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Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) include two sets of values In addition to the values that serve as goals for nutrient in
that serve as goals for nutrient intake—Recommended Dietary takes (presented in the tables on these two pages), the DRI in
Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI). The RDA reflect clude a set of values called Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL).
the average daily amount of a nutrient considered adequate to The UL represent the maximum amount of a nutrient that ap
meet the needs of most healthy people. If there is insufficient pears safe for most healthy people to consume on a regular ba
evidence to determine an RDA, an AI is set. AI are more ten sis. Turn the page for a listing of the UL for selected vitamins
tative than RDA, but both may be used as goals for nutrient and minerals.
intakes. (Chapter 9 provides more details.)
Estimated Energy Requirements (EER), Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA),

and Adequate Intakes (AI) for Water, Energy, and the Energy Nutrients
ht
ht
g/da cid c
Heig
y)
m 2) BMI
Wei
y)
(g/d te
g/da id
g/da
ay) d
l/da
AI ( lenic A
ay)
RDA ohydra
AI ( leic Ac
AI ( l Fiber
(kg/ rence
cm rence
kg ( rence
y)
y)
y)
y)
y)
AI ( l Fat
(g/k
(kca
(g/d
g/da
g/da
L/da
RDA ein
RDA ein
a
EER b gy
(in)
lb)
AI ( er
Refe
Refe
Refe
C ar b
r
Lino
Lino
Tota
Tota
P ro t
P ro t
Wat
Ene
Age (yr)
Males
0–0.5 — 62 (24) 6 (13) 0.7e 570 60 — 31 4.4 0.5 9.1 1.52
0.5–1 — 71 (28) 9 (20) 0.8f 743 95 — 30 4.6 0.5 11 1.20
1–3g — 86 (34) 12 (27) 1.3 1046 130 19 — 7 0.7 13 1.05
4–8g 15.3 115 (45) 20 (44) 1.7 1742 130 25 — 10 0.9 19 0.95
9–13 17.2 144 (57) 36 (79) 2.4 2279 130 31 — 12 1.2 34 0.95
14–18 20.5 174 (68) 61 (134) 3.3 3152 130 38 — 16 1.6 52 0.85
19–30 22.5 177 (70) 70 (154) 3.7 3067h 130 38 — 17 1.6 56 0.80
31–50 22.5i 177 (70)i 70 (154)i 3.7 3067h 130 38 — 17 1.6 56 0.80
>50 22.5i 177 (70)i 70 (154)i 3.7 3067h 130 30 — 14 1.6 56 0.80
Females
0–0.5 — 62 (24) 6 (13) 0.7e 520 60 — 31 4.4 0.5 9.1 1.52
0.5–1 — 71 (28) 9 (20) 0.8f 676 95 — 30 4.6 0.5 11 1.20
1–3g — 86 (34) 12 (27) 1.3 992 130 19 — 7 0.7 13 1.05
4–8g 15.3 115 (45) 20 (44) 1.7 1642 130 25 — 10 0.9 19 0.95
9–13 17.4 144 (57) 37 (81) 2.1 2071 130 26 — 10 1.0 34 0.95
14–18 20.4 163 (64) 54 (119) 2.3 2368 130 26 — 11 1.1 46 0.85
19–30 21.5 163 (64) 57 (126) 2.7 2403 j 130 25 — 12 1.1 46 0.80
i i i
31–50 21.5 163 (64) 57 (126) 2.7 2403 j 130 25 — 12 1.1 46 0.80
>50 21.5i 163 (64)i 57 (126)i 2.7 2403 j 130 21 — 11 1.1 46 0.80
Pregnancy
1st trimester 3.0 +0 175 28 — 13 1.4 46 0.80
2nd trimester 3.0 +340 175 28 — 13 1.4 71 1.10
3rd trimester 3.0 +452 175 28 — 13 1.4 71 1.10
Lactation
1st 6 months 3.8 +330 210 29 — 13 1.3 71 1.30
2nd 6 months 3.8 +400 210 29 — 13 1.3 71 1.30
h
NOTE: For all nutrients, values for infants are AI. Dashes indicate until age 19. Chapter 8 provides equations and tables to determine For males, subtract 10 kcalories per day for each year of age
that values have not been determined. estimated energy requirements. above 19.
a c i
The water AI includes drinking water, water in beverages, and wa- The linolenic acid referred to in this table and text is the omega-3 Because weight need not change as adults age if activity is main-
ter in foods; in general, drinking water and other beverages contrib- fatty acid known as alpha-linolenic acid. tained, reference weights for adults 19 through 30 years are applied
d
ute about 70 to 80 percent, and foods, the remainder. Conversion The values listed are based on reference body weights. to all adult age groups.
e j
factors: 1 L = 33.8 fluid oz; 1 L = 1.06 qt; 1 cup = 8 fluid oz. Assumed to be from human milk. For females, subtract 7 kcalories per day for each year of age
b f
The Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) represents the average Assumed to be from human milk and complementary foods and above 19.
dietary energy intake that will maintain energy balance in a healthy beverages. This includes approximately 0.6 L (∼21⁄2 cups) as total
person of a given gender, age, weight, height, and physical activity fluid including formula, juices, and drinking water. SOURCE: Adapted from the Dietary Reference Intakes series, National
g
level. The values listed are based on an “active” person at the refer- For energy, the age groups for young children are 1–2 years and Academies Press. Copyright 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004,
ence height and weight and at the midpoint ages for each group 3–8 years. 2005, 2011 by the National Academies of Sciences.
A Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI) for Vitamins
day) acid
/day e
/day a
/day b
/day c
day) d
)
)
)
)
/day
/day
/day
/day
c
/day
(µg 12
day)
AI ( otheni
ay)
ay)
(mg 6
RDA flavin
RDA in A
RDA min D
RDA min B
RDA in B
AI ( min K
RDA min C
RDA min E
(IU/
RDA min
(mg
(mg
(mg
(mg
(mg
µg/d
µg/d
line
(µg
(µg
mg/
mg/
RDA in
RDA e
m
t
i
Ribo
t
Niac
Thia
Biot
Fola
Vita
Vita
Vita
Vita
Vita
Vita
Vita
Cho
Pan
AI (
AI (
Age (yr)
Infants
0–0.5 0.2 0.3 2 5 1.7 0.1 65 0.4 125 40 400 400 (10 µg) 4 2.0
0.5–1 0.3 0.4 4 6 1.8 0.3 80 0.5 150 50 500 400 (10 µg) 5 2.5
Children
1–3 0.5 0.5 6 8 2 0.5 150 0.9 200 15 300 600 (15 µg) 6 30
4–8 0.6 0.6 8 12 3 0.6 200 1.2 250 25 400 600 (15 µg) 7 55
Males
9–13 0.9 0.9 12 20 4 1.0 300 1.8 375 45 600 600 (15 µg) 11 60
14–18 1.2 1.3 16 25 5 1.3 400 2.4 550 75 900 600 (15 µg) 15 75
19–30 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 550 90 900 600 (15 µg) 15 120
31–50 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 550 90 900 600 (15 µg) 15 120
51–70 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.7 400 2.4 550 90 900 600 (15 µg) 15 120
>70 1.2 1.3 16 30 5 1.7 400 2.4 550 90 900 800 (20 µg) 15 120
Females
9–13 0.9 0.9 12 20 4 1.0 300 1.8 375 45 600 600 (15 µg) 11 60
14–18 1.0 1.0 14 25 5 1.2 400 2.4 400 65 700 600 (15 µg) 15 75
19–30 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 425 75 700 600 (15 µg) 15 90
31–50 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.3 400 2.4 425 75 700 600 (15 µg) 15 90
51–70 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.5 400 2.4 425 75 700 600 (15 µg) 15 90
>70 1.1 1.1 14 30 5 1.5 400 2.4 425 75 700 800 (20 µg) 15 90
Pregnancy
≤18 1.4 1.4 18 30 6 1.9 600 2.6 450 80 750 600 (15 µg) 15 75
19–30 1.4 1.4 18 30 6 1.9 600 2.6 450 85 770 600 (15 µg) 15 90
31–50 1.4 1.4 18 30 6 1.9 600 2.6 450 85 770 600 (15 µg) 15 90
Lactation
≤18 1.4 1.6 17 35 7 2.0 500 2.8 550 115 1200 600 (15 µg) 19 75
19–30 1.4 1.6 17 35 7 2.0 500 2.8 550 120 1300 600 (15 µg) 19 90
31–50 1.4 1.6 17 35 7 2.0 500 2.8 550 120 1300 600 (15 µg) 19 90
c
