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Historical Geology 8e
Evolution of Earth &
Life Through Time

Reed Wicander
Central Michigan University

James S. Monroe
Emeritus, Central Michigan University

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Historical Geology: Evolution of Earth and © 2016, 2013, Cengage Learning
Life Through Time, Eighth Edition
WCN: 02-200-203
Reed Wicander, James S. Monroe
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About the Authors

Reed Wicander
Reed Wicander is a geology professor at Central Michigan University, where he
teaches physical geology, historical geology, prehistoric life, and invertebrate pale-
ontology. He has coauthored numerous geology textbooks with James S. Monroe.
His main research interests involve various aspects of Paleozoic palynology, specifi-
cally the study of acritarchs, a subject on which he has published many papers. He

Courtesy of Melanie G. Wicander


is past president of the American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists, current
president of the Commission Internationale de Microflore du Paléozoique, and former
councillor of the International Federation of Palynological Societies.

James S. Monroe
James S. Monroe is professor emeritus of geology at Central Michigan University,
where he has taught physical geology, historical geology, prehistoric life, and stratig-
raphy and sedimentology since 1975. He has coauthored numerous textbooks with
Reed Wicander and has interests in Cenozoic geology and geologic education. Now
retired, he continues to teach geology classes for Osher Lifelong Learning Institute,
an affiliate of California State University, Chico, and leads field trips to areas of
geologic interest.

James S. Monroe

iii

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Brief Contents

Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth 1

Chapter 2 Minerals and Rocks 18

Chapter 3 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory 38

Chapter 4 Geologic Time: Concepts and Principles 65

Chapter 5 Rocks, Fossils, and Time: Making Sense of the Geologic Record 84

Chapter 6 Sedimentary Rocks: The Archives of Earth History 107

Chapter 7 Evolution: The Theory and Its Supporting Evidence 130

Chapter 8 Precambrian Earth and Life History: The Hadean and the Archean Eon 151

Chapter 9 Precambrian Earth and Life History: The Proterozoic Eon 171

Chapter 10 Early Paleozoic Earth History 192

Chapter 11 Late Paleozoic Earth History 213

Chapter 12 Paleozoic Life History: Invertebrates 238

Chapter 13 Paleozoic Life History: Vertebrates and Plants 257

Chapter 14 Mesozoic Earth History 278

Chapter 15 Life of the Mesozoic Era 300

Chapter 16 Cenozoic Earth History: The Paleogene and Neogene Periods 322

Chapter 17 Cenozoic Earth History: The Quaternary Period 344

Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era 363

Chapter 19 Primate and Human Evolution 386

Epilogue 402

Appendix A English-Metric Conversion Chart 409

Appendix B Classification of Organisms 410

Appendix C Mineral Identification 415

Appendix D A Refresher on Structural Geology 418

Glossary 422

Answers to Multiple-Choice Review Questions 429

Index 430

iv

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Contents

1 The Dynamic and 3 Plate Tectonics:


Evolving Earth 1 A Unifying Theory 38

Introduction 2 Introduction 39
What Is Geology? 4 Early Ideas About Continental Drift 39
Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift Hypothesis 40
Historical Geology and the Formulation of Theories 4
What Is the Evidence for Continental Drift? 41
Origin of the Universe and Solar System and Earth’s
Continental Fit 41
Place in the Cosmos 4
Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain Ranges 41
Origin of the Universe—Did It Begin with a Big Bang? 4
Glacial Evidence 41
Our Solar System—Its Origin and Evolution 6
Fossil Evidence 42
Perspective Exoplanets 8
Earth’s Magnetic Field 44
Earth—Its Place in Our Solar System 10
Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading 45
Why Earth Is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet 10
Plate Tectonic Theory 12 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory 46
Organic Evolution and the History of Life 12 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries 48
Divergent Boundaries 48
Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism 13
Perspective Plate Boundaries, Earthquakes,
How Does the Study of Historical Geology and Tsunami 49
Benefit Us? 14
An Example of Ancient Rifting 50
Summary 16 Convergent Boundaries 52
Recognizing Ancient Convergent Plate Boundaries 54
2 Minerals and Rocks 18 Transform Boundaries 55
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes 55
Introduction 19
How Are Plate Movement and Motion Determined? 55
Matter—What Is It? 20
Elements and Atoms 20 The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics 57
Bonding and Compounds 20 Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building 59
Minerals—The Building Blocks of Rocks 21 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Life 59
How Many Minerals Are There? 22
Plate Tectonics and the Distribution
Rock-Forming Minerals and the Rock Cycle 23
of Natural Resources 60
Igneous Rocks 23 Petroleum 60
Composition and Texture 24 Mineral Deposits 61
Classifying Igneous Rocks 25 Summary 62
Sedimentary Rocks 27
Sediment Transport, Deposition, and Lithification 27
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 27
4 Geologic Time:
Metamorphic Rocks 29
What Causes Metamorphism? 30 Concepts and Principles 65
Metamorphic Rock Classification 32 Introduction 66
Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle 34 How Is Geologic Time Measured? 66
Economic Geology 34 Early Concepts of Geologic Time and Earth’s Age 67
Perspective The Industrial Minerals 35 Perspective The Anthropocene: A New Geologic
Summary 35 Epoch? 68

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James Hutton and the Recognition of Geologic Time 70 Geometry of Sedimentary Rocks 115
Lord Kelvin and a Crisis in Geology 71 Fossils—The Biologic Content of Sedimentary Rocks 115
Modern View of Uniformitarianism 71 Depositional Environments 116
Relative Dating Methods 71 Continental Environments 116
Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating 71 Transitional Environments 117
Marine Environments 119
Numerical Dating Methods 72
Atoms, Elements, and Isotopes 73 Interpreting Depositional Environments 124
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives 73 Paleogeography 125
Sources of Uncertainty 75
Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs 77
Summary 127
Other Radioactive Isotope Pairs 77
Fission-Track Dating 78
Radiocarbon and Tree-Ring Dating Methods 78 7 Evolution:
Geologic Time and Climate Change 79 The Theory and Its Supporting Evidence 130
Summary 81
Introduction 131
Evolution: What Does It Mean? 131
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck’s Ideas About Evolution 133
5 Rocks, Fossils, and Time: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace on Evolution 133
Making Sense of the Geologic Record 84 What Is the Significance of Natural Selection? 134
Mendel and the Birth of Genetics 135
Introduction 85
Mendel’s Experiments 135
Stratigraphy 86 Genes and Chromosomes 136
Vertical Stratigraphic Relationships 86
The Modern View of Evolution 136
Lateral Relationships—Facies 88
What Brings About Variation? 137
Marine Transgressions and Regressions 88
Speciation and the Rate of Evolution 138
Extent, Rates, and Causes of Marine Transgressions
Divergent, Convergent, and Parallel Evolution 139
and Regressions 90
Mosaic Evolution and Evolutionary Trends 140
Fossils and Fossilization 91 Cladistics and Cladograms 141
How Do Fossils Form? 92 Extinctions 143
Fossils and Relative Time 95
What Kinds of Evidence Support Evolutionary
The Relative Geologic Time Scale 95 Theory? 143
Stratigraphic Terminology 97 Classification—A Nested Pattern of Similarities 144
Stratigraphic Units Defined by Their Content 97 Biologic Evidence That Supports Evolution 145
Biogeography 146
Perspective Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado 99
Stratigraphic Units Expressing or Related Fossils: What Do We Learn From Them? 147
to Geologic Time 100 Perspective Building a Dinochicken 148
Correlation 101 Missing Links—Are They Really Missing? 148
The Evidence—A Summary 148
Numerical Dates and the Relative Geologic
Time Scale 103 Summary 149
Summary 105

8 Precambrian Earth
6 Sedimentary Rocks: and Life History:
The Archives of Earth History 107 The Hadean and the Archean Eon 151

Introduction 108 Introduction 152


Sedimentary Rock Properties 108 What Happened During the Hadean? 153
Composition and Texture 109 The Faint Young Sun Paradox 155
Sedimentary Structures 109 Archean Earth History 155
Perspective The Remarkable Boulders at Rock City Shields, Platforms, and Cratons 155
and Mushroom Rock State Park, Kansas 114 Archean Rocks 156

vi Contents

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Greenstone Belts 156 Early Paleozoic Evolution of North America 197
Evolution of Greenstone Belts 158
The Sauk Sequence 198
Archean Plate Tectonics and the Origin of Cratons 158
The Cambrian of the Grand Canyon Region: A Transgressive
The Atmosphere and Hydrosphere 160 Facies Model 198
How Did the Atmosphere Form and Evolve? 160 Perspective The Grand Canyon—A Geologist’s
Perspective The Terrestrial Planets Paradise 200
and Plate Tectonics 161
The Tippecanoe Sequence 201
The Hydrosphere—Earth’s Surface Waters 162
Tippecanoe Reefs and Evaporites 202
Life—Its Origin and Early History 163 The End of the Tippecanoe Sequence 205
The Origin of Life 164
The Appalachian Mobile Belt and the Taconic
Submarine Hydrothermal Vents and the Origin of Life 165
Orogeny 206
Earth’s Oldest Known Organisms 165
Early Paleozoic Mineral Resources 208
Archean Mineral Resources 167
Summary 210
Summary 168

