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FEMINISM
I N P L AY
eds.kishonna l. gray : gerald voorhees
: emma vossen
Palgrave Games in Context

Series Editors
Neil Randall
The Games Institute
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, ON, Canada

Steve Wilcox
Game Design and Development
Wilfrid Laurier University
Brantford, ON, Canada
Games are pervasive in contemporary life, intersecting with leisure, work,
health, culture, history, technology, politics, industry, and beyond. These
contexts span topics, cross disciplines, and bridge professions.
Palgrave Games in Context situates games and play within such interdisci-
plinary and interprofessional contexts, resulting in accessible, applicable, and
practical scholarship for students, researchers, game designers, and industry
professionals. What does it mean to study, critique, and create games in con-
text? This series eschews conventional classifications—such as academic disci-
pline or game genre—and instead looks to practical, real-world situations to
shape analysis and ground discussion. A single text might bring together pro-
fessionals working in the field, critics, scholars, researchers, and designers. The
result is a broad range of voices from a variety of disciplinary and professional
backgrounds contributing to an accessible, practical series on the various and
varied roles of games and play.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/16027
 Kishonna L. Gray
Gerald Voorhees • Emma Vossen
Editors

Feminism in Play
Gerald Voorhees
Managing Editor
Editors
Kishonna L. Gray Gerald Voorhees
Department of Gender and Women’s Studies Department of Communication Arts
and Communication University of Waterloo
University of Illinois at Chicago Waterloo, ON, Canada
Chicago, IL, USA

Emma Vossen
Department of English Language
and Literature
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, ON, Canada

Palgrave Games in Context

ISBN 978-3-319-90538-9    ISBN 978-3-319-90539-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90539-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018956252

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

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Cover credit: Keith Mclean

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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Acknowledgements

It is a commonplace, but a true one, to start by saying that this book would
not have been possible without the efforts of a great many people. We owe
thanks to the generous colleagues who donated their time and intellectual
energies to help review manuscripts for this volume: Jennifer Whitson, Steve
Wilcox, Betsy Brey, Kim Nguyen, and Rachel Miles.
We would also like to thank our fellow editors who did magnificent work
on the other two volumes in this trilogy. Of course, this book can and does
stand on its own, but it has been enriched by our collaboration with Todd
Harper, Meghan Blythe Adams, and Nick Taylor on the Queerness in Play and
Masculinities in Play anthologies.
We would be remiss to overlook the editorial team at Palgrave Macmillan,
notably Shaun Vigil, whose support made this ambitious project possible, and
Glenn Ramirez for laying out clearly how to make it actual.
Kishonna would like to thank the courageous women inside and around
gaming for their daily sacrifices and for sharing their stories with us. The
world needs to know how dope you are.
Emma would like to thank everyone from First Person Scholar including
faculty advisors Neil Randall, Gerald Voorhees, and Jennifer Whitson. Special
thanks go to my fellow FPS editors and friends Elise Vist, Alexandra Orlando,
Judy Ehrentraut, Betsy Brey, Meghan Adams, Chris Lawrence, Phil Miletic,
Rob Parker, Jason Hawreliak, Michael Hancock, and especially Steve
Wilcox—without all of you I wouldn’t be studying games. I would also like to
thank all my family and friends including my favorite gamer, my brother
Edward. Extra special thanks to my partner Keith and my mother Nancy who
do the daily labour of listening to me complain while making sure I’m safe,
fed, and happy.

v
vi Acknowledgements

Gerald would also like to thank colleagues who provided advice, encour-
agement, criticism, and even resources to help make this project happen.
Vershawn Young, Jennifer Simpson, Jennifer Roberts-Smith, Kim Nguyen,
Neil Randall, Jennifer Jenson, and Suzanne de Castell all deserve thanks, as do
any others I may have neglected to list here. I reserve my most special grati-
tude for Kim and Quinn for their support during this project, but more
importantly for their sustained encouragement to better practice feminism in
my everyday life.
 Contents

1 Introduction: Reframing Hegemonic Conceptions of Women

and Feminism in Gaming Culture   1
Kishonna L. Gray, Gerald Voorhees, and Emma Vossen

Part I Neither Virgin Nor Vixen: Representations of Women   19

2 Women by Women: A Gender Analysis of Sierra Titles by

Women Designers  21
Angela R. Cox

3 The Material Undermining of Magical Feminism in BioShock

Infinite: Burial at Sea  37
James Malazita

4 From Sirens to Cyborgs: The Media Politics of the Female

Voice in Games and Game Cultures  51
Milena Droumeva

5 The Magnificent Memory Machine: The Nancy Drew Series

and Female History  69
Robyn Hope

6 The Sexual Politics of Video Game Graphics  83

Robert Mejia and Barbara LeSavoy

vii
viii Contents

Part II All Made Up: Gendering Assemblages 103

7 Women’s Experiences on the Path to a Career in Game

Development 105
Johanna Weststar and Marie-Josée Legault

8 Rule Makers vs. Rule Breakers: The Impact of Legislative

Policies on Women Game Developers in the Japanese Game
Industry 125
Tsugumi Okabe

9 Sexism and the Wow Girl: A Study of Perceptions of Women

in World of Warcraft 143
Thaiane Oliveira, Reynaldo Gonçalves, Alessandra Maia,
Julia Silveira, and Simone Evangelista

10 With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility: Video Game

Live Streaming and Its Potential Risks and Benefits for Female
Gamers 163
Lena Uszkoreit