NOTE: For all nutrients, values for infants are AI. Vitamin A recommendations are expressed as retinol activity equivalents (RAE).
a d
Niacin recommendations are expressed as niacin equivalents (NE), except for recommendations for infants Vitamin D recommendations are expressed as cholecalciferol and assume an absence of adequate exposure
younger than 6 months, which are expressed as preformed niacin. to sunlight.
b e
Folate recommendations are expressed as dietary folate equivalents (DFE). Vitamin E recommendations are expressed as α-tocopherol.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI) for Minerals
)
)
(µg m
)
)
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
(mg us
day)
day)
day)
day)
day)
RDA esium
AI ( ganese
ay)
RDA bdenu
AI ( ssium
AI ( mium
RDA nium
or
AI ( r ide
AI ( r ide
(mg
RDA ium
µg/d
(mg
(mg
(mg
AI ( um
(µg
(µg
(µg
sph
mg /
mg /
mg /
mg /
mg /
per
n e
n
y
Chro
Pota
Zinc
i
Chlo
Fluo
Sele
Iron
Iodi
Man
Calc
Mag
Pho
Cop
S od
Mol
RDA
RDA
RDA
RDA
RDA
Age (yr)
Infants
0–0.5 120 180 400 200 100 30 0.27 2 110 15 200 0.003 0.01 0.2 2
0.5–1 370 570 700 260 275 75 11 3 130 20 220 0.6 0.5 5.5 3
Children
1–3 1000 1500 3000 700 460 80 7 3 90 20 340 1.2 0.7 11 17
4–8 1200 1900 3800 1000 500 130 10 5 90 30 440 1.5 1.0 15 22
Males
9–13 1500 2300 4500 1300 1250 240 8 8 120 40 700 1.9 2 25 34
14–18 1500 2300 4700 1300 1250 410 11 11 150 55 890 2.2 3 35 43
19–30 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 400 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 35 45
31–50 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 420 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 35 45
51–70 1300 2000 4700 1000 700 420 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 30 45
>70 1200 1800 4700 1200 700 420 8 11 150 55 900 2.3 4 30 45
Females
9–13 1500 2300 4500 1300 1250 240 8 8 120 40 700 1.6 2 21 34
14–18 1500 2300 4700 1300 1250 360 15 9 150 55 890 1.6 3 24 43
19–30 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 310 18 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 25 45
31–50 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 320 18 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 25 45
51–70 1300 2000 4700 1200 700 320 8 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 20 45
>70 1200 1800 4700 1200 700 320 8 8 150 55 900 1.8 3 20 45
Pregnancy
≤18 1500 2300 4700 1300 1250 400 27 12 220 60 1000 2.0 3 29 50
19–30 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 350 27 11 220 60 1000 2.0 3 30 50
31–50 1500 2300 4700 1000 700 360 27 11 220 60 1000 2.0 3 30 50
Lactation
≤18 1500 2300 5100 1300 1250 360 10 13 290 70 1300 2.6 3 44 50
19–30 1500 2300 5100 1000 700 310 9 12 290 70 1300 2.6 3 45 50
31–50 1500 2300 5100 1000 700 320 9 12 290 70 1300 2.6 3 45 50
NOTE: For all nutrients, values for infants are AI.
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202 B
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) for Vitamins
/day 6
(µg min A
(IU/ min D
(mg min B
(mg min C
(mg min E
/day a
/day c
/day b
/day a
)
)
)
day)
(mg ine
/day
/day
(mg in
(µg te
l
Niac
Fola
Vita
Vita
Vita
Vita
Vita
Cho
Age (yr)
Infants
0–0.5 — — — — — 600 1000 (25 µg) —
0.5–1 — — — — — 600 1500 (38 µg) —
Children
1–3 10 30 300 1000 400 600 2500 (63 µg) 200
4–8 15 40 400 1000 650 900 3000 (75 µg) 300
9–13 20 60 600 2000 1200 1700 4000 (100 µg) 600
Adolescents
14–18 30 80 800 3000 1800 2800 4000 (100 µg) 800
Adults
19–70 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 µg) 1000
>70 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 µg) 1000
Pregnancy
≤18 30 80 800 3000 1800 2800 4000 (100 µg) 800
19–50 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 µg) 1000
Lactation
≤18 30 80 800 3000 1800 2800 4000 (100 µg) 800
19–50 35 100 1000 3500 2000 3000 4000 (100 µg) 1000
a c
The UL for niacin and folate apply to synthetic forms obtained from The UL for vitamin E applies to any form of supplemental
supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two. α-tocopherol, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.
b
The UL for vitamin A applies to the preformed vitamin only.
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) for Minerals
/day num
(mg phorus
(mg nesium
(mg ganese
(mg dium
/day d
(µg nium
(mg r ide
e
(mg r ide
)
)
(mg ium
)
(mg um
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
/day
ybd
(µg er
/day
/day
/day
(µg ne
(mg el
(mg n
p
a
s
Boro
Nick
i
Chlo
Fluo
Sele
Iron
Zinc
Iodi
Man
Calc
Mag
Pho
Van
Cop
S od
Mol
(mg
(mg
(µg
Age (yr)
Infants
0–0.5 — — 1000 — — 40 4 — 45 — — 0.7 — — — —
0.5–1 — — 1500 — — 40 5 — 60 — — 0.9 — — — —
Children
1–3 1500 2300 2500 3000 65 40 7 200 90 1000 2 1.3 300 3 0.2 —
4–8 1900 2900 2500 3000 110 40 12 300 150 3000 3 2.2 600 6 0.3 —
9–13 2200 3400 3000 4000 350 40 23 600 280 5000 6 10 1100 11 0.6 —
Adolescents
14–18 2300 3600 3000 4000 350 45 34 900 400 8000 9 10 1700 17 1.0 —
Adults
19–50 2300 3600 2500 4000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 1.8
51–70 2300 3600 2000 4000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 1.8
>70 2300 3600 2000 3000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 1.8
Pregnancy
≤18 2300 3600 3000 3500 350 45 34 900 400 8000 9 10 1700 17 1.0 —
19–50 2300 3600 2500 3500 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 —
Lactation
≤18 2300 3600 3000 4000 350 45 34 900 400 8000 9 10 1700 17 1.0 —
19–50 2300 3600 2500 4000 350 45 40 1100 400 10,000 11 10 2000 20 1.0 —
d
The UL for magnesium applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements or drugs only. SOURCE: Adapted with permission from the Dietary Reference Intakes series, National Academies Press.
NOTE: An Upper Limit was not established for vitamins and minerals not listed and for those age groups Copyright 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2011 by the National Academies of Sciences.
listed with a dash (—) because of a lack of data, not because these nutrients are safe to consume at any
level of intake. All nutrients can have adverse effects when intakes are excessive.
C Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
ADVANCED NUTRITION
AND HUMAN METABOLISM
SEVENTH EDITION
ADVANCED NUTRITION
AND HUMAN METABOLISM
SEVENTH EDITION
Sareen S. Gropper
FLORIDA ATLANTIC UNIVERSITY
AUBURN UNIVERSITY (PROFESSOR EMERITUS)
Jack L. Smith
UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE
Timothy P. Carr
UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Seventh Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
To my children Michelle and Michael, and to my husband, Daniel, for their
ongoing encouragement, support, faith, and love and to the students who
continue to impress and inspire me.
Sareen Gropper
To my wife, Carol, for her continued support, constant inspiration, and