11 Late Paleozoic Earth


9 Precambrian Earth History 213
and Life History:
Introduction 214
The Proterozoic Eon 171
Late Paleozoic Paleogeography 214
Introduction 172 The Devonian Period 215
Proterozoic History of Laurentia 172 The Carboniferous Period 215
Laurentia During the Paleoproterozoic 173 The Permian Period 215
Mesoproterozoic Accretion and Igneous Activity 175 Late Paleozoic Evolution of North America 218
Mesoproterozoic Orogeny and Rifting 175 The Kaskaskia Sequence 218
Meso- and Neoproterozoic Sedimentation 176 Reef Development in Western Canada 218
Proterozoic Supercontinents 177 Black Shales 218
Ancient Glaciers and Their Deposits 179 Glaciation 220
Paleoproterozoic Glaciers 179 The Late Kaskaskia—A Return to Extensive Carbonate
Glaciers of the Neoproterozoic 179 Deposition 220

The Evolving Atmosphere 181 Perspective Hydraulic Fracturing: Pros and Cons 221
The Great Oxygenation Event 181 The Absaroka Sequence 223
Proterozoic Life 181 What Are Cyclothems and Why Are They Important? 225
Eukaryotic Cells Evolve 182 Cratonic Uplift—The Ancestral Rockies 227
Endosymbiosis and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 184 The Middle Absaroka—More Evaporite Deposits and
The Dawn of Multicelled Organisms 184 Reefs 227
Neoproterozoic Animals 185 History of the Late Paleozoic Mobile Belts 227
Proterozoic Mineral Resources 186 Cordilleran Mobile Belt 227
Ouachita Mobile Belt 230
Perspective Banded Iron Formation: From Mine
Appalachian Mobile Belt 231
to Steel Mill 188
What Role Did Microplates and Terranes Play in the
Summary 189 Formation of Pangaea? 233
Late Paleozoic Mineral Resources 233
Summary 235
10 Early Paleozoic Earth
History 192
Introduction 193 12 Paleozoic Life History:
Continental Architecture: Cratons and Mobile Belts 193 Invertebrates 238

Paleozoic Paleogeography 194 Introduction 239


Early Paleozoic Global History 195 What Was the Cambrian Explosion? 239

Contents vii

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The Emergence of a Shelly Fauna 240 15 Life of the Mesozoic Era 300
The Present-Day Marine Ecosystem 241
Introduction 301
Paleozoic Invertebrate Marine Life 242
Cambrian Marine Community 242
Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton 301
Perspective Trilobites—Paleozoic Arthropods 244 Aquatic and Semiaquatic Vertebrates 303
Fishes 303
The Burgess Shale Biota 246
Amphibians 304
Ordovician Marine Community 248
Silurian and Devonian Marine Communities 250 Plants—Primary Producers on Land 304
Carboniferous and Permian Marine Communities 251 The Diversification of Reptiles 304
Mass Extinctions 252 Archosaurs and the Origin of Dinosaurs 305
The Permian Mass Extinction 254 Dinosaurs 306
Warm-Blooded Dinosaurs? 311
Summary 254
Flying Reptiles 312
Mesozoic Marine Reptiles 312
Crocodiles, Turtles, Lizards, and Snakes 313

13 Paleozoic Life History: The Origin and Evolution of Birds 313


Perspective Mary Anning’s Contributions
Vertebrates and Plants 257
to Paleontology 314
Introduction 258 The Origin and Evolution of Mammals 315
Vertebrate Evolution 258 Cynodonts and the Origin of Mammals 315
Mesozoic Mammals 317
Fish 259
Mesozoic Climates and Paleobiogeography 317
Amphibians—Vertebrates Invade the Land 265
Mass Extinctions—A Crisis in Life History 318
Evolution of the Reptiles—The Land Is Conquered 266
Summary 320
Plant Evolution 269
Silurian and Devonian Floras 270
Late Carboniferous and Permian Floras 272
16 Cenozoic Earth History:
Perspective Using Palynology to Address Geologic
and Environmental Issues 274 The Paleogene and Neogene Periods 322

Summary 275 Introduction 323


Cenozoic Plate Tectonics—An Overview 324
Cenozoic Orogenic Belts 325
14 Mesozoic Earth History 278
Alpine–Himalayan Orogenic Belt 325
Circum-Pacific Orogenic Belt 327
Introduction 279 North American Cordillera 329
The Breakup of Pangaea 279 Laramide Orogeny 329
The Effects of the Breakup of Pangaea on Global Climates Cordilleran Igneous Activity 331
and Ocean Circulation Patterns 281 Basin and Range Province 333
Mesozoic History of North America 282 Colorado Plateau 334
Rio Grande Rift 335
Continental Interior 282 Pacific Coast 335
Eastern Coastal Region 282 The Continental Interior 336
Gulf Coastal Region 284 Perspective Devils Tower National Monument,
Western Region 285 Wyoming 337
Mesozoic Tectonics 286 Cenozoic History of the Appalachian Mountains 338
Mesozoic Sedimentation 290
North America’s Southern and Eastern Continental
Perspective Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona 292 Margins 338
What Role Did Accretion of Terranes Play in the Growth Gulf Coastal Plain 338
of Western North America? 295 Atlantic Continental Margin 341
Mesozoic Mineral Resources 296 Paleogene and Neogene Mineral Resources 341
Summary 297 Summary 342

viii Contents

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17 Cenozoic Earth History: The Meat Eaters—Carnivorous Mammals 374
The Ungulates, or Hoofed Mammals 375
The Quaternary Period 344 Giant Land-Dwelling Mammals—Elephants 378
Giant Aquatic Mammals—Whales 379
Introduction 345
Pleistocene Faunas 380
Pleistocene and Holocene Tectonism
Ice Age Mammals 380
and Volcanism 345
Pleistocene Extinctions 381
Tectonism 345
Volcanism 346 Intercontinental Migrations 383
Pleistocene Stratigraphy 347 Summary 384
Terrestrial Stratigraphy 347
Deep-Sea Stratigraphy 347
Onset of the Ice Age 349
Climates of the Pleistocene and Holocene 349
19 Primate and Human
Glaciers—How Do They Form? 351 Evolution 386
Glaciation and Its Effects 351 Introduction 387
Glacial Landforms 352
What Are Primates? 387
Perspective Glaciers and Global Warming 353
Prosimians 387
Changes in Sea Level 354
Glaciers and Isostasy 355 Anthropoids 388
Pluvial and Proglacial Lakes 356 Hominids and Hominins 390
What Caused Pleistocene Glaciation? 358 Australopithecines 390
The Milankovitch Theory 358 The Human Lineage 395
Short-Term Climatic Events 360 Perspective Discovery of a 1.8 Million-Year-Old Skull
at Dmanisi, Georgia, Sheds New Light on Early Homo
Glaciers Today 360
Evolution 396
Quaternary Mineral Resources 361
Summary 400
Summary 361

Epilogue 402

18 Life of the Cenozoic Era 363


Appendix A
English-Metric Conversion Chart 409
Introduction 364 Appendix B
Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton 364 Classification of Organisms 410
Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate 366 Appendix C
Cenozoic Birds 368 Mineral Identification 415

The Age of Mammals Begins 368


Appendix D
Perspective Fossil Forests 369
A Refresher on Structural Geology 418

Monotremes and Marsupial Mammals 370 Glossary 422


Diversification of Placental Mammals 370
Answers to Multiple-Choice Review Questions 429
Paleogene and Neogene Mammals 372
Index 430
Small Mammals—Insectivores, Rodents, Rabbits,
and Bats 372
A Brief History of the Primates 374

Contents ix

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Preface

Earth is a dynamic planet that has changed continuously Instead of emphasizing individual, and seemingly
during its 4.6 billion years of existence. The size, shape, and unrelated, events, we seek to understand the underly-
geographic distribution of the continents and ocean basins ing causes of why things happened the way they did, and
have changed through time, as have the atmosphere and how all of Earth’s systems and subsystems are interrelated.
biota. As scientists and concerned citizens, we have become Using this approach, students will gain a better under-
increasingly aware of how fragile our planet is and, more standing of how everything fits together and why events
importantly, how interdependent all of its various systems occurred in a particular sequence.
and subsystems are. Because of the nature of the science, all historical geol-
We have also learned that we cannot continually pol- ogy textbooks share some broad similarities. Most begin
lute our environment and that our natural resources are with several chapters on concepts and principles, followed
limited and, in most cases, nonrenewable. Furthermore, by a chronological discussion of Earth and life history.
we are coming to realize how central geology is to our In this respect, we have not departed from convention.
everyday lives. For these and other reasons, geology is one We have, however, placed greater emphasis on basic con-
of the most important college or university courses a stu- cepts and principles, their historical development, and
dent can take. their importance in deciphering Earth history: in other
Historical geologists are concerned with all aspects of words, how do we know what we know? By approaching
Earth and life history. They seek to determine what events Earth history in this manner, students come to understand
occurred during the past, place those events into an orderly Earth’s history as part of a dynamic and complex integrated
chronological sequence, and provide conceptual frame- system, and not as a series of isolated and unrelated events.
works for explaining such events. Equally important is
using the lessons learned from the geologic past to under-
stand and place in context some of the global issues facing
the world today, such as depletion of natural resources, Features in the Eighth
global climate warming, and decreasing biodiversity. Thus,
what makes historical geology both fascinating and rel-
Edition
evant is that, like the dynamic Earth it seeks to understand, Just as Earth is dynamic and evolving, so too is Historical
it is an exciting and ever-changing science in which new Geology: Evolution of Earth & Life Through Time. The eighth
discoveries and insights are continually being made. edition has undergone significant rewriting and updating,
Historical Geology: Evolution of Earth & Life Through resulting in a book that is still easy to read, yet contains a
Time, eighth edition, is designed for a one-semester geology high level of current information. The new edition features
course and is written with students in mind. One of the prob- many new photographs and figures, as well as numerous new
lems with any introductory science course is that students Perspectives, all of which are designed to help students maxi-
are overwhelmed by the amount of material that must be mize their learning and understanding of their planet’s his-
learned. Furthermore, most of the material does not seem to tory. Drawing on the comments and suggestions of reviewers
be linked by any unifying theme and does not always appear and users of the book, we have expanded and retained many
to be relevant to their lives. This book, however, is written of the features that were successful in the previous edition.
to address that problem in that it shows, in its easy-to-read
style, that historical geology is an exciting science, and one ■■ The Chapter Objectives outline at the beginning of
that is increasingly relevant in today’s world. each chapter has been retained to alert students to the
The goals of this book are to provide students with key points that the chapter will address.
an understanding of the principles of historical geology ■■ Chapter 2 (Mineral and Rocks), which provides the