Part III Beyond Feminization: Gaming and Social Futures 183

11 Doing/Undoing Gender with the Girl Gamer in

High-Performance Play 185
Emma Witkowski

12 The Magic Circle and Consent in Gaming Practices 205

Emma Vossen

13 Shoot the Gun Inside: Doubt and Feminist Epistemology

in Video Games 221
Elyse Janish
 Contents
   ix

14 Women Agents and Double-Agents: Theorizing Feminine

Gaze in Video Games 235
Stephanie C. Jennings

15 Feminism and Gameplay Performance 251

Emma Westecott

Index 267
 Notes on Contributors

Angela R. Cox received her PhD in English Rhetoric and Composition from the
University of Arkansas, USA in 2016. She grew up playing Nintendo and Sierra
games, unaware that these were “for boys.” Her scholarly interest in games started
while studying at Ohio State University, USA, with some research in fantasy that
quickly grew into research in feminism. She teaches English at Ball State University,
USA.
Milena Droumeva is Assistant Professor of Communication and Sound Studies at
Simon Fraser University, Canada, specializing in mobile technologies, sound and
multimodal ethnography. She has a background in acoustic ecology and works across
the fields of urban soundscape research, sonification for public engagement, as well as
gender and sound in video games. Milena is co-investigator for ReFiG, a SSHRC
partnership grant exploring women’s participation in the games industries and game
culture.
Simone Evangelista is a PhD candidate in the Post-graduate Program in
Communication at Federal Fluminense University, Brazil, and a member of the
Laboratory in Experiences of Engagement and Transformation of Audiences (LEETA).
Reynaldo Gonçalves is a Master’s student in the Post-graduate Program in
Communication at Federal Fluminense University and a member of the Laboratory
in Experiences of Engagement and Transformation os Audiência (LEETA).
Kishonna L. Gray is an assistant professor in the Department of Gender and
Women’s Studies and Communication at the University of Illinois at Chicago,
USA. She is also a faculty associate at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet and
Society at Harvard University, USA. Gray previously served as a MLK Scholar and
Visiting Professor in Women and Gender Studies and Comparative Media Studies at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA.

xi
xii Notes on Contributors

Robyn Hope is a Master’s student in Media Studies at Concordia University, USA,

finishing her thesis under the supervision of Mia Consalvo. Prior to studying at
Concordia, Robyn obtained an undergraduate degree in English and Cinema Studies
at the University of Toronto, Canada. Her academic interests include digital games,
game narratives, and play performance. In her spare time, she practices digital art and
enjoys tabletop role-playing games.
Elyse Janish is a PhD candidate in the Department of Communication at the
University of Colorado Boulder, USA. She researches issues related to gender and
sexuality in digital contexts, focusing lately on the spaces and communities that arise
around video games.
Stephanie C. Jennings is a PhD candidate in the Department of Communication
and Media at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA. Her research focuses on feminist
theory, play, horror films and video games, and histories of witch trials. She also occa-
sionally dabbles in pedagogical theory and games-based learning.
Marie-Josée Legault has taught labor relations at TÉLUQ, Université du Québec à
Montréal (UQAM), Canada, since 1991, where she is also responsible for a graduate
program in HRM in project-based context. She is also an associate professor at the
Laval Faculty of Law and UQAM’s Department of Sociology. She is pursuing research
on regulation of work in project-based environments, among software designers and
video game developers in Canada. She has been responsible for four formally funded
research teams and projects and has a current industry partnership with the
International Game Developers Association to conduct their annual Developer
Satisfaction Survey. She is a member of the Interuniversity Research Centre on
Globalization and Work (CRIMT).
Barbara LeSavoy, PhD is Director of Women and Gender Studies (WGST) at The
College at Brockport, SUNY, USA. She teaches Feminist Theory; Global Perspectives
on WGST; Gender, Race, and Class; and Senior Seminar in WGST. Her research/
publication areas include women’s global human rights, sex and gender in literature
and popular culture, intersectionality and educational equity, and women’s stories as
feminist standpoint. LeSavoy serves as lead faculty for a COIL global classroom link-
ing students at the College at Brockport in NY and Novgorod State University in
Russia and has taught several WGST seminars at the NY Institute of Linguistics,
Cognition, and Culture in St. Petersburg, Russia.
Alessandra Maia acts as Innovation Researcher of the Laboratory of Digital Media
(LMD-PPGCom/Uerj), with a Qualitec Research Scholarship of InovUerj. With a
degree in Game Designer (2017) from Senac Rio, and PhD (2018) and MA (2014)
in Communication from the Post-graduate Program in Communication of the State
University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (PPGCOM/Uerj), Alessandra conducts research
investigating entertainment, especially video games, and the potential for learning
and development of cognitive skills for different areas of social interaction.
 Notes on Contributors
   xiii