assistance in the preparation of this book.
Jack Smith
To my family—Rebecca, Erin, and Marion—for their unwavering support and to

the many students who have made my career so enjoyable.
Tim Carr
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xvii
SECTION I Cells and Their Nourishment

1 The Cell: A Microcosm of Life 1
2 The Digestive System: Mechanism for Nourishing the Body 29
SECTION II Macronutrients and Their Metabolism

3 Carbohydrates 61
4 Fiber 107
5 Lipids 125
6 Protein 175
7 Integration and Regulation of Metabolism and the Impact
of Exercise 245
8 Energy Expenditure, Body Composition, and Healthy Weight 273
SECTION III The Regulatory Nutrients

9 Water-Soluble Vitamins 299
10 Fat-Soluble Vitamins 369
11 Major Minerals 425
12 Water and Electrolytes 455
13 Essential Trace and Ultratrace Minerals 479
14 Nonessential Trace and Ultratrace Minerals 543
Glossary 557
Index 563
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202 vii
CONTENTS
Preface xvii Coordination and Regulation of the Digestive

Process 55
Neural Regulation 55
SECTION I Regulatory Peptides 55
Cells and Their Nourishment Summary 58
PERSPECTIVE The Nutritional Impact of Roux-En-Y Gastric Bypass,
CHAPTER 1 The Cell: A Microcosm of Life 1 A Surgical Approach for the Treatment of Obesity 59
Components of Cells 1
Plasma Membrane 1
Cytoplasmic Matrix 4 SECTION II
Mitochondrion 4
Nucleus 6 Macronutrients and Their Metabolism
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus 10
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes 11 CHAPTER 3 Carbohydrates 61
Selected Cellular Proteins 11 Overview of Structural Features 61
Receptors 11 Simple Carbohydrates 62
Catalytic Proteins (Enzymes) 13 Monosaccharides 62
Apoptosis 16 Disaccharides 65
Biological Energy 17 Complex Carbohydrates 66
Energy Release and Consumption in Chemical Oligosaccharides 66
Reactions 18 Polysaccharides 66
Expressions of Energy 18 Digestion 67
The Role of High-Energy Phosphate in Energy Digestion of Polysaccharides 68
Storage 21 Digestion of Disaccharides 68
Coupled Reactions in the Transfer of Energy 21 Absorption, Transport, and Distribution 68
Reduction Potentials 23 Intestinal Absorption
Summary 24 of Glucose and Galactose 68
PERSPECTIVE Nutritional Genomics: A New Perspective on Food by Intestinal Absorption of Fructose 71
Ruth DeBusk, PhD, RD 26 Post-Absorption Facilitated Transport 71
Glucose Transporters 71
Glucose Entry into Interstitial Fluid 74
CHAPTER 2 The Digestive System: Mechanism for Maintenance of Blood Glucose
Nourishing the Body 29 Concentration 75
The Structures of the Digestive Tract And the Digestive Glycemic Response to Carbohydrates 75
and Absorptive Processes 29 Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load 75
The Oral Cavity 32 Integrated Metabolism in Tissues 77
The Esophagus 33 Glycogenesis 77
The Stomach 35 Glycogenolysis 80
The Small Intestine 40 Glycolysis 81
The Accessory Organs 43 The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle 84
The Absorptive Process 49 Formation of ATP 87
The Colon (Large Intestine) 51 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (Hexose
Monophosphate Shunt) 94
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202 ix
x CO N T E N T S
Gluconeogenesis 95 Dietary Sources 136