and how these principles are applied in unraveling Earth’s necessary background for those students who are
history. It is our intent to present the geologic and bio- unfamiliar with minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle,
logic history of Earth, not as a set of encyclopedic facts has been retained, as well as Appendix C on Mineral
to memorize, but rather as a continuum of interrelated Identification.
events reflecting the underlying geologic and biologic ■■ A new Perspective on “The Industrial Minerals” has
principles and processes that have shaped our planet and been added to Chapter 2, which previously didn’t
life upon it. have a Perspective.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
■■ Chapter content has been extensively updated and between physical and biologic events, and the fact that Earth
rewritten to (1) help clarify concepts, (2) emphasize is a complex, dynamic, and evolving planet whose history is
underlying processes, and (3) make the material more best studied by using a systems approach.
exploratory. This book was written for a one-semester course in
■■ An added emphasis has been placed on global climate historical geology to serve both majors and non-majors in
warming throughout the text, with both new material geology and in the Earth sciences. We have organized His-
added and previous sections rewritten and updated. torical Geology: Evolution of Earth & Life Through Time,
■■ Eleven of the eighteen previous Perspectives are new, eighth edition, into the following informal categories:
and many of the previous eight are rewritten and ■■ Chapter 1 reviews the principles and concepts of
updated. geology and the three themes this book emphasizes.
■■ New, bold, and dramatic photos have been added to The text is written at an appropriate level for those
open eleven of the nineteen chapters. In addition, students taking historical geology with no prerequi-
numerous new images have been added to the text of sites, but the instructor may have to spend more time
each chapter, and many figures have been updated. expanding some of the concepts and terminology dis-
■■ The Review Questions section at the end of each chap- cussed in Chapter 1.
ter has been changed to five multiple-choice ques- ■■ Chapter 2, “Minerals and Rocks,” can be used to
tions and five short-essay questions. Question #10 in introduce those students who have not had an intro-
a number of the chapters asks the student to interpret ductory geology course to minerals, rocks, and the
a photograph or illustration and apply the lessons rock cycle, or as a review for those students that have
learned from that chapter to the image. A significant had such a course. In addition to a new Perspective
number of the questions have been rewritten or are titled “The Industrial Minerals,” a new section on
new. Answers to all of the multiple-choice questions economic geology has been added to call attention to
are provided at the back of the book. minerals and rocks as resources.
■■ The Epilogue has been updated. The Epilogue is ■■ Chapter 3 explores plate tectonics, which is the first
designed to tie together current issues with the histor- major theme of this book. Particular emphasis is
ical perspective of geology presented in the previous placed on the evidence substantiating plate tectonic
nineteen chapters. theory, why this theory is one of the cornerstones
■■ Based on user comments, a new Appendix D, titled of geology, and why plate tectonic theory serves as
“A Refresher on Structural Geology” has been added a unifying paradigm in explaining many apparently
to help students review the many structural features unrelated geologic phenomena.
discussed in the text. ■■ The second major theme of this book, the concepts

It is our strong belief that the significant rewriting and and principles of geologic time, is examined in Chap-
updating done in the text, as well as the addition of new ter 4. The Perspective “The Anthropocene: A New
and dramatic photos and figures, have greatly improved Geologic Epoch?” shows how humans’ impact on
the eighth edition of Historical Geology: Evolution of Earth Earth might show up in the geologic record, possibly
& Life Through Time. We think that these changes and necessitating a new geologic epoch: the Anthropocene.
enhancements make this textbook easier to read and com- ■■ Chapter 5 expands on the theme of geologic time by

prehend, as well as making it a more effective teaching tool integrating it with rocks and fossils. A new Perspective
that engages students in the learning process, and thereby titled “Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado” calls atten-
fostering a better understanding of the material and how it tion to the geological and cultural aspects of the park.
relates to Earth today. ■■ Depositional environments are sometimes covered

rather superficially (perhaps with little more than


a summary table) in some historical geology text-
Text Organization books. However, Chapter 6, “Sedimentary Rocks: The
As in the previous editions, we develop three major themes Archives of Earth History,” is completely devoted to
in this textbook that are essential to the interpretation and this topic, with a reworked section on sedimentary
appreciation of historical geology. These themes are intro- structures and a new Perspective; it contains sufficient
duced early and reinforced throughout the book. The themes detail to be meaningful while avoiding an overly
are plate tectonics (Chapter 3), a unifying theory for interpret- detailed discussion more appropriate for advanced
ing much of Earth’s physical history and, to a large extent, its courses.
biologic history; time (Chapter 4), the dimension that sets ■■ The third major theme of this book, organic evolu-

historical geology apart from most of the other sciences; and tion, is examined in Chapter 7. In this chapter, the
evolutionary theory (Chapter 7), the explanation for inferred theory of evolution is covered, as well as its support-
relationships among living and fossil organisms. Additionally, ing evidence. It has been updated with new material
we have emphasized the intimate interrelationship existing including a new Perspective.

Preface xi

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
■■ Precambrian time—fully 88 percent of all geologic of an interesting aspect of historical geology or geo-
time—is sometimes considered in a single chapter logic research pertinent to that chapter.
in other historical geology textbooks. In this book, ■■ Each of the chapters on geologic history in the second
however, Chapter 8 is devoted to the geologic and half of this book contains a final section on mineral
biologic histories of the Hadean and Archean Eon, resources characteristic of that time period. These
whereas Chapter 9 covers the same topics for the Pro- sections provide applied economic material of interest
terozoic Eon. Both chapters contains new Perspectives, to students.
with some of the previous Perspectives material being ■■ The end-of-chapter materials begin with a concise
incorporated into the text. Furthermore, both chap- review of important concepts and ideas in the Summary.
ters have undergone major updating based on the lat-
■■ The Important Terms, which are printed in boldface
est research from this period of Earth history.
type in the chapter text, are listed at the end of each
■■ Chapters 10 through 19 constitute our chronological chapter for easy review, along with the page number
treatment of the Phanerozoic geologic and biologic where that term is first defined. A full Glossary of
history of Earth. These chapters are arranged so that important terms appears at the end of the text.
the geologic history of an era is followed by a discus-
■■ The Review Questions are another important feature
sion of the biologic history of that era. We think that
of this book. They include five multiple-choice ques-
this format allows easier integration of life history with
tions with answers, as well as five short-essay ques-
geologic history. All 10 of these chapters have under-
tions, some of which require interpretation of an
gone updating, new Perspectives, many new figures,
image, and are related to the principles and material
and a discussion on glaciers and global warming.
presented in the chapter. Many of both types of ques-
■■ The Epilogue summarizes the major topics and tions are new in each chapter of this eighth edition.
themes of this book, with an updated and added
■■ The global paleogeographic maps that illustrate in
emphasis on global climate warming.
stunning relief the geography of the world during vari-
In these chapters, there is an integration of the three ous time periods have been retained in this edition.
themes of this textbook, as well as an emphasis on the These maps enable students to visualize what the world
underlying principles of geology and how they have helped looked like during the time period being studied and
us decipher Earth’s history. We have found that presenting thus add a visualization dimension to the text material.
the material in the order just discussed works well for most ■■ As in the previous editions, end-of-chapter summary
students. We also know, however, that many professors tables are provided for the chapters on geologic and
prefer an entirely different order of topics, depending on biologic history. These tables are designed to give an
the emphasis in their course. Therefore, we have written overall perspective of the geologic and biologic events
this book so that instructors can present the chapters in that occurred during a particular time interval and to
whatever order suits the needs of a particular course. show how these events are interrelated. The emphasis
in these tables is on the geologic evolution of North
America. Global tectonic events and sea-level changes
Chapter Organization are also incorporated into these tables to provide
All chapters have the same organizational format as follows: global insights and perspective.
■■ Each chapter opens with a photograph relating to the
chapter material, many of which are new and dra-
matic, followed by an Outline of the topics covered, Ancillary Materials
and a list of Chapter Objectives that alerts students to
the learning-outcome objectives of the chapter. We are pleased to offer a full suite of text and multimedia
products to accompany the eighth edition of Historical
■■ An Introduction follows that is intended to stimulate
Geology: Evolution of Earth & Life Through Time.
interest in the chapter and show how the chapter
material fits into the larger geologic perspective.
Many of the Introductions have been rewritten and For Instructors
updated in this edition.
Cognero Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is
■■ The text is written in a clear, informal style, making it
a flexible, online system that allows you to:
easy for students to comprehend.
■■ Numerous color diagrams and photographs comple- ■■ author, edit, and manage test bank content from mul-
ment the text and provide a visual representation of tiple Cengage Learning solutions
the concepts and information presented. ■■ create multiple test versions in an instant