James Malazita is Assistant Professor of Science & Technology Studies and of

Games & Simulation Arts & Sciences at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA,
where he is the Founder and Director of Rensselaer’s Tactical Humanities Lab.
Malazita’s research interests include the epistemic infrastructures of computer sci-
ence, design, and the humanities; digital fabrication; the politics of the digital
humanities; game studies; and the synthesizing of humanities and technical educa-
tion. His research has been supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities,
the Popular Culture Association, The New Jersey Historical Commission, and Red
Hat Inc.
Robert Mejia is an assistant professor in the Department of Communication at
North Dakota State University, USA. His research focuses on the relationship
between culture, economics, politics, and technology, and addresses how these factors
affect the operation of race, propaganda, entrepreneurialism, philanthropy, and video
game play. His research has been published in journals and edited collections, such as
Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, Explorations in Media Ecology, Journal
of Virtual Worlds Research, and The Intersectional Internet: Race, Sex, Class, and Culture
Online. He is co-editor with Jaime Banks (West Virginia University, USA) and Aubrie
Adams (California Polytechnic State University, USA) of the 100 Greatest Video
Game Characters and 100 Greatest Video Game Franchises.
Tsugumi Okabe is a PhD candidate at the University of Alberta, Canada, where she
is conducting her SSHRC funded research on detective manga in the Department of
Modern Languages and Cultural Studies. She is co-translator of Game Freaks Who
Play with Bugs – In Praise of the Video Game Xevious and the translator for the PC
game Nagasaki Kitty (http://nagasaki-kitty.ca). Her research on women’s participa-
tion in the Japanese game industry is ongoing. For more information, please visit her
personal website: http://mimiokabe.com.
Thaiane Oliveira is a professor at Federal Fluminense University, Brazil, in the Post-­
graduate Program in Communication and coordinator of the Laboratory of
Investigation in Science, Innovation, Technology and Education (Cite-Lab), which
develops practice research on engagement experiences in the Laboratory in Experiences
of Engagement and Transformation of Audiences (LEETA).
Julia Silveira holds a PhD in Communication from Federal Fluminense University,
Brazil, where she teaches in the Post-graduate Program in Communication and con-
ducts research on gender in digital environments.
Lena Uszkoreit is a postdoctoral fellow in the UXR lab at the University of Ontario,
Canada’s Institute of Technology. She received her PhD in Communication from the
University of Southern California, USA’s Annenberg School for Communication and
Journalism. Her dissertation explored the relationship between viewing and objecti-
fying female Twitch streamers and the perception of female gamers and women in
general. Her favorite games include Portal 2, World of Warcraft, The Sims, and
Overwatch.
xiv Notes on Contributors

Gerald Voorhees is an assistant professor in the Department of Communication

Arts at the University of Waterloo, Canada. His research is on games and new media
as sites for the construction and contestation of identity and culture. In addition to
editing books on gender and digital games, role-playing games, and first-­person
shooter games, Gerald is co-editor of Bloomsbury’s Approaches to Game Studies
book series.
Emma Vossen is an award-winning public speaker and writer with a PhD from the
University of Waterloo, Canada. Her research about gender and games was selected
as the focus of a 50-minute documentary made by CBC Radio and broadcast across
Canada in 2016. Her dissertation examines the sexism girls and women face when
participating in games culture. She is the former Editor-in-Chief of game studies
publication First Person Scholar.
Emma Westecott is Assistant Professor in Game Design and Director of the
game:play lab at the Ontario College of Art & Design (OCAD), University in
Toronto, Canada. She has worked in the game industry for over 20 years in develop-
ment, research, and the academy. She achieved international recognition for working
closely with Douglas Adams as game designer then producer for the best-selling
CD-ROM adventure game, Starship Titanic (1998). Since then, Emma has built up
a worldwide reputation for developing original as well as popular game projects.
Johanna Weststar is Associate Professor of Industrial Relations and Labour Studies
in the DAN Department of Management and Organizational Studies at Western
University, Canada. A primary research topic is project-based workplaces with a focus
on working conditions, worker representation, and workplace regulation in game
development. She also studies pension board governance. Johanna is a member of the
CRIMT research network and a past president of the Canadian Industrial Relations
Association (CIRA).
Emma Witkowski is a senior lecturer at RMIT University, Australia’s School of
Media and Communication. As a socio-phenomenologically informed ethnographer,
her research explores esports cultures, high performance play, gender, and networked
play. She is a board member on the Australian Esports Association and in 2017; she
was a postdoctoral researcher with Locating Media, University of Siegen, Germany,
studying pro-esports teams, coaching, spectatorship, and mega-events. Her current
research explores esports in Australia, and grassroots cultures of involvement.
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 Voice actress sounding out Elizabeth: ‘Putting the body into it’:
source 1 (https://goo.gl/6dzbaj); Lara Croft in Tomb Raider 2013
navigates the environment with breathy moans and pants at the
forefront of gameplay: source 2 (https://goo.gl/gTqqcM)57
Fig. 6.1 Screenshots from Adventure (left) and Pitfall! (right). Courtesy of
the Wikimedia Foundation 88
Fig. 6.2 Screenshots from Beat’em and Eat’em (left) and Philly Flasher (right).
Courtesy of James Rolfe and Mike Matei of Angry Video Game Nerd89
Fig. 6.3 Screenshot from Menace Beach (left) showing Bunny’s decaying
clothes. Courtesy of James Rolfe and Mike Matei of Angry Video
Game Nerd. Screenshot showing Samus Aran without her Power
Suit (right). Courtesy of the Wikimedia Foundation 90
Fig. 6.4 Screenshot from Final Fantasy VII featuring a long shot of Aerith
Gainsborough’s home in the sector 5 slums. The grandeur of this
shot—combined with the relative insignificance of the game
character (bottom left corner) due to the disparate character-to-
screen ratio—encourages the player to pause and become con-
sumed by the exceptional beauty of the game world. Such
moments have become a part of modern gaming since the advent
of the PlayStation, and cannot be thought of as “pauses” or
“deferrals” but rather an essential feature of world building.
Screenshot by first author 92
Fig. 6.5 Aerith Gainsborough from Final Fantasy VII (left) and Lara Croft
from Tomb Raider (right). Regarding the image of Lara Croft, as
we are introduced to her in this sequence, the man in her reflec-
tion states: “what’s a man gotta do to get that kind of attention
from you.” Screenshots by first author 94