Regulation of Metabolism 98 Recommended Intakes 138
Allosteric Enzyme Modulation 98 Digestion 138
Covalent Regulation 99 Triacylglycerol Digestion 139
Genetic Regulation 99 Phospholipid Digestion 140
Directional Shifts Cholesterol Ester Digestion 140
in Reversible Reactions 99 Absorption 141
Metabolic Control of Glycolysis and Fatty Acid, Monoacylglycerol, and
Gluconeogenesis 100 Lysophospholipid Absorption 141
Summary 101 Cholesterol Absorption 142
PERSPECTIVE What Carbohydrates Do Americans Eat? 104 Lipid Release into Circulation 143
Transport and Storage 143
Lipoprotein Structure 143
CHAPTER 4 Fiber 107 Lipoprotein Metabolism 145
Definitions 107 Lipids, Lipoproteins, and Cardiovascular
Fiber and Plants 108 Disease Risk 151
Chemistry and Characteristics of Fiber 108 Cholesterol 152
Cellulose 108 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids 152
Hemicellulose 111 Trans Fatty Acids 153
Pectins 111 Lipoprotein(a) 153
Lignin 111 Apolipoprotein E 153
Gums 111 Integrated Metabolism in Tissues 154
b-Glucans 111 Catabolism of Triacylglycerols and Fatty Acids 154
Fructans 112 Formation of Ketone Bodies 157
Resistant Starch 112 Synthesis of Fatty Acids 158
Mucilages (Psyllium) 112 Synthesis of Triacylglycerols and Phospholipids 163
Polydextrose and Polyols 113 Synthesis, Catabolism,
Resistant Dextrins 113 and Whole-Body Balance of Cholesterol 163
Chitin and Chitosan 113 Regulation of Lipid Metabolism 165
Selected Properties of Fiber and Their Fatty Acids 165
Physiological Impact 113 Cholesterol 166
Solubility in Water 114 Brown Fat Thermogenesis 166
Viscosity and Gel Formation 114 Ethyl Alcohol: Metabolism and
Fermentability 115 Biochemical Impact 167
Health Benefits of Fiber 115 The Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) Pathway 167
Cardiovascular Disease 115 The Microsomal Ethanol Oxidizing System
Diabetes Mellitus 117 (MEOS) 168
Appetite and/or Satiety and Weight Control 117 The Catalase System 169
Gastrointestinal Disorders 117 Alcoholism: Biochemical
Food Labels and Health Claims 119 and Metabolic Alterations 169
Recommended Fiber Intake 119 Alcohol in Moderation: The Brighter Side 170
Summary 120 Summary 171
PERSPECTIVE The Flavonoids: Roles in Health and Disease PERSPECTIVE The Role of Lipoproteins and Inflammation
Prevention 122 in Atherosclerosis 173
CHAPTER 5 Lipids 125 CHAPTER 6 Protein 175

Structure and Biological Importance 126 Amino Acid Classification 175
Fatty Acids 126 Structure 175
Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides) 130 Net Electrical Charge 176
Phospholipids 131 Polarity 177
Sphingolipids 133 Essentiality 178
Sterols 133 Sources of Amino Acids 178
CO N T E N T S xi
Digestion 179 Lysosomal Degradation (also called the Autophagic

Stomach 179 Lysosome Pathway) 230
Small Intestine 180 Proteasomal Degradation (also called the Ubiquitin
Absorption 181 Proteasomal Pathway) 230
Intestinal Cell Absorption 181 Changes in Body Mass With Age 231
Extraintestinal Cell Absorption 184 Protein Quality and Protein and Amino Acid
Amino Acid Catabolism 184 Needs 233
Transamination of Amino Acids 186 Evaluation of Protein Quality 233
Deamination of Amino Acids 187 Protein Information on Food Labels 236
Disposal of Ammonia 187 Assessing Protein and Amino Acid Needs 236
Carbon Skeleton/α-Keto Acid Uses 189 Recommended Protein and Amino Acid Intakes 237
Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Aromatic Protein Deficiency/Malnutrition 239
Amino Acids 190 Summary 239
Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Sulfur (S)–Containing PERSPECTIVE Stress and Inflammation: Impact on Protein 241
Amino Acids 194
Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Branched-Chain
Amino Acids 196 CHAPTER 7 Integration and Regulation of
Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Basic Amino Acids 197 Metabolism and the Impact of Exercise 245
Hepatic Catabolism and Uses of Other Selected Energy Homeostasis in the Cell 245
Amino Acids 199 Regulatory Enzymes 247
Protein Synthesis 201 Integration of Carbohydrate, Lipid,
Slow versus Fast Proteins 201 and Protein Metabolism 249
Plant versus Animal Proteins 201 Interconversion of Fuel Molecules 249
Hormonal Effects 201 Energy Distribution among Tissues 251
Amino Acids, Intracellular Signaling, and mTOR 202 The Fed-Fast Cycle 255
Protein Intake, Distribution and Quantity at Meals 202 The Fed State 255
Protein Structure and Organization 203 The Postabsorptive State 256
Functional Roles of Proteins and Nitrogen-Containing The Fasting State 258
Nonprotein Compounds 204 The Starvation State 259
Catalysts 204 Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism 261
Messengers 206 Insulin 262
Structural Elements 206 Glucagon 263
Buffers 206 Epinephrine 263
Fluid Balancers 206 Cortisol 263
Immunoprotectors 207 Growth Hormone 263
Transporters 207 Exercise and Nutrition 264
Acute-Phase Responders 208 Muscle Function 264
Other Roles 208 Energy Sources in Resting Muscle 265
Nitrogen-Containing Nonprotein Compounds 209 Muscle ATP Production during Exercise 265
Interorgan “Flow” of Amino Acids and Fuel Sources during Exercise 267
Organ-Specific Metabolism 218 Summary 270
Intestinal Cell Amino Acid Metabolism 218 PERSPECTIVE The Role of Dietary Supplements in Sports Nutrition
Amino Acids in the Plasma 220 By Karsten Koehler, PhD 271
Glutamine and the Muscle, Intestine, Liver, and
Kidneys 220
Alanine and the Liver and Muscle 221 CHAPTER 8 Energy Expenditure, Body
Skeletal Muscle Use of Amino Acids 222 Composition and Healthy Weight 273
Amino Acid Metabolism in the Kidneys 225 Measuring Energy Expenditure 273
Brain and Accessory Tissues and Amino Acids 227 Direct Calorimetry 273
Catabolism of Tissue Proteins and Protein Indirect Calorimetry 274
Turnover 229 Doubly Labeled Water 276
xii CO N T E N T S
Components of Energy Expenditure 276 Recommended Dietary Allowance 324

