GENERAL

BIOLOGY 2
2/22/2024 maamHildz/2013 1
NON-MENDELIAN
GENETICS
 NON- MENDELIAN LAWS
NON- Mendelian Genetics

❖ Some traits don’t follow the simple dominant/

recessive rules that Mendel first applied to
genetics.
❖ Traits can be controlled by more than one
gene.
❖ Some alleles are neither dominant nor
recessive.
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1. Incomplete Dominance

- One allele is not completely

dominant over another.
- The heterozygous phenotype
is a blending of the two
homozygous phenotypes.
Ex
rr = red X ww=white
rw=pink
(blending of the two alleles)
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1. Incomplete Dominance

P generation
❖ homozygous
red rose = RR
❖ homozygous
white rose = ww
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1. Incomplete Dominance

F1 generation
• First generation (F1 x F1)
purple flowered plants are
crossed
• 3 purple flowered plants,
and 1 white flowered
plant.
• 3:1 ratio
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1. Incomplete Dominance

F1 generation
• First generation (F1 x F1)
pink flowered plants are
crossed
• 1 red flowered plants, 2
pink flowers and 1 white
flowered plant.
• 1:2:1 ratio
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2. Codominance

❖ Two alleles are both

expressed as a dominant
phenotype
❖Ex. Coat color in cows
RR: Red
WW: White
RW: Roan (white with
red spots (NOT pink!)
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2. Codominance

❖ A dog with eye patches

and dog without eye
patches
❖offspring with one
eyepatch.
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2. Codominance

❖ A gray fur coat on a

rabbit as a result of one
rabbit’s black allele and
one rabbit's white allele
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3. Multiple-Allele Series

- More than two choices of alleles are present for a

trait
- ABO blood type has three alleles IA IB iO
The alleles IA and IB are equally dominant
The alleles for iO are recessive
ABO Blood types:
If both A and B are present, blood type is AB
neither is recessive
Individuals can be type A, B, AB, or O (recessive)
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Codominance

1. Type A = IAIA or IA iO
2. Type B = IBIB or IB iO
3. Type AB = IAI B
4. Type O = iO iO
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Determining Blood Type

• Protein molecules found on the surface of RBC’s

and in the blood plasma, determine the blood
type of an individual.
• Antigens are located on the surface of the red
blood cells
• Antibodies are in the blood plasma.
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What are the different blood groups?

• Blood group A (IA, IA ), (IA, i)

have A antigens on the surface of
red blood cells and B antibodies in
blood plasma.
• Blood group B (IB, IB ), (IB, i)
have B antigens on the surface of
red blood cells and A antibodies in
blood plasma.
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What are the different blood groups?

• Blood group AB (IA, IB )

have both A and B antigens on the
surface of red blood cells and no A
or B antibodies in blood plasma.
• Blood group O (i, i)
have neither A or B antigens on the
surface of red blood cells but have
both A and B antibodies in blood
plasma.
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Blood transfusions – who can receive blood from

whom?
• The transfusion will work if a person who is
going to receive blood has a blood group that
doesn't have any antibodies against the donor
blood's antigens.
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Blood transfusions – who can receive blood from

whom?
• In summary, blood type compatibility depends
on the presence or absence of specific antigens
and antibodies, and certain combinations are
safer for transfusions than others.
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Rh Factor
• Refers to another antigen on red
blood cells
• Dominant trait is to have the
antigen Rh+
• Recessive trait is not to have it Rh-
• A person with Rh- blood will
produce antibodies to Rh+ blood
.
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SEX-LINKED
INHERITANCE
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HUMAN
have 46 chromosomes
(23 pairs)
- 44 (22 pairs) are autosomes
- 2 (1pair) are sex chromosomes
Males have an X and a Y
chromosome
Females have two X chromosomes
These chromosomes determine sex,
so genes located on these
chromosomes are known as sex-
linked genes.
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HUMAN
The X chromosome is much larger
than the Y, so it carries more genes
than the Y chromosome

•Disorders that are sex-linked are much

more common in males, because they would
only need 1 recessive allele to have the trait;
rather than the two recessive alleles the
females need.
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Hemophilia
• Recessive traits
• Disorder where individual are missing the
normal clotting protein
• Uncontrolled bleed from minor cuts
Colorblindness
• Recessive
• Inability to see certain colors
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Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
• Recessive
• Progressive weakening and loss of skeletal
muscle.
• Defective version of gene that codes for
muscle protein.

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

• Recessive
• difficulty responding to male sex hormones
(androgens)
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SEX-INFLUENCED INHERITANCE
• Sex-controlled character, also called Sex-
influenced Character
- genetically controlled feature that may
appear in organisms of both sexes but is
expressed to a different degree in each.
• baldness is expressed by a single pair of alleles,
with B as the dominant allele for baldness and
b as the recessive normal allele.
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SEX-LIMITED INHERITANCE
• Sex-limited genes are genes which are present in
both.
• These are genes that occur in both sexes
(probably on the autosomes) but are normally
expressed only in the gender having the
appropriate hormonal determiner (activator)
• The genes for the trait can be carried and
transmitted by the opposite sex although it is
NOT displayed in that sex because of
anatomical or physiological differences.
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Pedigree. Making use of diagrams showing the

ancestral relationships and transmission of genetic
traits over several generations in a family
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Pedigree
• used to analyze the pattern of inheritance of a
particular trait throughout a family.
• show the presence or absence of a trait as it
relates to the relationship among parents,
offspring, and siblings.
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Importance of Pedigree Diagrams
• to check the likelihood of a particular disorder
and condition.
• helps locate genes such as X, Y, and autosomal
chromosomes
• helps predict whether the trait is dominant or
recessive
➢If the likelihood is 50:50 (mother and father), it
is called an autosomal condition
➢If the pedigree analysis reveals that a male is
affected by a genetic disorder, it is known as an
X-linked disorder
 Common mistakes and misconceptions
• The presence of many affected individuals in a family
does not always mean that the trait is dominant.
The terms dominant and recessive refer to the way that
a trait is expressed, not by how often it shows up in a
family. In fact, although it is uncommon, a trait may be
recessive but still show up in all generations of a
pedigree.
• You may not always be able to determine the genotype of
an individual based on a pedigree.
Sometimes an individual can either be homozygous
dominant or heterozygous for a trait. Often, we can use
the relationships between an individual and their
parents, siblings, and offspring to determine genotypes.
However, not all carriers are always explicitly indicated
in a pedigree, and it may not be possible to determine
based on the information provided.
Thank You!

Ma’am Hildz