xv
xvi List of Figures

Fig. 6.6 The Evolution of Lara Croft’s character models from 1996
to 2013. Tomb Raider Chronicles (TRC [2000]) was the last Tomb
Raider developed solely for PlayStation 1 equivalent platforms;
and it is important to note that while Tomb Raider: Anniversary
(TRA [2007]) and Tomb Raider: Underworld (TRU [2008]) were
developed for PlayStation 3 equivalent platforms, their visual
design was held back by the need to operate on “last generation”
equivalent platforms. Courtesy of Ron from Cloud
Gaming (2014) 95
Fig. 6.7 Lightning from Final Fantasy XIII (left) and Lara Croft from
Tomb Raider (right). Screenshots by author 96
Fig. 7.1 General model of a traditional career pipeline 106
Fig. 7.2 Percentage of class that is women. Source: IGDA DSS 2015 111
Fig. 7.3 Occupational segregation of non-managerial core developer
roles by gender. Source: IGDA DSS 2015 113
Fig. 9.1 Comparative board between male and female respondents 156
Fig. 9.2 Reactions to expression “rape the boss” 157
Fig. 9.3 Gender and safety 157
Fig. 10.1 A female streamer playing League of Legends 168
Fig. 10.2 A male streamer playing League of Legends 168
Fig. 10.3 Alinity’s Twitch profile 171
Fig. 10.4 Hafu’s Twitch profile 173
Fig. 10.5 SeriouslyClara’s Twitch profile 175
Fig. 12.1 Author’s chart 211
 1
Introduction: Reframing Hegemonic
Conceptions of Women and Feminism
in Gaming Culture
Kishonna L. Gray, Gerald Voorhees, and Emma Vossen

Despite the disciplinary norms and institutional investments of games stud-

ies that malign and marginalize critical perspectives (Jensen and de Castell
2009), recent history has proven feminist lenses to be an essential facet in
examining games, gamers, and gaming culture. As Nina Huntemann (2013)
argues, feminist game studies examines how gender, and its intersections
with race, class, sexuality, and so on, is produced, represented, consumed,
and practiced in and through digital games. This volume continues and
extends the project of feminist game studies, examining the varied represen-
tations, practices, and institutions of games and game cultures from a femi-
nist perspective, exploring personal experiences, individual narratives, and
institutional phenomenon inherent in the hegemonic, often patriarchal,
structures of gaming.
Though current events make it all the more pressing, in fact there is a rich,
far-reaching history of feminist theory and games criticism that the essays in
this book build upon. Media scholars have long examined the presumption
that games depict women in a manner that is both polarizing and marginal-
izing: as either sexual objects or damsels in distress (Gailey 1993; Dietz 1998).

K. L. Gray ()
University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA
G. Voorhees • E. Vossen
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada

© The Author(s) 2018 1

K. L. Gray et al. (eds.), Feminism in Play, Palgrave Games in Context,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90539-6_1
2 K. L. Gray et al.

The continued under-representation (and erasure) of female game characters

has been documented (Williams et al. 2009), as has the tendency to depict
women in a sexualized manner with either less clothing (Beasley and Standley
2002; Taylor 2006), absurd or idealized body proportions (Schröder 2008;
Martins et al. 2009), or narrative and discursive positioning as sexually pro-
miscuous (MacCallum-Stewart 2009). Nevertheless, some studies examining
the depiction of women in digital games have drawn attention to an increas-
ingly diverse set of portrayals of female gender identity. One of the first game
characters to warrant this attention is Lara Croft, the titular character of the
Tomb Raider series. There is a small but significant body of feminist media
criticism that argues that Croft functions (alternatively or simultaneously
depending on the author) as an object of sexual desire, a femme fatale, a
model of empowered womanhood, or a masculine style of femininity
(Schleiner 2001; Kennedy 2002; Mikula 2003; Jansz and Martis 2007). Stang
(2017) and Voorhees (2016) each finds an extremely capable and heroic figure
in Ellie, the teenage girl from The Last of Us, who is nevertheless disempow-
ered not through sexualization but rather by the game’s positioning of her as
a daughter-figure to Joel, the other, and primary, playable character. Still,
despite the proliferation of increasingly capable heroines, Summers and
Miller’s (2014) recent study of game advertising demonstrates that while the
more traditional depiction of the virtuous damsel in distress is less common
in games, female game characters are simultaneously increasing sexualized.
As feminist game studies has developed, a number of focal points have
emerged, notably: women and marginalized peoples’ erasure or unfavorable
representation in games, exclusion and harassment in game cultures and com-
munities, and participation in the game industry and other sites of produc-
tion. More recently, it has become increasingly clear that the intersecting
facets of these problems (which we discuss in detail in the next section) and
the intersectional identities of the people who experience the greatest precar-
ity in games and game cultures are vital sites of inquiry.
This volume aims to continue to propel feminist theory and criticism of
games forward in the midst of the social, political, and material reality that is
#Gamergate, Black Lives Matter, the Trump administration, and the general
social trend toward a more reactionary, conservative politics of exclusion. As
the chapters within this volume reveal, these conditions may shift the grounds
of the complex conversations we continue to have about women within
games, women and girls as gamers, and women within the industry, but they
do not fundamentally redefine it.
 Introduction: Reframing Hegemonic Conceptions of Women… 3