■■ Each chapter contains a Perspective, many of which ■■ deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom or wher-
are new to this edition, presenting a brief discussion ever you want

xii Preface

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Instructor Companion Site Everything you need for your Michael Dalman, Blinn College
course in one place! This collection of book-specific lecture Chris Dewey, Mississippi State University
and class tools is available online via www.cengage.com/login.
Dean A. Dunn, University of Southern Mississippi
Access and download PowerPoint presentations, images,
instructor’s manual, videos, and more. Mike Farabee, Estrella Mountain Community College
Chad Ferguson, Bucknell University
Robert Fillmore, Western State College of Colorado
For Students Michael Fix, University of Missouri, St. Louis
Earth Science MindTap for Historical Geology MindTap Richard Fluegeman, Jr., Ball State University
is a new approach to highly personalized online learning.
Beyond an eBook, homework solution, digital supple- Annabelle Foos, University of Akron
ment, or premium website; MindTap is a digital learning Sarah Fowell, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
platform that works alongside your campus LMS to deliver Heather Gallacher, Cleveland State University
course curriculum across the range of electronic devices Susan Goldstein, University of Georgia
in your life. MindTap is built on an “app” model allowing
enhanced digital collaboration and delivery of engaging Richard Gottfrief, Frederick Community College
content across a spectrum of Cengage and non-Cengage Joseph C. Gould, University of South Florida
resources. Bryan Gregor, Wright State University
Thor A. Hansen, Western Washington University
Richard D. Harnell, Monroe Community College
Acknowledgments Rob Houston, Northwestern Michigan College
Paul D. Howell, University of Kentucky
As the authors, we are, of course, responsible for the orga-
Amanda Julson, Blinn College
nization, style, and accuracy of the text, and any mistakes,
omissions, or errors are our responsibility. The finished Jonathan D. Karr, North Carolina State University
product is the culmination of many years of work during Lanna Kopachena, Eastfield College (Dallas County
which we received numerous comments and advice from Community College District)
many geologists who reviewed parts of the text. We wish William W. Korth, Buffalo State College
to express our sincere appreciation to the many users of
Niranjala Kottachchi, Fresno City College
the seventh edition who generously provided us with many
helpful comments that have led to the improvements seen in R. L. Langenheim, Jr., University of Illinois at Urbana-
this eighth edition. Champaign
We would also like to thank the reviewers of the previous Steve LoDuca, Eastern Michigan University
editions. Their comments and suggestions resulted in Ntungwa Maasha, College of Coastal Georgia
many improvements and pedagogical innovations, making
L. Lynn Marquez, Millersville University
this book a success for students and instructors alike.
George F. Maxey, University of North Texas
Paul Belasky, Ohlone College
Michael McKinney, University of Tennessee at Knoxville
Allen I. Benimof, College of Staten Island
Glen K. Merrill, University of Houston-Downtown
Stuart Birnbaum, University of Texas, San Antonio
Arthur Mirsky, Indiana University, Purdue University at
Claudia Bolze, Tulsa Community College Indianapolis
Thomas W. Broadhead, University of Tennessee at Knoxville Billy Morris, Georgia Highlands College
Paul Buchanan, Kilgore College Pamela Nelson, Glendale Community College
Donald Burt, Arizona State University Christine O’Leary, Wallace State Community College
Mark J. Camp, University of Toledo N. S. Parate, HCC-NE College, Pinemont Center
James L. Carew, College of Charleston William C. Parker, Florida State University
James F. Coble, Tidewater Community College Mark W. Presley, Eastfield College (Dallas County Com-
Mitchell W. Colgan, College of Charleston munity College District)
Bruce Corliss, Duke University Anne Raymond, Texas A&M University
William C. Cornell, University of Texas at El Paso G. J. Retallack, University of Oregon
John F. Cottrell, Monroe Community College Mark Rich, University of Georgia
Rex E. Crick, University of Texas at Arlington Scott Ritter, Brigham Young University

Preface xiii

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Gary D. Rosenberg, Indiana University, Purdue Univer- questions over the years concerning a multitude of topics.
sity at Indianapolis We are also grateful for the generosity of the various agen-
Barbara L. Ruf, University of Georgia cies and individuals from many countries that provided
photographs.
Michael Rygel, SUNY, Potsdam
Special thanks must go to Trudy Brown, Content
W. Bruce Saunder, Bryn Mawr College Development Services Manager, who initiated this eighth
Steven Schimmrich, SUNY, Ulster County Community edition, to Aileen Berg, Product Manager, our Content
College Developer, Michael B. Kopf, and Malvine Litten, Produc-
William A. Smith, Charleston Southern University tion and Composition, all of whom not only kept us on
task but encouraged us throughout its revision. We would
Ronald D. Stieglitz, University of Wisconsin, Green Bay
also like to thank Pam Galbreath for the fresh design, as
Michelle Stoklosa, Boise State University well as acknowledging Carol Samet, Content Project Man-
Edmund Stump, Arizona State University ager, for all her help. We also thank Marianne Miller for
David Sunderlin, Lafayette College her copyediting skills and appreciate her help in improving
our manuscript.
Donald Swif, Old Dominion University
Because historical geology is largely a visual science, we
Carol M. Tang, Arizona State University extend thanks to the artists at Precision Graphics, Graphic
Jane L. Teranes, Scripps Institution of Oceanography World, Pre-Press PMG, and Lachina Publishing Services,
Michael J. Tevesz, Cleveland State University who were responsible for much of the art program. We
also thank the artists at Magellan Geographix, who ren-
Matthew S. Tomaso, Montclair State University
dered many of the maps, and Dr. Ron Blakey, who allowed
Art Troell, San Antonio College us to use his global paleogeographic maps.
Robert A. Vargo, California University of Pennsylvania As always, our families were very patient and encour-
Shawn Willsey, College of Southern Idaho aging when most of our spare time and energy were
devoted to this book. We thank them for their continued
Mark A. Wilson, College of Wooster
support and understanding during the writing and revi-
We also wish to thank our current and former col- sions of these eight editions.
leagues Kathy Benison, Richard V. Dietrich, Eric Johnson,
Reed Wicander
David J. Matty, Jane M. Matty, Wayne E. Moore, Sven
James S. Monroe
Morgan, Bruce M. C. Pape, and Stephen D. Stahl, for
providing us with photographs and answering our many

xiv Preface

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Planet Observer/Universal Images Group/Getty Images

True color satellite image of Asia (partly in shadow), the Arctic ice cap, and the Sun. In this book, we examine Earth and its history as a
1
system of interconnected components that interact with each other. The atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are four
of Earth’s major subsystems that are visible in this image. The complex interactions among these subsystems and Earth’s interior have
resulted in a dynamically changing planet since its origin 4.6 billion years ago.

The Dynamic and Evolving Earth


Outline
Introduction Earth—Its Place in Our Solar System

What Is Geology? Why Earth Is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet


Historical Geology and the Formulation of Theories Plate Tectonic Theory

Origin of the Universe and Solar System and Earth’s Organic Evolution and the History of Life
Place in the Cosmos Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism
Origin of the Universe—Did It Begin with a Big Bang?
How Does the Study of Historical Geology Benefit Us?
Our Solar System—Its Origin and Evolution
Summary
Perspective Exoplanets