Basal and Resting Metabolic Rate 277 Deficiency: Ariboflavinosis 324
Energy Expenditure of Physical Activity 278 Toxicity 324
Thermic Effect of Food 279 Assessment of Nutriture 324
Thermoregulation 279 Niacin (Vitamin B3) 325
Body Weight: What Should We Weigh? 280 Sources 325
Ideal Body Weight Formulas 280 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 326
Body Mass Index 280 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 327
Measuring Body Composition 283 Metabolism and Excretion 329
Field Methods 283 Recommended Dietary Allowance 329
Laboratory Methods 284 Deficiency: Pellagra 329
Regulation of Energy Balance and Body Weight 286 Toxicity 329
Hormonal Influences 286 Assessment of Nutriture 330
Intestinal Microbiota 289 Pantothenic Acid 330
Environmental Chemicals 289 Sources 330
Lifestyle Influences 289 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 332
Health Implications of Altered Body Weight 290 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 332
Metabolic Syndrome 290 Metabolism and Excretion 334
Insulin Resistance 291 Adequate Intake 334
Weight-Loss Methods 291 Deficiency: Burning Foot Syndrome 334
Summary 292 Toxicity 335
Assessment of Nutriture 335
PERSPECTIVE Eating disorders 294
Biotin 335
Sources 335
Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 336
SECTION III Functions and Mechanisms of Action 336
Metabolism and Excretion 339
The Regulatory Nutrients Adequate Intake 340
Deficiency 340
CHAPTER 9 Water-Soluble Vitamins 299 Toxicity 340
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) 303 Assessment of Nutriture 340
Sources 304 Folate 341
Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 305 Sources 341
Functions and Mechanisms of Action 305 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 343
Interactions with Other Nutrients 310 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 344
Metabolism and Excretion 310 Interactions with Other Nutrients 348
Recommended Dietary Allowance 310 Metabolism and Excretion 349
Deficiency: Scurvy 310 Recommended Dietary Allowance 349
Toxicity 311 Deficiency: Megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia 349
Assessment of Nutriture 312 Toxicity 351
Thiamin (Vitamin B1) 312 Assessment of Nutriture 351
Sources 313 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) 352
Metabolism and Excretion 318 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 354
Recommended Dietary Allowance 318 Metabolism and Excretion 356
Deficiency: Beriberi 318 Recommended Dietary Allowance 356
Toxicity 319 Deficiency: Megaloblastic Macrocytic Anemia 356
Assessment of Nutriture 319 Toxicity 357
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 320 Assessment of Nutriture 357
Sources 321 Vitamin B6 358
Metabolism and Excretion 323 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 360
CO N T E N T S xiii
Metabolism and Excretion 363 PERSPECTIVE Antioxidant Nutrients, Reactive Species, and
Recommended Dietary Allowance 363 Disease 416
Deficiency 363
Toxicity 364
Assessment of Nutriture 364 CHAPTER 11 Major Minerals 425
PERSPECTIVE Genetics and Nutrition: The Effect on Folic Acid Needs Calcium 426
and Risk of Chronic Disease by Dr. Rita M. Johnson 365 Sources 426
Digestion, Absorption, and Transport 427
Regulation and Homeostasis 429
CHAPTER 10 Fat-Soluble Vitamins 369 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 432
Vitamin A and Carotenoids 370 Interactions with Other Nutrients 435
Sources 371 Excretion 436
Digestion and Absorption 373 Recommended Dietary Allowance 436
Transport, Metabolism, and Storage 376 Deficiency 436
Functions and Mechanisms of Action 378 Toxicity 437
Interactions with Other Nutrients 385 Assessment of Nutriture 438
Metabolism and Excretion 386 Phosphorus 439
Recommended Dietary Allowance 386 Sources 439
Deficiency 387 Digestion, Absorption, and Transport 439
Toxicity 387 Regulation and Homeostasis 440
Assessment of Nutriture 388 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 441
Vitamin D 389 Excretion 443
Sources 389 Recommended Dietary Allowance 444
Absorption 391 Deficiency 444
Transport, Metabolism, and Storage 391 Toxicity 444
Functions and Mechanisms of Action 393 Assessment of Nutriture 445
Interactions with Other Nutrients 398 Magnesium 445
Metabolism and Excretion 398 Sources 445
Recommended Dietary Allowance 398 Digestion, Absorption, and Transport 446
Deficiency: Rickets and Osteomalacia 398 Regulation and Homeostasis 447
Toxicity 399 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 447
Assessment of Nutriture 400 Interactions with Other Nutrients 448
Vitamin E 401 Excretion 449
Sources 402 Recommended Dietary Allowance 449
Digestion and Absorption 403 Deficiency 449
Transport, Metabolism, and Storage 403 Toxicity 451
Functions and Mechanisms of Action 403 Assessment of Nutriture 451
Interactions with Other Nutrients 406 PERSPECTIVE Osteoporosis and Diet 452
Recommended Dietary Allowance 407
Deficiency 407 CHAPTER 12 Water and Electrolytes 455
Toxicity 407 Water Functions 455
Assessment of Nutriture 407 Body Water Content and Distribution 455
Vitamin K 408 Water Losses, Sources, and Absorption 456
Sources 409 Recommended Water Intake 457
Absorption 409
Water (Fluid) and Sodium Balance 457
Transport, Metabolism, and Storage 409
Osmotic Pressure 457
Functions and Mechanisms of Action 410
Hydrostatic (Fluid/Capillary) Pressure 459
Interactions with Other Nutrients 413
Colloidal Osmotic Pressure 459
Extracellular Fluid Volume and Osmolarity and
Adequate Intake 413
Hormonal Controls 459
Deficiency 414
Sodium 463
Toxicity 414
Sources 463
xiv CO N T E N T S
Absorption and Transport 464 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 510
Functions and Interactions with Other Nutrients 464 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 513
Excretion 464 Interactions with Other Nutrients 515
Adequate Intake, Deficiency, Toxicity, and Excretion 515
Assessment of Nutriture 465 Recommended Dietary Allowance 516
Potassium 466 Deficiency 516
Sources 466 Toxicity 517
Absorption, Secretion, and Transport 466 Assessment of Nutriture 517
Functions and Interactions with Other Nutrients 467 Selenium 518
Excretion 467 Sources 518
Adequate Intake, Deficiency, Toxicity, and Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 519
Assessment of Nutriture 467 Metabolism 520
Chloride 468 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 520
Sources 468 Interactions with Other Nutrients 524
Absorption, Secretion, and Transport 468 Excretion 524
Functions 469 Recommended Dietary Allowance 524
Excretion 469 Deficiency 524
Adequate Intake, Deficiency, Toxicity, and Toxicity 525
Assessment of Nutriture 469 Assessment of Nutriture 525
Acid-Base Balance: Control of Hydrogen Chromium 525
Ion Concentration 469 Sources 526
Chemical Buffer Systems 470 Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 526
Respiratory Regulation 472 Functions and Mechanisms of Action 526
Renal Regulation 472 Excretion 527
Summary 474 Adequate Intake 527
PERSPECTIVE Macrominerals and Hypertension 476
Deficiency 528
Toxicity 528
CHAPTER 13 Essential Trace and Ultratrace Iodine 528
Minerals 479 Sources 528
Iron 479
Sources 480 Interactions with Other Nutrients 531
Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 482 Excretion 532
Functions and Mechanisms of Action 490 Recommended Dietary Allowance 532
Turnover 494 Deficiency 532
Interactions with Other Nutrients 495 Toxicity 533
Excretion 495 Assessment of Nutriture 533
Manganese 534
Deficiency 496
Sources 534
Toxicity 497
Zinc 499
Digestion, Absorption, Transport, and Storage 500 Adequate Intake 536
Functions and Mechanisms of Action 504 Deficiency 536
Interactions with Other Nutrients 507 Toxicity 536
Excretion 507 Assessment of Nutriture 536
Molybdenum 537
Deficiency 508
Sources 537
Toxicity 508
Copper 509
CO N T E N T S xv
Recommended Dietary Allowance 540 Nickel 550