Patriarchy and Power in Games

Whether visible in the persistent color line that shapes the production, dis-
semination, and legitimization of dominant stereotypes within the industry
itself, or in the dehumanizing and hypersexual representations commonplace
within virtual spaces, video games encode the injustices that pervade society
as a whole. According to Williams, Martins, Consalvo, and Ivory (2009),
gaming is a space defined by the “systematic over-representation of males,
white and adults and a systematic under-representation of females, Hispanics,
Native Americans, children and the elderly.” Similarly, rape culture, inscrip-
tions of toxic masculinity, and homophobia are ubiquitous to gaming; the
criminalization of black and brown bodies and the profiling of black and
brown gamers is foundational to gaming culture; and the injustices that pre-
dominate in gaming culture also sit at the core of the political, social, and
communal arrangements of mainstream US culture. In this way, games pro-
vide both training grounds for the consumption of narratives and stereotypes
and opportunities to become instruments of hegemony. As many of the essays
argue in Nick Taylor and Gerald Voorhees’ edited volume, Masculinities in
Play, they offer spaces of white male play and pleasures, and create a virtual
and lived reality where white maleness is empowered to police and criminalize
the Other. Games provide opportunity to both share and learn the language
of racism, sexism, and the grammar of empire, all while perpetuating cultures
of violence and privilege (Gray 2012, 2014; Nakamura 2009; Leonard 2003,
2006, 2009, 2014).
No contemporary example of this hegemony is more salient than
#Gamergate. #Gamergate gained media attention through misogynist and
racist attacks on women gamers, critics, and developers. Followers of #gamer-
gate attempted to justify their campaign as a move to restore ethics in video
game journalism, resulting in hostile and violent environments for women,
queer folk, and people of color. This is exceptional, given the way that “gam-
ing capital” has been distributed, historically, in a manner that overwhelm-
ingly centers heteronormative, white, masculinity, equating this perspective
and identity as the default player (Consalvo 2008). However, it is not new.
For women, the sexually marginalized, and people of color, this treatment
reaches far back beyond this moment, and stems from certain elements fun-
damental to games and game cultures.
While #GamerGater may have been the “straw that broke the camel’s
back,” it certainly does not represent the origins of harassment experienced by
the marginalized in gaming communities. Kishonna Gray’s foundational
4 K. L. Gray et al.

work explores harassment campaigns and hostile environments experienced

by women in console gaming since these spaces first went live (Gray 2012).
She also explored the experiences of racial and ethnic minorities within gam-
ing communities for failing to conform to the White male norm (Gray 2014).
Additional work is emerging showcasing the disturbing realities for women,
people of color, and queer gamers within streaming communities (Gray
2016). These examples rightfully demonstrate that #Gamergate did not create
a culture of toxicity; rather, this reality is central to gaming contexts.
Prior to #Gamergate, harassment in gaming has been excused, minimized,
and outright overlooked as a matter of boys and men too immature to under-
stand the consequences of their vitriol. But now that the average age of a
gamer is 31 (Shaw 2012), there is an increased urgency to acknowledge that
the normalizing of this behavior is inherent to the patriarchal culture of digi-
tal games. This culture extends beyond the gamers; the devaluation of margin-
alized bodies is present in the games that we play, the developers who create
them, and the culture and institutions that sustain them—making them all
complicit in the continued oppression of the marginalized.
The attention generated by another recent controversy also highlights that
women in games have always experienced marginalization and erasure. During
the design and development of Assassin’s Creed: Unity, Ubisoft developers
revealed that they viewed the task of creating a female playable character for
the game’s multiplayer mode with customizable avatars to be an unreasonable
burden. Their comments are illustrative of their stance:

It would have doubled the work on those things. And I mean it’s something the
team really wanted, but we had to make a decision… It’s unfortunate, but it’s a
reality of game development. (Williams 2014)

Concerned gamers immediately took to Twitter to critique the legitimacy of

the notion that creating a female character was double the work using the
hashtag #WomenAreTooHardToAnimate. One commenter rightfully stated
that, “unless you are killing her, buying her or selling her, @Ubisoft can’t ani-
mate a woman you can actually play #womenaretoohardtoanimate.” In short,
this “inability” to animate women is a part of a larger culture of exclusion in
which women gamers have always found themselves situated.
This blatant sexism has become a highly visible antagonist in an increas-
ingly dominant narrative about the importance of diversity in the content and
even production of games. But it bears repeating that #Gamergate doesn’t
reflect some aberration or new subculture within gaming—this is the culture
in gaming. This is our society. As Lisa Nakamura (2012) states, masculinity is
 Introduction: Reframing Hegemonic Conceptions of Women… 5