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Chapter Objectives short order by animals with skeletons and then by ani-
At the end of this chapter, you will have learned that mals with backbones.
Until about 450 million years ago, Earth’s landscape
• Earth is a complex, dynamic planet that has continuously was essentially barren and devoid of color. At about that
evolved since its origin some 4.6 billion years ago.
time, however, plants and animals began moving from
• Earth can be viewed as an integrated system of interconnected their home in the seas and oceans to take up residency
components that interact and affect one another in various on land. Viewed from above, Earth’s landmasses took on
ways. new hues and colors as different life-forms began inhabit-
• Theories are based on the scientific method and can be tested ing the terrestrial environment. From this point on, Earth
by observation and/or experiment. will never be the same as plants, insects, amphibians, rep-
tiles, birds, and mammals made the land their home. Near
• The universe is thought to have originated approximately
the end of our film, humans will evolve and we will see
14 billion years ago with a Big Bang, and the solar system and
how their activities greatly impact the global ecosystem.
planets evolved from a turbulent, rotating cloud of material
surrounding the embryonic Sun. It seems only fitting that the movie’s final image will be
Earth as a shimmering blue-green oasis outlined against
• Earth consists of three concentric layers—core, mantle, and the black void of space and a voiceover saying, “To be con-
crust—and this orderly division resulted during Earth’s early tinued.”
history. Every good movie has a theme, and the major theme
• Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology, and it revolu- of The History of Earth is that Earth is a complex, dy-
tionized the science. namic planet that has changed continuously since its
• The theory of organic evolution provides the conceptual frame-
origin some 4.6 billion years ago. Furthermore, because
work for understanding the evolution of Earth’s fauna and flora. of the epic nature of our movie, three interrelated sub-
themes run throughout The History of Earth. The first
• An appreciation of geologic time and the principle of uniformi- is that Earth’s outermost part is composed of a series of
tarianism are central to understanding the evolution of Earth moving plates (plate tectonics) whose interactions have
and its biota.
affected the planet’s physical and biological history.
• Geology is an integral part of our lives. The second is that Earth’s biota has evolved or changed
throughout its history (organic evolution). The third is
that the physical and biological changes that occurred
did so over long periods of time (geologic or deep time).
Introduction These three interrelated subthemes are central to our
understanding and appreciation of our planet’s history,
A major benefit of the space age has been the ability to look as told in our imaginary movie, and as discussed in this
back from space and view our planet in its entirety. We are book.
able to see not only the beauty of our planet, but also its fra- By viewing Earth as a whole—that is, thinking of it
gility. Even though we did not witness it firsthand, we can as a system—we not only see how its various compo-
still tell the story of Earth’s long and turbulent 4.6-billion- nents are interconnected, but can also better appreciate
year history by deciphering the clues preserved in its geo- its complex and dynamic nature. The system concept
logic record. So let’s tell that story in a full-length feature makes it easier for us to study a multifaceted subject,
film we’ll call The History of Earth. such as Earth, because it divides the whole into smaller
In this movie, we will see a planet undergoing remark- components that we can easily understand without los-
able change as continents move about its surface. As a ing sight of how the separate components fit together as
result of these movements, ocean basins will open and a whole. In the same way, you can think of this book
close and mountain ranges will form along its continen- as a large, panoramic landscape painting. Each chapter
tal margins. Oceanic and atmospheric circulation patterns fills in the details of the landscape, thereby enhancing
will shift in response to the moving continents, sometimes the overall enjoyment and understanding of the entire
causing massive ice sheets to form, grow, and then melt painting.
away. At other times, extensive swamps or vast interior A system is a combination of related parts that in-
deserts will appear. teract in an organized manner. We can thus consider
We will also witness the first living cells evolving Earth as a system of interconnected components, or sub-
from a primordial organic soup sometime between 4.4 systems, that interact and affect each other in many dif-
billion years ago, when Earth was cool enough to sup- ferent ways. The principal subsystems of Earth are the
port life, and 3.5 billion years ago, which is the oldest atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, mantle,
fossil record of life. Cells with a nucleus will make their and core ( Figure 1.1). The complex interactions among

first appearance around 1.2 billion years ago, and not these subsystems result in a dynamically changing planet
long thereafter, multicelled soft-bodied animals will be- in which matter and energy are continuously recycled
gin populating the world’s oceans, followed in relatively into different forms. For example, the movement of

2 Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Atmosphere

Copyright and Photograph


by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
Atmospheric gases and
precipitation contribute to the
weathering of rocks.
Evaporation, condensation, Plant, animal, and human
and precipitation transfer water activity affect the composition
between the atmosphere and of atmospheric gases.
hydrosphere, influencing Atmospheric temperature and
weather and climate and the precipitation help to determine
distribution of water. the distribution of Earth’s biota.

Plants absorb and transpire water. Biosphere


Water is used by people for domestic,
Copyright and Photograph

Copyright and Photograph


by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi


agricultural, and industrial uses.

Water helps determine abundance,


Hydrosphere diversity, and distribution of
organisms.

Plate movement affects the Organisms break down rock


size, shape, and distribution into soil. People alter the
of ocean basins. Running landscape. Plate movement
water and glaciers erode affects evolution and the
rock and sculpt landscapes. distribution of Earth’s biota.

Heat reflected from the land surface affects the


temperature of the atmosphere. Distribution of
mountains affects weather patterns.

Lithosphere
Copyright and Photograph
(plates)
by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

Convection cells within the


mantle contribute to movement
of plates (lithosphere) and
recycling of lithospheric material.
Plate

Mantle

Supplies heat
for convection
in mantle

Core

Figure 1.1 Subsystems of Earth The atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, mantle, and core are all subsystems of Earth. This

simplified diagram shows how these subsystems interact and includes some examples of how materials and energy are cycled throughout the
Earth system. The interactions among these subsystems make Earth a dynamic planet that has evolved and changed since its origin 4.6 billion
years ago.

plates has profoundly affected the formation and evo- climate changes. Examined in this manner, the continu-
lution of Earth’s surface features and the distribution of ous evolution of Earth and its life is not a series of iso-
mineral resources, as well as atmospheric and oceanic lated and unrelated events, but rather a dynamic interplay
circulation patterns, which, in turn, have affected global among its various subsystems.

Introduction 3

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
What Is Geology? Theories are formulated through the process known as
the scientific method. This method is an orderly, logical
Geology, from the Greek geo and logos, is defined as the approach that involves gathering and analyzing facts or
study of Earth, but now it must include the study of the plan- data about the problem under consideration. Tentative ex-
ets and moons in our solar system—and even beyond our planations, or hypotheses, are then formulated to explain
solar system. The discipline of geology is generally divided the observed phenomena. Next, the hypotheses are tested
into two broad areas—physical geology and historical geol- to see whether what was predicted actually occurs in a
ogy. Physical geology is the study of Earth materials, such as given situation. Finally, if one of the hypotheses is found,
minerals and rocks, as well as the processes operating within after repeated tests, to explain the phenomena, then that
Earth and on its surface. Historical geology examines the hypothesis is proposed as a theory. Remember, however,
origin and evolution of Earth, its continents, oceans, atmo- that in science, even a theory is still subject to further test-
sphere, and life. ing and refinement as new data become available.
Historical geology is, however, more than just a recita- The fact that a scientific theory can be tested and is
tion of past events. It is the study of a dynamic planet that subject to such testing separates it from other forms of
has changed continuously during the past 4.6 billion years. In human inquiry. Because scientific theories can be tested,
addition to determining what occurred in the past, geologists they have the potential for being supported or even proved
are also concerned with explaining how and why past events wrong. Accordingly, science must proceed without any ap-
happened. It is one thing to observe in the fossil record that peal to beliefs or supernatural explanations, not because
dinosaurs went extinct, but quite another to ask how and why such beliefs or explanations are necessarily untrue, but be-
they became extinct—and perhaps more importantly, what cause we have no way to investigate them. For this reason,
implications that holds for today’s global ecosystem. science makes no claim about the existence or nonexis-
The basic principles of historical geology not only aid tence of a supernatural or spiritual realm.
in interpreting Earth’s history, but they also have practi- Each scientific discipline has certain theories that are
cal applications. For example, William Smith, an English of particular importance. For example, the theory of or-
surveyor and engineer, recognized that by studying the se- ganic evolution revolutionized biology when it was pro-
quences of rocks and the fossils they contained, he could posed in the 19th century. In geology, the formulation of
predict the kinds and thicknesses of rocks that would have plate tectonic theory changed the way geologists viewed
to be excavated in the construction of canals. The same Earth. Geologists now view Earth from a global perspec-
principles Smith used in the late 18th and early 19th cen- tive in which all of its subsystems and cycles are intercon-
turies are still used today in mineral and oil exploration nected, and Earth history is seen as a continuum of inter-
and also in interpreting the geologic history of the planets related events that are part of a global pattern of change.
and moons of our solar system.

Origin of the Universe and


Historical Geology and the Solar System and Earth’s
Formulation of Theories Place in the Cosmos
The term theory has various meanings and is frequently mis- How did the universe begin? What has been its history?
understood and consequently misused. In colloquial usage, What is its eventual fate, or is it infinite? These are just some
it means a speculative or conjectural view of something— of the basic questions people have asked and wondered
hence the widespread belief that scientific theories are little about since they first looked into the nighttime sky and saw
more than unsubstantiated wild guesses. In scientific usage, the vastness of the universe beyond Earth.
however, a theory is a coherent explanation for one or sev-
eral related natural phenomena supported by a large body of
objective evidence. From a theory, scientists derive predictive Origin of the Universe—Did It Begin
statements that can be tested by observations and/or experi-
ments so that their validity can be assessed. with a Big Bang?
For example, one prediction of plate tectonic theory is Most scientists think that the universe originated about
that oceanic crust is youngest near spreading ridges and 14 billion years ago in what is popularly called the Big Bang.
becomes progressively older with increasing distance from The Big Bang is a model for the evolution of the universe in
ridges. This prediction has been verified by observations which a dense, hot state was followed by expansion, cooling,
(see Chapter 3). Likewise, according to the theory of evo- and a less dense state.
lution, fish should appear in the fossil record before am- According to modern cosmology (the study of the ori-
phibians, followed by reptiles, mammals, and birds—and gin, evolution, and nature of the universe), the universe has
that is indeed the case (see Chapter 7). no edge and therefore no center. Thus, when the universe