Deficiency 540 Sources 550
Toxicity 540 Absorption, Transport, Storage, and Excretion 550
Assessment of Nutriture 540 Functions and Deficiency 550
PERSPECTIVE Nutrient–Drug Interactions 541 Recommended Intake, Toxicity, and Assessment
of Nutriture 551
Silicon 551
CHAPTER 14 Nonessential Trace and Sources 551
Ultratrace Minerals 543 Absorption, Transport, Storage, and Excretion 552
Fluoride 543 Functions and Deficiency 552
Sources 543 Recommended Intake, Toxicity, and Assessment
Absorption, Transport, Storage, and Excretion 545 of Nutriture 552
Functions and Deficiency 545 Vanadium 552
Recommended Intake, Toxicity, and Assessment Sources 553
of Nutriture 545 Absorption, Transport, Storage, and Excretion 553
Arsenic 546 Functions and Deficiency 553
Sources 546 Recommended Intake, Toxicity, and Assessment
Absorption, Transport, Storage, and Excretion 547 of Nutriture 554
Functions and Deficiency 548 Cobalt 554
Recommended Intake, Toxicity, and Assessment PERSPECTIVE No, Silver is not Another Essential Ultratrace Mineral:
of Nutriture 548 Tips To Identifying Bogus Claims About Dietary Supplements 555
Boron 549
Sources 549 Glossary 557
Absorption, Transport, Storage, and Excretion 549 Index 563
Functions and Deficiency 549
Recommended Intake, Toxicity, and Assessment
of Nutriture 549
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cut off at the battle of the Metaurus, been brutally cast over the
palisades into his own camp in Southern Italy, the first warning that
he had of his brothers having crossed the Alps. And little Mago, who
had been with Hasdrubal up in the fig-tree, where was he now? But
recently dead, also killed like Hasdrubal by the Romans. And he,
Hannibal, what was his own position? That of a disgraced man,
disgraced by the Romans. Oh! how he hated them, how well he
remembered his vow of hatred made with his father in the temple of
Melcareth, of which he could espy the roof yonder. He yearned that
for every Roman he had slain he might have slain ten, ay, might yet
slay ten. And yet he was, he knew it, but here himself in Carthage
solely on the sufferance of the Roman General Scipio, a young man
who had vanquished him in war, and yet one who loved his daughter.
Vainly now did Hannibal wish that he had allowed Elissa to pursue
her voyage to Syracuse after the sea-fight at Locri, and fulfil her
engagement to espouse this Scipio. For he well saw how much
better it would have been for his country. He vainly wished also that
he had not been so severe with Scipio during the interview before
the battle of Zama. But how could he foretell that all the elephants
were going to stampede, or that the Carthaginian levies would prove
such arrant cowards? He cursed the Carthaginians in his heart even
more than the Romans when he thought of it all; but even while
despising his fellow-countrymen he did not despise his native
country, but loved it as much as ever.
Ay! as he looked out and saw the olive groves, the pomegranate
trees, the waving cornfields, the orange trees, the houses, the
marble temples, and the green dancing sea beyond, he felt, indeed,
that he loved his country as much as ever. But never could he have
dreamed that the hour of his return could have been so bitter as the
hour of anguish through which he was then passing. The mighty
warrior thought of his father and the past, the long past of years and
years ago. Then he laid his head upon the cold marble of the
balustrade and wept—wept bitter tears at that very spot where, when
a little boy, his father Hamilcar had bade him look well around and
impress every land-mark, every headland, on his memory. For to this
spot had he not returned—disgraced!
The following morning Hannibal was informed that the Roman
General Scipio wished to see him. He was obliged to repair to the
palace in the suburbs which Scipio occupied. The latter strove to
receive him in a manner not to hurt his dignity, for whatever he might
feel for the other Carthaginian generals, for Hannibal himself he had
the most unbounded respect. A long conference took place between
Hannibal and Scipio in private upon the terms of the treaty about to
be concluded, and Scipio made to him a suggestion, which was
absolutely for his ears alone. It was to the following effect: Although,
so he said, it was now utterly impossible for him, the Roman
General, to modify the general terms of the treaty, which were, he
owned, excessively severe—as, owing to the various acts of
treachery on the part of the Carthaginians, they deserved to be—on
one very important clause Scipio proposed a modification, but upon
one condition only. This clause was that the Roman General and the
Roman army should remain in Carthage at the expense of the
Carthaginians until the whole of the war indemnity should be paid.
This implied a Roman occupation of the country for at least twenty
years to come, for so enormous was the indemnity required it could
not be paid sooner. And after twenty years would they ever go? This
clause Scipio expressed to Hannibal his willingness to forego should
the Carthaginian General give him even now his daughter in
marriage. Under such circumstances Scipio pledged himself to
evacuate Carthage with all his army, and sail for Sicily at once,
leaving the care of protecting Roman interests to his ally Massinissa.
And he vowed, by all the gods of Rome, that, should he once set foot
on Sicilian soil in company with Hannibal’s daughter, not only would
he never again himself set foot upon Carthaginian soil, but that he
would, to the utmost, discourage all future attempts upon Carthage
from any Roman sources.
Hannibal was too astute to allow to appear upon his countenance
the joy that he felt at this proposal. On the contrary, he made
difficulties, talked of Elissa having changed her mind since the battle
of Zama, and being, he now feared, thoroughly averse to Scipio. So
well did he manage matters that Scipio was quite pleased when,
almost as a favour, Hannibal consented in the end to consider the
matter, and promised to speak to Elissa about it. The next morning,
without acquainting Elissa or Maharbal with the subject of his
conversation with Scipio, he requested them both to accompany him
to the temple of the great god Melcareth, there to offer a solemn
sacrifice at the same altar at which he had participated in the
sacrifice with his father Hamilcar.
To the temple of Melcareth the three accordingly proceeded, and
with the most serious and awful rites, offered up, under the
instructions and guidance of an ancient priest, named Himilco, a
most solemn and terrible sacrifice. This old man, Himilco, was the
same who had been a priest in the temple in the time of Hannibal’s
youth, and had known him from a boy. He was now an old man
eighty years of age, with a white beard that reached down to his
knees. His sanctity was most renowned, and he was looked upon,
with reason, as a prophet by all the people. Under his guidance, for
he had doubtless been somewhat, if only partly, prompted in his part
by Hannibal, Maharbal and Elissa each made a most terrible vow,
invoking, in case of failure to observe it, the most awful penalties of
all the gods, to sacrifice themselves to the very last for the good of
their country. The priest now caused them to plunge their arms up to
the elbow in the blood of the sacrifice, and to vow solemnly to be
guided, without question, by Hannibal alone as to what was to be
considered for the good of their country; for the old man told them
that the great god Melcareth was even at that very moment there
present, and pervading all the space in the temple, and that the god
had informed him that Hannibal alone was at this moment the arbiter
of his country’s fate. To disobey him would therefore be death here
and awful damnation hereafter.
While the old man was impressively dictating to the pair the terms
of the prescribed oath, the temple became dark. Sounds of rolling