performed by the display of technical knowledge, and gaming is the most

recent iteration of this form of social display. Gaming itself becomes a mark
of privilege within symbolic discourse. Following Adrienne Shaw (2012),
through this project we endeavor to continue the work of dispelling the myth
and imagery of the “dominant White, heterosexual, male, teen gamer image”
(29). Arguments for the practical and economic necessity of this inclusion
aside, we embrace the ethical, political imperative of this act: the inclusion of
women and other marginalized people in games and game cultures is funda-
mentally about justice, parity, and access to the common (media) experiences
that connect us.
It is in this context that we view, with some uncertainty and even concern,
the growing trend of development studios claiming to be willing to respond
to calls for creating more diverse content, diversifying teams, and creating a
more diverse industry. For an industry that actively and intentionally centers
men, such efforts will no doubt be troubled by entanglements with entrenched
cultural values masquerading as objective, neutral practices. History is replete
with instances where the rhetoric and ideals of inclusion are contradicted by
the very policies and practices intended to instantiate them. One such effort
to challenge the preeminence of masculinity in the game industry and carve
out women’s spaces in games, which peaked in the 1990s and early 2000s, is
the “pink games” movement. While still pursued by some, in addition to fos-
tering greater uptake and involvement by women, “pink games” also re-­
entrench a number of essentialist stereotypes about women and girls (Cassell
and Jenkins 1998). Aside from this, this collective history of games is largely
the story of women as passive, casual, or non-essential participants within a
culture dominated by endless narratives of men and hegemonic masculinity.
Thus, one of the imperatives of this book is highlight how women have been
and continue to be vital to the making of games, the building of community
around them, and constructing cultures of play.
Despite efforts to involve more women in games, the promotion and mar-
keting discourses employed by the gaming industry are also complicit in rein-
forcing the assumption that women are intermittent, casual participants while
men are perpetual hardcore players (Chess 2010). During a press release for
the Xbox 360 at E3 in 2005, the new console was pitched to appeal to the
casual gamer (Plunkett 2011, para. 1). This included a comparison between
two fictitious users, one named Striker and the other Velocity Girl. Velocity
Girl is described as someone for whom gaming is not a “central part of her
existence”:
Another random document with
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 He sank into his chair, debating his problem. There was in Rodrigo a
strange intuition about women. His success with them had, apart from his
physical attractiveness, consisted in an ability, far greater than that of the
usual predatory male, to understand them. He thought now that he
understood Mary. In a quiet, conventional way she had fallen in love with
John Dorning, he reasoned from his recent observation of them, and John
with her. Their love was still in its budding state. Unless it were interfered
with, it would grow steadily into a steadfast union. John would ask her to
marry him and she would assent. Her love would be mingled with pity, but
yet it would be as near pure love as modern marriages usually subsist upon.

"Unless it were interfered with." In this last meeting with Mary, brief as
it had been, Rodrigo detected something that would ordinarily have set his
heart to exulting. Mary's coming to him, her eagerness to extend her
personal greetings alone, her face and manner, her desire to remain longer
and her obvious disappointment at his rather, curt reception of her, had
convinced him of something that, never addicted to false modesty, he did not
hide.

"Unless it were interfered with." Well, he took a sad little triumph in

assuring himself, he could interfere if he chose, successfully interfere. Just
now, when she was here, he could have, if he had yielded to his selfish
desire, swept her into his arms and made her his forever. He could have
killed that budding love for John within her by appealing to the force of her
original love for himself, by rushing her off her feet with his superior
strength and feeling. He was sure of this.

Mary Drake still loved him, was the refrain that kept pounding in his
heart. He could have her now if he wanted to take her. If he remained near
her, he would not be able to keep his love silent. He would have to tell her.
Every fibre of his being would revolt against the sacrifice. He would not be
strong enough to give her up to John, though John needed her, loved her,
depended upon her to keep him out of the dark shadows that had so
tragically enveloped him.

No, Rodrigo concluded, he would have to go away—and stay away. Go

away at any cost. Go away as soon as he decently could.
 Having spent the day in the details of securing his baggage and
unpacking it amid the familiar scenes of the Park Avenue apartment, he met
John and had dinner with him at their favorite little French restaurant.
Afterward, in the softly lighted living-room of the apartment, over their
pipes they talked.

"I have been wondering," John said, "why you came back so suddenly,
without warning us. I had been expecting a letter or cablegram for weeks. I
had begun to worry about you. You left no forwarding address with me.
And, of course, I would not have asked you to cut short your vacation
anyway. Poor chap, you were tired out, and, to tell you the truth, you don't
look particularly chipper now."

"I received a letter from Mary. She spoke of certain 'developments.'"

Rodrigo said doggedly, anxious to have it over. "She urged me to return and
talk with you."

John asked quietly, "Did she say what those 'developments' were?"

"No."

John smiled, "Wonderful, competent Mary! She insisted I write you to

come back. I refused, because I felt you were coming soon anyway. She,
strangely enough, was not so sure. So she wrote you herself? Well, perhaps
she was wise."

"And the 'developments' she spoke of?" Rodrigo's voice sounded very
small.

John tapped the ashes from his pipe, looked at his friend gravely.
"Rodrigo," he said, "I have found out the truth about Elise."

Rodrigo started with the unexpectedness of the answer, a chaos of

thoughts running suddenly riot within him.

"I know that she is dead," John continued. "And I know that you know
she is dead, that you have always known it. But wait, I will begin at the
beginning! You will remember that I spoke to you before you left about
selling my house in Millbank. Well, I kept putting that off because I dreaded
to enter the place. You see, I had left everything exactly the way it was
before—she went. While my mental condition was still uncertain, I did not
want to disturb things. I felt that the shock of going there, seeing her room,
her clothes, everything that my happiness, my life, had depended upon,
would be too much for me. Even after I came back from California feeling
so much improved, I kept putting it off. I dreaded the ordeal. But three or
four weeks after you left, I pulled myself together, told myself that those
foolish fears were nonsense, a sign even that I had gone a little mad. So I
went over there, and I spent two whole days in the house, alone. I put my
house of memories in order. And, Rodrigo, I found out many terrible things."

Rodrigo, his eyes fixed intensely upon his friend, shuddered.