4 Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth

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began, all matter and energy were
compressed into an infinitely
small high-temperature and high-
Low High
density state in which both time pitch pitch
and space were set at zero. There-
fore, there is no “before the Big
Bang,” only what occurred after
it. As demonstrated by Einstein’s
Theory of Relativity, space and
time are unalterably linked to
form a space–time continuum—
that is, without space, there can be
Figure 1.2 The Doppler Effect One way to understand the Doppler effect is by analogy to the


no time. sound of a passing train’s whistle. As the train approaches, the sound waves are compressed
How do we know that the Big slightly so that the individual hears a shorter-wavelength, higher-pitched sound. As the train
Bang took place approximately passes and recedes from the individual, the sound waves are slightly expanded and a longer-
14 billion years ago? Why couldn’t wavelength, lower-pitched sound is heard.
the universe have always existed
An easy way to envision how velocity increases with
as we know it today? Two fundamental phenomena
increasing distance is by reference to the popular analogy
indicate that the Big Bang occurred: (1) The universe
of a rising loaf of raisin bread in which the raisins are uni-
is expanding, and (2) it is permeated by background
formly distributed throughout the loaf ( Figure 1.3). As


radiation.
the dough rises, the raisins are uniformly pushed away
When astronomers look beyond our own solar sys-
from each other at velocities directly proportional to the
tem, they observe that everywhere in the universe, gal-
distance between any two raisins. The farther away a given
axies are moving away from each other at tremendous
raisin is to begin with, the farther it must move to main-
speeds. Edwin Hubble first recognized this phenomenon
tain the regular spacing during the expansion, and hence
in 1929. By measuring the optical spectra of distant gal-
the greater its velocity must be.
axies, Hubble noted that the velocity at which a galaxy
In the same way that raisins move apart in a rising
moves away from Earth increases proportionally to its
loaf of bread, galaxies are receding from each other at a
distance from Earth. He observed that the spectral lines
rate proportional to the distance between them, which is
(wavelengths of light) of the galaxies are shifted toward
exactly what astronomers see when they observe the uni-
the red end of the spectrum; that is, the lines are shifted
verse. By measuring this expansion rate, astronomers can
toward longer wavelengths. Galaxies receding from each
calculate how long ago the galaxies were all together at a
other at tremendous speeds would produce such a red-
single point, which turns out to be about 14 billion years,
shift. This is an example of the Doppler effect, which is
the currently accepted age of the universe.
a change in the frequency of a sound, a light, or another
In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson of Bell
wave caused by movement of the wave’s source relative to
Telephone Laboratories made the second important
the observer ( Figure 1.2).

observation that provided evidence of the Big Bang.

Figure 1.3 The Expanding Universe


The motion of raisins in a rising loaf


After
of raisin bread illustrates the relation-
ship that exists between distance
and speed and is analogous to an
expanding universe. In this diagram,
adjacent raisins are located 2 cm
apart before the loaf rises. After one
hour, any raisin is now 4 cm away Before
from its nearest neighbor and 8 cm
away from the next raisin over, and so
on. Therefore, from the perspective
of any raisin, its nearest neighbor has
moved away from it at a speed of
2 cm per hour and the next raisin
over has moved away from it at a
speed of 4 cm per hour. In the same
way that raisins move apart in a rising
loaf of bread, galaxies are receding
from each other at a rate proportional
to the distance between them. 6 cm 12 cm

Origin of the Universe and Solar System and Earth’s Place in the Cosmos 5

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They discovered that there is a pervasive background ra- Our Solar System—Its Origin
diation of 2.7 Kelvin (K) above absolute zero (absolute
zero equals −273°C; 2.7 K = −270.3°C) everywhere in the and Evolution
universe. This background radiation is thought to be the Our solar system, which is part of the Milky Way Galaxy,
fading afterglow of the Big Bang. consists of the Sun; 8 planets; 5 known dwarf planets (in-
Currently, cosmologists cannot say what it was like at cluding Pluto); at least 100 known moons or satellites (this
time zero of the Big Bang because they do not understand number keeps changing with the discovery of new moons
the physics of matter and energy under such extreme con- and satellites surrounding the Jovian planets); a tremendous
ditions. However, it is thought that during the first second number of asteroids—most of which orbit the Sun in a zone
following the Big Bang, the four basic forces—(1) gravity between Mars and Jupiter; the Kuiper Belt—a disc-shaped re-
(the attraction of one body toward another), (2) electro- gion beyond Neptune where such icy worlds as Pluto reside;
magnetic force (combines electricity and magnetism into and the even more distant Oort Cloud, which is thought to
one force and binds atoms into molecules), (3) strong nu- be the source of many of the millions of comets that orbit
clear force (binds protons and neutrons), and (4) weak nu- our Sun ( Figure 1.4). Any theory formulated to explain the


clear force (is responsible for the breakdown of an atom’s origin and evolution of our solar system must, therefore, take
nucleus, producing radioactive decay)—separated and the into account all of its various features and characteristics.
universe experienced enormous expansion. Many scientific theories for the origin of the solar sys-
As the universe continued expanding and cool- tem have been proposed, modified, and discarded since
ing, stars and galaxies began to form and the chemical the French scientist and philosopher René Descartes first
makeup of the universe changed. Initially, the universe proposed in 1644 that the solar system formed from a gi-
was 100% hydrogen and helium, whereas today it is gantic whirlpool within a universal fluid. Today, the solar
98% hydrogen and helium and 2% all other elements by nebula theory for the formation of our solar system not
weight (see Perspective). only best explains its features, but also provides a logical
How did such a change in the universe’s composition explanation for its evolutionary history ( Figure 1.5).


occur? Throughout their life cycle, stars undergo many According to the solar nebula theory, the condensation
nuclear reactions in which lighter elements are converted and subsequent collapse of interstellar material in a spiral
into heavier elements by nuclear fusion. When a star dies, arm of the Milky Way galaxy resulted in a counterclock-
often explosively, the heavier elements that were formed in wise-rotating disk of gases and small grains. About 90% of
its core are returned to interstellar space and are available the material was concentrated in the central part of the disk,
for inclusion in new stars. In this way, the composition of thus forming an embryonic Sun, around which swirled a
the universe gradually is enhanced by heavier elements. rotating cloud of material called a solar nebula. Within this

Pluto
Earth
Venus Mars
Mercury

Asteroid Uranus
belt Jupiter Saturn Neptune

Sun

Figure 1.4 Diagrammatic Representation of the Solar System This representation of the solar system shows the planets and the dwarf planet

Pluto and their orbits around the Sun. Pluto orbits among the icy debris of the Kuiper Belt, a disc-shaped region beyond Neptune, in which it
and four other dwarf planets are known.

6 Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth

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NASA Images

NASA Images

NASA Images
(a) A huge rotating cloud of gas (b) to form a disk of gas and dust with the (c) and eddies gathering up material to
contracts and flattens sun forming in the center,b form planets.

Figure 1.5 Solar Nebula Theory According to the currently accepted theory for the origin of our solar system, the planets and the Sun

formed from a rotating cloud of gas.

solar nebula were localized eddies where gases and solid helium, ammonia, and methane, which condense at low
particles condensed. During the condensation process, gas- temperatures ( Figure 1.7).


eous, liquid, and solid particles began accreting into ever- While the planets were accreting, material that had been
larger masses called planetesimals, which collided and grew pulled into the center of the nebula also condensed, collapsed,
in size and mass until they eventually became planets. and was heated to several million degrees by gravitational
The composition and evolutionary history of the plan- compression. The result was the birth of a star, our Sun.
ets are a consequence, in part, of their distance from the During the early accretionary phase of the solar system’s
Sun. The four inner planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and history, collisions between various bodies were common,
Mars—are the terrestrial planets, so named because they as indicated by the craters on many planets and moons
are similar to terra, Latin for “Earth” ( Figure 1.6). All of ( Figure 1.8). Asteroids probably formed in much the


the terrestrial planets are small and dense (composed of a same way as other planetesimals did, but in a localized
metallic core and silicate mantle-crust), having condensed eddy between what eventually became Mars and Jupiter.
at the high temperatures of the inner nebula. The Jovian The tremendous gravitational field of Jupiter, however,
planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—so prevented this material from ever accreting into planets.
named because they resemble Jupiter (the Roman god was Comets, which are interplanetary bodies composed of
also named Jove), all have small, rocky cores compared to loosely bound rocky and icy materials, are thought to have
their overall size, and are composed mostly of hydrogen, condensed beyond the orbit of Neptune.
NASA/JPL/MSSS

NASA Images

Figure 1.6 Terrestrial Planets Mars is one of the terrestrial planets,


so named because they are similar to Earth. Mars has a thin atmo-
sphere, little water, and distinct seasons. Its southern hemisphere
is heavily cratered like the surfaces of Mercury and the Moon. The Figure 1.7 Jovian Planets Jupiter is the largest of the Jovian

northern hemisphere has large, smooth plains; fewer craters; and evi- planets. With its moons, rings, strong magnetic field, and intense
dence of extensive volcanism. The largest volcano in the solar system radiation belts, it is the most complex and varied planet in our solar
is found in the northern hemisphere. Huge canyons, the largest of system. Jupiter’s cloudy and violent atmosphere is divided into a
which, if present on Earth, would stretch from San Francisco to New series of different-colored bands and a variety of spots (the Great
York, also occur in the northern half of the planet. Red Spot) that interact in incredibly complex motions.