thunder were heard, and sudden flames flew from the altar to the
roof, to be as suddenly extinguished. There could now be no doubt
about the presence of the mighty god among them. They all fell upon
their faces during his manifestation. At length Hannibal arose, and
most solemnly declared that he had had a vision. That vision was
that he had seen Elissa being joined in marriage to Scipio by the
very high priest now before them. He further said that it had been
revealed to him by the god in his vision that by that means alone
could salvation come to unhappy Carthage, for upon Scipio being
united to Elissa in marriage he would leave Carthage with all his
army, and, he added, that it would be sufficient for Scipio to be
accompanied by Elissa as far as the island of Sicily for the god to lay
a spell upon him under which he would never return to Libyan soil.
Vainly did Maharbal declare to the high priest and to Hannibal that
Elissa was his wife, and his alone.
“Where are thy witnesses?” replied the high priest. “ ’Tis true the
gods did allow a semblance of a marriage between ye, yet had not
the priest my license. And, in token of their displeasure, that priest is
already dead. A marriage without two witnesses is no legal marriage.
Thou sayest that Hannibal was thy witness. One witness is not
enough, oh Maharbal, in Carthage, whatever it may be in Spain or
Italy. Moreover, think of thine awful oath. And is not the great god
Melcareth speaking through Hannibal, whom ye have bound
yourselves to obey?”
Now it was Elissa’s turn to protest. With tears in her eyes she
declared that she was indeed Maharbal’s wife in very sooth, and
could not now possibly give herself to any other man with honour.
“Think of thine oath!” firmly replied the aged priest, “and fear the
anger of the immortal gods. ’Tis thou, Elissa, alone who canst save
thy country; ’tis thou alone who canst withdraw the invader hence.
Land with him but in Sicily and thou shalt be free; but dare thou but
to breathe to him one word, and such an awful curse shall fall, not
only upon thee and Maharbal, but upon thy country and thy father
Hannibal, through thee, that ye had all better have died a thousand
deaths on Zama’s battle-field. Thou must be wed to Scipio by me.
That is thy fate, for I, too, have had a vision. Ah! the terrible gods are
now angry. Submit thyself, proud woman, to their immortal will.”
At this moment the rolling thunder recommenced louder than
before, while the lightning flashes from the altar were more frequent
and more vivid. The scene in the temple was most awful and
impressive, and all, including the aged priest, fell upon their faces.
Elissa hesitated no longer.
“It is the will of the gods!” she muttered. “I must obey.”
“And thou?” inquired the high priest, turning to Maharbal.
“If it be the will of the gods,” he replied, “how can I resist? But I
would that the gods were men that I might fight this matter out with
them at the point of my sword. I could soon show them who was in
the right.”
But, upon Maharbal uttering this awful blasphemy, such a peal of
thunder shook the sacred fane that it seemed as though it would fall.
He now fell upon his face, repentant, for he realised that he was
failing in his vow, and it was indeed evident that the gods were
angry.
Before they all left the temple in fear and trembling, both Maharbal
and Elissa had humbly asked forgiveness of the gods for trying,
against their immortal wishes, to set up their own weak wills, and
had once more vowed, in order to appease them, to consider their
country, and their country only. To confirm this feeling in both their
hearts, the old priest informed them that it would be impious on their
parts to consider themselves any longer as husband and wife, and
that they must separate as such from that moment. For, whether she
would or no, the salvation of her country depended upon Elissa
marrying Scipio. Therefore, with sadness, these twain became once
more strangers to each other at the temple door.
Ten days afterwards the marriage of Elissa with Scipio was
solemnised in that very temple, when the Roman General declared
that he recognised in the high priest him whom he had seen in his
vision. He reminded his bride, with a happy smile, of what he had
written to her; but Elissa’s face wore in return no corresponding glow
of happiness. For so terribly complex were her feelings that she
knew she had no right to be happy, and, had it not been for her vow,
would doubtless have taken her own life. Hannibal had, however,
reminded her that in no wise could she benefit her country by so
doing, and that her duty to Carthage lay in taking Scipio and his
army away from its shores and completely beyond the seas. Once
she had landed there her life was in her own hands. She would
meanwhile have the satisfaction of having obeyed the mandates of
the gods by sacrificing herself upon this occasion.
There were indeed reasons why she should not have married
Scipio, the man whom she really loved, and yet her terrible oath
prevented her from revealing them to him. And Elissa felt it all the
more deeply because she was at heart the very soul of honour.
Upon the same afternoon that the marriage took place did Scipio
and all his army embark for Sicily. He himself and his pale but
beautiful bride were accommodated upon a most luxurious and
stately hexireme. Upon the voyage, which lasted two days, Scipio
could not in any way account for the apparent state of alternate
gaiety and despondency of his bride. She scarcely seemed to know
what she was doing, and despite all the caresses that he showered
upon her, ever seemed to shudder and draw back if inadvertently
she had herself returned but one of them.
Upon landing at Libybæum in Sicily, no sooner had she
disembarked, than, falling on her knees before him, Elissa presented
Scipio with the hilt of a dagger, and, with many bitter tears, told him
all, absolutely without reserve, beseeching him to slay her on the
spot.
At first his fury was so great that he was even about to do so, but
then he mastered himself completely, and his wonted nobility and
greatness of character did not desert him even in this awful crisis.
Scipio dashed the dagger to the ground violently.
“Nay!” he exclaimed, “I will not slay thee, Elissa, for thou art but
like myself, the victim of a cruel, a pitiless fate, and not thyself to
blame. May the gods protect thee in the future as in the past, and
guide thee to do that which is right. As for me, I do forgive thee, for
now I know the truth indeed, which is that thou dost love me most.
But to mine enemy Maharbal do I owe my life thrice over. To him,
therefore, will I return two lives—thine and that of his unborn child.
Farewell, Elissa!—farewell for ever, beloved!”
He kissed her tenderly on the forehead, and thus they parted, to
meet no more in this world, for Scipio sent her back to Carthage that
same day.
But Elissa never held up her head again; she pined, and grew
paler day by day. And when at the expiration of the half-year her son
was born, she died in giving him birth.
Thus perished in all the bloom of her beauty one who was ever a
martyr to duty and to her country’s cause, Elissa, Hannibal’s
daughter.
THE END.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
The available copies of the source text have the following two
defects (illegible words).
(p. 376) “…that Elissa returned when she fir[***] rejoined her father
in his camp…” Use first.
(p. 377) “…that the siege was raised by Scipio [***]r a naval battle
in which the Romans were defeated.” Use after.
If you have access to an intact copy of the text and can confirm
that either of these changes are wrong please contact Project
Gutenberg support.
Minor spelling inconsistencies (e.g. earrings/ear-rings, hunting
party/hunting-party/, praetor/pretors/prætors, etc.) have been
preserved.
Alterations to the text:

Add title and author’s name to cover image.
Punctuation: sentences missing periods, quotation mark pairings,
etc.
[Part I/Chapter III]
Change “they more than equalled in valour and dermination” to
determination.
“Greeks who had fled to Carthage from Lilybœum to escape” to
Lilybæum.
“Could Lutatius Catulus have conquered Lilybœum even had” to
Lilybæum.
“for their long continued neglect of him and all the best” to long-
continued.
[Part II/Chapter II]
“remember, writing now, Oh! Elissa, as a father” to oh.
[Part II/Chapter V]
“He unmasked his battery without futher delay” to further.
“my men will, storm the palace, and, unless they find me” delete
first comma.
[Part III/Chapter IV]
“the heavy armed cavalry men being in the former, two men” to
heavy-armed.
[Part III/Chapter XII]
“shyly responding to the advances of the the Prince Massinissa”
delete one the.
[Part IV/Chapter VI]
“To him then was the Princess Cœcilla offered as his wife” to
Cœcilia.
[Part V/Chapter I]
“after various sieges and conflicts wiih each power in turn” to with.
[Part V/Chapter II]
“magnificent camp, of which the the tents were made of purple”
delete one the.
[End of text]
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Estimated Energy Requirements (EER), Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA),

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SECTION I Cells and Their Nourishment

SECTION II Macronutrients and Their Metabolism

SECTION III The Regulatory Nutrients

Preface xvii Coordination and Regulation of the Digestive

Gluconeogenesis 95 Dietary Sources 136

Prevention 122 in Atherosclerosis 173

CHAPTER 5 Lipids 125 CHAPTER 6 Protein 175

Digestion 179 Lysosomal Degradation (also called the Autophagic

Components of Energy Expenditure 276 Recommended Dietary Allowance 324

Recommended Dietary Allowance 540 Nickel 550

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