But John went on calmly. "Well, I had to break into her desk, among
other things, and I found there letters, love-letters from other men. Among
them were letters from you, showing me, Rodrigo, that she loved you and
that you had had the courage to repulse her love. My idol crashed then and
there down to the floor, and the whole world went black again. Rodrigo,
there in that room alone I came as near going crazy as I hope ever to again in
this world. I cursed God for letting me see that He had made life so hideous.
I wanted to die. But I came through it. I think that it was those letters of
yours—those letters were striking blows for my happiness—that brought me
through. That is twice you have saved my life, Rodrigo—once from Rosner
and once—from myself."

Rodrigo rose and cried suddenly, "Don't say that, John! I can't bear it!"

"Please, Rodrigo," John restrained him. "I understand. You have always
tried to protect my happiness. You tried to keep me from knowing that I
loved a woman who never existed. But she is dead now. After I came out of
that house and went back to my father's and told them what I had found, they
confessed to me that anonymous notes had come to me soon after Elise's
disappearance hinting that I might learn something about her if it were
possible to identify the victims of the Van Clair fire. My father and Warren
had kept those notes from me. They felt it was time now to tell me about
them. And it became clear to me. The woman who died in the Van Clair fire
was Elise."
 Rodrigo cried out, the secret wrenched from him almost without his
volition, "I know she was! And I sent her there that night, John! You'll
remember you went to Philadelphia and wired me to take the midnight train
and meet you the next morning. Well, she came to me that night in the
office, where I was working on the estimates. I was in a reckless mood,
disappointed—but no matter, it was no excuse for me. I sent her to the Van
Clair, intending to follow. Oh, I didn't go. I got my senses back, thank God!
But I was responsible. I thought I had grown so good, and I knifed my best
friend." He lifted his pale, stricken face to John, pleading for mercy, "I've
been through an ordeal too, John. The difference between us is that—I
deserved it and—the ordeal is going to go right on. Even though I've torn
this awful secret out of me at last!"

John Dorning was silent, stunned, trying to realize the significance of his
friend's confession.

And again Rodrigo cried out, pleadingly, "I couldn't tell you before,
John. I had to let you go on driving yourself crazy from anxiety about her. I
thought it would kill you to know. Mary begged me to tell you—but I
couldn't." Tears were in his eyes. His strong body was shaken with emotion.
Suddenly he flung himself at John's feet and no longer tried to control his
weeping.

And finally John spoke, and Rodrigo wonderingly looked up and saw
that John had a little smile on his face, that he was laying gentle hands upon
the recumbent back. "I knew something was tearing at you," John said, "And
I'm glad you told me about—Elise. Knowing her now for what she really
was, I can forgive you, Rodrigo. None of us are perfect. God knows I have
found that out. You were my friend even that night of the Van Clair—in the
critical moment you were my friend. And you always will be."

Dorning helped Rodrigo to his feet, made him smile again, took his
hand. Rodrigo clutched it, crying, "John, you are a saint. If you hadn't
forgiven me, if you—" He turned his head and went slowly back to his chair.

"I told Mary what I had discovered about Elise," said John. A light of
understanding burst upon him with these words. He ventured, "Rodrigo, had
you told her already of—the Van Clair?"
 Rodrigo nodded affirmatively.

John was thinking rapidly.

"What did Mary say?" he asked.

"She called me a coward for not telling you the truth, sick as you were.
She said she could not—respect me, if I didn't."

John said almost to himself, "Mary thought a lot of you, Rodrigo—does

yet."

"She loves you," Rodrigo answered softly, but he could not quite keep
the despair out of his voice.

John glanced at him understandingly at last, but he said nothing. When,

after a long silence, they resumed the conversation, Dorning strove to
change its subject.

"I wish you'd take it easy for a while at the shop, Rodrigo. You don't look
well," he said gently. "Rosner has things quite well in hand. We miss you,
but I do want you well and perfectly happy when you come back to work."

"I was thinking of returning to Europe," Rodrigo replied, attempting to

make his statement as matter-of-fact as possible.

"Not because of anything you have said here to-night, I hope," John
urged at once. "I want you to believe me, old man, that your confession
hasn't made any difference. It's rather relieved my mind, to tell the truth. I
suspected something was up that I did not yet know about. It's made me love
you more than ever, drawn us closer."

"I appreciate that, John. I feel the same way," Rodrigo said.

Nevertheless, he told himself, he was going away. He would see Mary;

deliberately kill her love for him, throw her into John's arms. John needed
her. John deserved happiness. It was the least he could do for John. But it
was not a confession of weakness, his wanting to see Mary again. He must
see her, must do something that would convince her he was unworthy of her
love, that would strangle any desire in her to keep his memory alive after he
was gone. He must disappear from her heart as well as from her sight.

CHAPTER XX

Rodrigo walked slowly into the offices of the Italian-American Line late
the next morning, like a man lately condemned to the scaffold, and booked
passage on a vessel sailing for Naples the following Saturday. Then he took
the subway uptown.

The warm sun drenching the exhibition rooms of Dorning and Son, the
cheerful good mornings of the clerks, mocked at his mood. He summoned a
masking smile on his face and held it while he opened the door of John's
office and strode in. Mary was sitting beside John at the latter's desk, their
heads quite close together. They had been talking confidentially, almost
gayly. Their faces sobered as they looked up at the intruder. It seemed a
warning to Rodrigo that he must go through with his program. The faint
hope, conceived the night before, that the "developments" Mary had written
him about, concerned the discovery of Elise's treachery only and had nothing
to do with an announcement of a troth between Mary and John, vanished. It
was unmistakable. They loved each other. It showed in the quick, warning
glance that passed between them as he entered, in the way they almost
sprang apart at the sight of a third person.