Origin of the Universe and Solar System and Earth’s Place in the Cosmos 7

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Perspective

Exoplanets
Exoplanets, also known as extrasolar star’s orbit, caused by the effect of a distance is farther than for smaller and
planets, are planets located outside our planet’s gravity, can be measured using cooler stars. In addition, the components
solar system. Originally hypothesized for the Doppler effect. Both methods have necessary for life would also have to be
several centuries by astronomers and phi- their advantages and disadvantages. present for Earthlike life to be able to
losophers, it was not until 1988 that the Now, however, astronomers have a new exist.
first published discovery of an exoplanet statistical technique that they can apply Thus far, most of the stars that have
was made by a team of astronomers at to the transit method to detect stars with exoplanets are similar to our own Sun.
the University of Victoria and the Univer- multiple planets, thus increasing their Furthermore, the majority of exoplanets
sity of British Columbia, Canada. Their accuracy in confirming the presence of tend to be massive, gaseous bodies, the
findings were independently and defini- new exoplanets. size of Jupiter or larger. However, the
tively confirmed in 2003 using improved Besides knowing that there are latest discoveries point to a significant
techniques of detection. Since that initial other planets circling stars in the Milky number of exoplanets that are smaller
discovery, there are now more than 1,700 Way Galaxy, the possibility of discover- and more terrestrial-like in nature, with
confirmed exoplanets. ing Earthlike planets that might support a handful that are Earthlike and orbit
Although some exoplanets can be life as we know it is exciting astronomers within their star’s habitable zone
viewed through telescopes, the vast and scientists throughout the world. (Figure 1).
majority are discovered by various To find such planets, astronomers look In February 2014, the United States
indirect methods. This is because the for planets rotating around a star in National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
exoplanets do not reflect as much light what is known as the habitable zone or tration (NASA) announced that the Kepler
as stars emit, making them hard to find “Goldilocks zone,” a region where the space telescope had discovered 715 new
by traditional telescopic observation. The temperature allows liquid water to exist. exoplanets orbiting 305 different stars,
two most common indirect methods of That region would not be too close to a many of which are multiplanet systems
detecting exoplanets are the (1) transit star where it is so hot that water would like our own solar system (Figure 2).
method, in which the amount of visual evaporate, yet not too far away where it NASA further reported that nearly 95% of
brightness of a star drops slightly when is so cold that water would freeze—in these planets were smaller than Neptune,
a planet crosses in front of its parent other words, just the right distance. marking a significant increase in the
star disk, and the (2) radial-velocity This distance varies with the size of the number of known small-size planets,
method, by which the variation of a star. For larger and hotter stars, that more similar to the terrestrial rather than

Figure 1 This diagram compares the


planets of our inner solar system (the
terrestrial planets) to that of Kepler-69, a
two-planet system in the constellation Cyg-
nus, approximately 2,700 light-years away.
Kepler-69c is about 70% larger than Earth
and is the smallest exoplanet found to date
to orbit the habitable zone of a sunlike
star. The image of the two Kepler-69
planets is an artistic rendition based on
what scientists think the exoplanets might
look like.
NASA Ames/JPL-Caltech

8 Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth

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Figure 2 This artistic representa-
tion portrays a number of multiple-
exoplanet systems, which are stars
with more the one exoplanet. This
edge-on view shows the exoplanets
from the viewpoint of the observer
eclipsing or transiting their host star.

NASA Images
the Jovian planets. What made this One of these exoplanets, named by the orbiting Kepler space telescope
announcement most exciting was that four Kepler-296f, is twice the size of Earth (Figure 3), it is not yet known whether
of these planets were less than 2.5 times and orbits a star half the size and 5% as Kepler-296f is a body with a thick hydrogen-
the size of Earth, and orbited within their bright as our own Sun. Like the four other helium atmosphere or one that is water-
star’s habitable zone. habitable-zone exoplanets discovered rich, and thus an oceanlike world.

Figure 3 Shown next to Earth for


comparison, are the relative sizes of
the four habitable-zone exoplanets
found to date. From left to right are
Kepler-22b, Kepler-69c, Kepler-62e,
Kepler-62f, and Earth. All but Earth
are artistic renditions. Although
scientists do not know whether these
exoplanets could support life, they
all fall in the habitable-zone orbit of
their respective star and thus, could
contain liquid water.
NASA Ames/JPL-Caltech

Origin of the Universe and Solar System and Earth’s Place in the Cosmos 9

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case, just as was discussed earlier, the theory will have to be
modified to incorporate and explain the new observation
or data or discarded. That is how science works.

NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington


Earth—Its Place in Our Solar System
Some 4.6 billion years ago, various planetesimals in our so-
lar system gathered enough material to form Earth and the
other planets. Scientists think that this early Earth was prob-
ably cool; was of generally uniform composition and density
throughout; and was composed mostly of silicates (com-
pounds consisting of silicon and oxygen), iron and magne-
sium oxides, and smaller amounts of all the other chemical el-
ements ( Figure 1.9a). Subsequently, when the combination


of meteorite impacts, gravitational compression, and heat
from radioactive decay increased the temperature of Earth
enough to melt iron and nickel, this homogeneous composi-
tion disappeared (Figure 1.9b) and was replaced with a series
of concentric layers of different composition and density, re-
sulting in a differentiated planet (Figure 1.9c).
This differentiation into a layered planet is probably
the most significant event in Earth’s history. Besides lead-
Figure 1.8 Accretionary Phase of the Solar System Mercury has ing to the formation of a crust and eventually continents,

a heavily cratered surface that has changed very little since the it also was probably responsible for the emission of gases
accretionary phase of the solar system’s history. from the interior that eventually led to the formation of
the oceans and atmosphere (see Chapter 8).
The solar nebula theory for the formation of the solar
system thus accounts for most of the characteristics of the
planets and their moons, the differences in composition
between the terrestrial and Jovian planets, and the pres-
Why Earth Is a Dynamic
ence of the asteroid belt. On the basis of the available data and Evolving Planet
to date, the solar nebula theory best explains the features of
the solar system and provides a logical explanation for its Earth is a dynamic planet that has continuously changed
evolutionary history. New observations or data may show, during its 4.6-billion-year existence. The size, shape, and
however, that the theory is incomplete or does not explain geographic distribution of continents and ocean basins have
some newly discovered aspect of the solar system. In that changed through time; the composition of the atmosphere

Figure 1.9 Homogeneous Accretion Theory for the Formation of a Differentiated Earth

Crust
Mantle

Liquid
outer
core
Solid
inner
core

(a) Early Earth probably had a (b) The temperature of early Earth reached the (c) In this way, a differentiated Earth formed,
uniform composition and melting point of iron and nickel, which, being consisting of a dense iron–nickel core, an
density throughout. denser than silicate minerals, settled to Earth’s iron-rich silicate mantle, and a silicate crust
center. At the same time, the lighter silicates with continents and ocean basis.
flowed upward to form the mantle and the crust.

10 Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth

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has evolved; and life-forms existing today differ from those Oceanic Continental
crust crust

Lithosphere
that lived during the past. Mountains and hills have been
worn away by erosion, and the forces of wind, water, and ice Upper mantle
have sculpted a diversity of landscapes. Volcanic eruptions
Asthenosphere
and earthquakes reveal an active interior, and folded and frac- 6,380-km radius
Lower mantle
tured rocks are testimony to the tremendous power of Earth’s
internal forces.
Earth consists of three concentric layers: the core, the Mantle
mantle, and the crust ( Figure 1.10). This orderly divi-


sion results from density differences between the layers as
a function of variations in composition, temperature, and Outer Crust
pressure. core
(liquid)
The core has a calculated density of 10–13 grams Inner core
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) and occupies about 16% of (solid)
Earth’s total volume. Seismic (earthquake) data indicate
that the core consists of a small, solid inner region and a
larger, apparently liquid outer portion. Both are thought
to consist mostly of iron and a small amount of nickel.
The mantle surrounds the core and comprises about
83% of Earth’s volume. It is less dense than the core (3.3–
5.7 g/cm3) and is thought to be composed largely of pe-
ridotite, a dark, dense igneous rock containing abundant
iron and magnesium (see Figure 2.10). The mantle is di-
vided into three distinct zones based on physical charac- Figure 1.10 Cross Section of Earth Illustrating the Core, Mantle, and


Crust The enlarged portion shows the relationship between the litho-
teristics. The lower mantle is solid and forms most of the
sphere (composed of the continental crust, oceanic crust, and upper
volume of Earth’s interior. mantle) and the underlying asthenosphere and lower mantle.
The asthenosphere surrounds the lower mantle. It has
the same composition as the lower mantle but behaves
plastically and flows slowly. Partial melting within the as- into numerous individual pieces called plates that move
thenosphere generates magma (molten material), some of over the asthenosphere, partially as a result of underlying
which rises to the surface because it is less dense than the convection cells ( Figure 1.11). Interactions of these plates

rock from which it was derived. The upper mantle sur- are responsible for such phenomena as earthquakes, vol-
rounds the asthenosphere. The solid upper mantle and the canic eruptions, and the formation of mountain ranges
overlying crust constitute the lithosphere, which is broken and ocean basins.

