tests to be performed on a motor.
 Open-and short-circuit test.
 Earth continuity test
 Insulation resistance test between winding and earth
 Insulation resistance test between windings
 Single-phase motors are not self-starting as a single-phase supply
cannot produce a rotating magnetic field.
 To make single-phase motors self-starting, they are converted into two-
phase motors for starting purposes only.
 Single-phase motors can be divided into the following types:

 Split-phase motors
 Capacitor-start induction-run motors
 Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor
 Shaded pole motors
 Universal motors.

 Shaded pole motors are the simplest form of self-starting induction

motor and are used extensively where small outputs with light starting
torques are required.
 Some split-phase motors are designed to operate with the auxiliary
winding and its series capacitor permanently connected to the line. This
type of motor called a capacitor-start motor.
  An AC series motor is also often referred to as a universal motor, as it
can be made to operate on AC as well as DC supplies.
 Split-phase motors may be started in either direction by
reversing the connections to either the starting winding or the
running winding.
 To reverse direction on a single-phase capacitor-start motor, you will
need to reverse the polarity of the start winding.
 To reverse direction on a single-phase capacitor-start capacitor run
motor, you will need to reverse the polarity of the auxiliary winding.
 The shaded-pole motor only rotates in one direction only.
6. Additional Lecturer Resources

For a lesson on AC motors click on the link below.

https://youtu.be/foizmuqSYJM

Past exam paper videos click on the link below.

https://youtu.be/P9v01NUe93w (August 2019)
https://youtu.be/iajr-Sb9aUI (November 2019)
https://youtu.be/IJZr2aGjaLI (August 2020)
https://youtu.be/Hpn7mp_ScCw (November 2020)