They greeted him warmly enough, and almost immediately John

departed on the excuse of a conference with Henry Madison. Rodrigo took
the seat that his partner had vacated. He did not have to urge Mary to
remain.

His voice simulated a careless nonchalance as he smiled at her and said,

"I hadn't a chance hardly to say a word to you yesterday, Mary."

"That wasn't my fault," she pouted. He was surprised to discover that

Mary could pout. He thought she had never looked more adorable. Sophie,
Rosa, Elise—never in their prime had they been as beautiful as Mary.

"Did you enjoy your vacation?" she asked unexpectedly.

"Very much," he replied, smiling as if in memory. "You know, Mary,

there's no use pretending—I've never changed. I found it out when I got
abroad. I can't play the hermit. It isn't in me. Over here, with you around,
perhaps, I can hold myself in leash. But I am not like you or John, like
Americans, at heart. There is something in my blood. I was torn up
physically and emotionally when I left, and I had to forget somehow. That
isn't an excuse, of course, but it may explain things to you a little. I—I sank
into the old rut over there, Mary. The different environment, the different
sort of women, the liquor, everything." He flung out his hands hopelessly, in
a continental gesture.

"You saw some of your old friends?" she asked quietly.

"Many of them. And they were unchanged too. It was the same old story.
I met a girl in Naples whose father had once blackmailed me for an affair
with her—and now I suppose he'll be blackmailing me over again. In
London, I ran across Sophie Binner. You remember Sophie? We became
quite good friends again. She seems to be my sort. I'm what you called me—
a coward." He sighed, and watched her face.

But her face, strangely enough, did not flinch. She asked him in the same
quiet voice, "You are trying to tell me that you are the same man you were
that first day here, when you tried to play sheik with me, flirted with me?"

He shrugged his shoulders.

"I shouldn't think you would have come back here—after playing fast
and loose all over Europe, after betraying the trust John and I put in you."

"I came in response to your letter," he said with some dignity.

"Nevertheless, you shouldn't have come in that case. You should have
stayed with your—friends."
 "I know. You are right," he said. "And I am going back to—them. I
booked my passage this morning. I am sailing in a week for Italy, and this
time I am not coming back."

She started. Her face lost its imperturbability. She said, "And that is all
you have to say to me?"

He leaned toward her, his throat filling with a storm of words. But then
he fell back, lowering his head. "Yes," he said in a low voice. "That is all—
that and—please think as well as you can of me, Mary. And go on—loving
John and taking care of him."

Her lips were twitching a little now. "Do you want to know what I really
think of you?" she asked suddenly.

He raised his tired eyes, his eyes that were saying what his lips were
sealed against, and he nodded his head.

She suddenly left her chair and came to him, laid her hands upon his
shoulders, and said clearly and proudly, "I think that you are a terrible fibber.
I think you have a crazy notion that John and I are in love. And I know this
—I love you, Rodrigo, and you are never going to leave me again."

And then he reached out and clutched her fiercely, devouringly into his
arms, kissed her again and again, crying her name pitifully like a baby. And
when at last he, still holding her tightly, raised her face so that he could look
at it and prove he was not dreaming, he saw that she too was weeping.

He cried, "Mary! Mary! Oh, my dear," again and again. And again and
again he kissed her.

Finally he let her go to adjust her disheveled hair and clothes into some
semblance of order. She smiled at him and asked, "How could you think I
could love anybody but you—coward or no coward? Oh, I found out while
you were gone how foolish I was ever to risk losing you. I lay awake
reviling myself that I had sent you away—yes, I did send you. And I had to
have you back—or dash over to Europe and search for you."

"But John?" he asked. "I thought John and you——"

 "I love John too, but as a brother. I always have. And he has felt the same
towards me. But you—oh, my poor, poor boy!" He seized her greedily again,
and his lips were upon hers as a knock sounded upon the door. He released
her, looked at her so guiltily that she laughed aloud.

"It is only John," she said happily. "He knows—about us. He confirmed
my suspicions that you were torturing yourself with this silly idea that he
and I were in love. He even foretold that you would pretend to be the bold,
bad man of old. John is wise, you see, wiser even than you. But not half so
——"

And then John walked in and read their faces at a glance.

CHAPTER XXI

But, after all, Rodrigo sailed for Italy the next Saturday. Though he had
changed his booking from a single to a double cabin and the passenger list
read: The Count and Countess Rodrigo di Torriani.

John Dorning, looking almost as radiant as the bride and groom, saw
them off at the pier. For a long time they stood chatting on the deck of the
great vessel together, these three young people amid the throng of waving,
shouting tourists. When the warning blasts sounded from the smokestack
whistle, John whispered banteringly to Rodrigo, "This time you will not call
upon any of your ex-lady friends, eh? Rosa or Sophie—you bet I was glad to
get that good news of Sophie. Well, cable me when you land. And please
come back on schedule. You are leaving Dorning and Son terribly
handicapped, you know—my two best partners away at once." He kissed
Mary and pressed Rodrigo's hand, and hurried down the gangplank. He
stood there, a thin, but sturdy figure, waving to them while the great ship
backed out into the channel and pointed her bow toward the east.

"John Dorning is the finest of all the men that ever lived," Rodrigo said
solemnly.
 "Almost," Mary replied.

Gliding through the magic moonlight over a mirror-like sea, they sat
very close to each other that evening in deck-chairs, and she said to him, at
the end of a long conversation, "And that is why I love you most, Rodrigo—
because you have conquered yourself."

"And so has good old John," he replied.

"Yes, so has John. And both you—and I—have found joy because of
that. It's the only way to win real happiness."
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