Mid-oceanic ridge
Trench Ocean

Subduction

Oceanic
Continental lithosphere
lithosphere

Cold
Convection
cell Upwelling
Hot
Outer
core Mantle

Inner
core

Figure 1.11 Movement of Earth’s Plates Earth’s plates are thought to move partially as a result of underlying mantle convection cells in which

warm material from deep within Earth rises toward the surface, cools, and then, upon losing heat, descends back into the interior, as shown in
this diagrammatic cross section.

Why Earth Is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet 11

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e es
Eurasian

dg an
Juan de

Ri eykj
plate
ch Fuca plate

R
Sea of Tren North American Hellenic Turkish
Japan ia n Adriatic plate plate
Kuril A le ut plate
plate Iran

Ro
Philippine Trench San Andreas plate

ckie
im plate Japan Trench Fault
H

a l ay Cocos Caribbean

s
as
Marianas Trench plate plate

Ar pla
East African

ab t e
Middle rift valley

ia
Pacific America

n
plate M system
Bismark Trench id -
plate New Hebrides Trench A tla
Ja

nti
P er u-
Fiji plate

c R id g e
e
Tr
va

East Pacific Ris


e nch Nazca South

nd
Ch
Indian- plate American

es
African

ile Trench
Australian Solomon plate
plate plate
plate
Kermadec-Tonga
Trench Chi
ut le
So

hE Ris e
e dg
ast
Indi Ri
n

e
an R i se
Ri dia

dg
Macquarie
In
Ridge t ar c t i c Atlantic-
-An
c if ic Antarctic plate
Pa

Ridge axis Transform fault Subduction zone Zones of extension within continents Uncertain plate boundary
Divergent boundary Transform boundary Convergent boundary

Figure 1.12 Earth’s Plates Earth’s lithosphere is divided into rigid plates of various sizes that move over the asthenosphere.

The crust, Earth’s outermost layer, consists of two A revolutionary concept when it was proposed in the
types. Continental crust is thick (20–90 km), has an aver- 1960s, plate tectonic theory has had far-reaching conse-
age density of 2.7 g/cm3, and contains considerable silicon quences in all fields of geology because it provides the
and aluminum. Oceanic crust is thin (5–10 km), is denser basis for relating many seemingly unrelated phenom-
than continental crust (3.0 g/cm3), and is composed of the ena. Besides being responsible for the major features of
dark igneous rocks basalt and gabbro (see Figures 2.11c Earth’s crust, plate movements also affect the formation
and 2.11f). and occurrence of Earth’s natural resources, as well as
influencing the distribution and evolution of the world’s
biota.
Plate Tectonic Theory Furthermore, the impact of plate tectonic theory has
The recognition that the lithosphere is divided into rigid been particularly notable in the interpretation of Earth’s
plates that move over the asthenosphere ( Figure 1.12) history. For example, the Appalachian Mountains in east-

forms the foundation of plate tectonic theory, a unifying ern North America and the mountain ranges of Green-
theory of geology holding that large segments of Earth’s land, Scotland, Norway, and Sweden are not the result of
outer part (lithospheric plates) move relative to one another unrelated mountain-building episodes; rather, they are
(discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3). Zones of volcanic part of a larger mountain-building event that involved the
activity, earthquakes, or both mark most plate boundaries. closing of an ancient Atlantic Ocean and the formation
Along these boundaries, plates separate (diverge), collide of the supercontinent Pangaea approximately 251 million
(converge), or slide sideways past each other ( Figure 1.13). years ago (see Chapter 11).

The acceptance of plate tectonic theory is recognized


as a major milestone in the geologic sciences, comparable
to the revolution that Darwin’s theory of evolution caused
in biology. Plate tectonic theory has provided the frame- Organic Evolution and the
work for interpreting the composition, structure, and in-
ternal processes of Earth on a global scale. It has led to
History of Life
the realization that the continents and ocean basins are Plate tectonic theory provides a model for understanding
part of a lithosphere-atmosphere-hydrosphere system that the internal workings of Earth and their effect on Earth’s
evolved together with Earth’s interior. surface. The theory of organic evolution (whose central

12 Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Continental–
continental Continental– Trench
Mid-oceanic Divergent convergent oceanic Oceanic–
ridge plate plate convergent oceanic
boundary boundary plate Divergent convergent
boundary plate plate
Transform boundary boundary
plate
boundary

Upwelling
Asthenosphere
Upwelling
Lithosphere

Figure 1.13 Relationship Between Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, and Plate Boundaries An idealized block diagram illustrating the relationship be-

tween the lithosphere and the underlying asthenosphere, and the three principal types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.

thesis is that all present-day organisms are related and that also demonstrate that Earth has a history extending beyond
they descended with modifications from organisms that that recorded by humans. The succession of fossils in the
lived during the past) provides the conceptual framework rock record provides geologists with a means for dating
for understanding the history of life. Together, the theories rocks and allowed for a relative geologic time scale to be
of plate tectonics and organic evolution have changed the constructed in the 1800s.
way we view our planet, and we should not be surprised at
the intimate association between them. Although the rela-
tionship between plate tectonic processes and the evolution
of life is incredibly complex, paleontological data provide Geologic Time and
indisputable evidence of the influence of plate movement on
the distribution of organisms.
Uniformitarianism
The publication in 1859 of Darwin’s On the Origin An appreciation of the immensity of geologic time is cen-
of Species by Means of Natural Selection revolutionized tral to understanding the evolution of Earth and its biota.
biology and marked the beginning of modern evolution- Indeed, time is one of the main aspects that sets geology
ary biology. With its publication, most naturalists rec- apart from all other sciences except astronomy. Most people
ognized that evolution provided a unifying theory that have difficulty comprehending geologic time because they
explained an otherwise encyclopedic collection of bio- tend to think in terms of the human perspective—seconds,
logic facts. hours, days, and years. Ancient history is what occurred
When Darwin proposed his theory of organic evolu- hundreds —even thousands—of years ago. When geologists
tion, he cited a wealth of supporting evidence, including talk of “ancient geologic history,” however, they are refer-
the way organisms are classified, embryology, compara- ring to events that happened hundreds of millions—even
tive anatomy, the geographic distribution of organisms, billions—of years ago.
and (to a limited extent) the fossil record. Furthermore, It is equally important to remember that Earth goes
Darwin proposed that natural selection, which results in through cycles of much longer duration than the human
the survival to reproductive age of those organisms best perspective of time. Although some of these cycles, such
adapted to their environment, is the mechanism that as global warming and cooling, may have disastrous ef-
accounts for evolution. fects on the human species, they are, nonetheless, part
Perhaps the most compelling evidence in favor of of the larger cycle of global change that has, for example,
evolution can be found in the fossil record. Just as the resulted in numerous glacial advances and retreats dur-
geologic record allows geologists to interpret physical ing the past 2.6 million years. Because of their geologic
events and conditions in the geologic past, fossils, which perspective on time and the interrelationships of Earth’s
are the remains or traces of once-living organisms, not various systems, subsystems, and cycles, geologists are in
only provide evidence that evolution has occurred, but a unique position to make valuable contributions to such

Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism 13

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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álláspont közül egészen az első mellett vagyok. Többet ér mindenkit
egy kevéssé szabadon hagyni, tekintve, hogy a nem eredeti
szellemek úgy is elvesznek, ami nem is baj, míg a valóban eredeti
szellemek megnyílnak és kifejlődnek a maguk teljes erejében.
De itt – a demokratikus szellem betolakodik mindenüvé – a
számszerű kérdés merül fel: «tízszerte több – mondják nekem – a
nem eredeti ember, akiket megmentünk önmaguktól, fegyelmezvén
őket, mint a valódi önálló ember, akinek talán elmetszük szárnyait.»
Azt felelem, hogy intellektuális dolgoknál a számok kérdése nem
jöhet tekintetbe. Egy elnyomott eredeti szellem oly veszteség,
amelyet nem tud pótolni tíz megmentett ostoba, vagy igen ostoba
sem. Egy szabad fejlődésben hagyott eredeti szellem többet ér, mint
tíz félig korlátozott és elnyomott ostoba.
Igen jól mondja Nietzsche: «a modern nevelés abban áll, hogy
elnyomja a kivételt a szabály kedvéért; abban áll, hogy a
szellemeket a kivételtől messzire a közepes felé irányítsa.» Nincs
igaza. Nem mondom, hogy az ellenkezőt kellene tennie, ó! nem!
távol áll tőlem! Nem az a hivatása, hogy buzdítsa a kivételest és
megszületni segítse azt. Megszületik az maga is, nem szükséges,
hogy dédelgessék. De az sem hivatása, hogy elrettentést
alkalmazzon a kivételessel szemben s minden lehető eszközt még
valójában a legbarbárabbakat, vagy a legterhesebbeket is
alkalmazásba vegye, hogy a lehető leghosszabb ideig
megakadályozza érvényesülését.
A nevelésnek ki kell fejlesztenie a középszerűségből mindazt,
amit csak képes, az eredetiséget pedig tisztelni kell annyira,
amennyire csak lehet, a középszerűséget eredetiségre, az
eredetiséget pedig a középszerűségre soha sem szabad szorítani.
De hogyan járjunk el minden esetben? Mindig óvatos
beavatkozással, néha pedig a be nem avatkozással.
Jelenleg a nevelés rendkívül távol van a be nem avatkozástól, de
még az óvatos beavatkozástól is.
És így, amit a hivatottság megmentésére kitaláltak, elég
észrevehetőleg hozzájárult az ellenkezőnek uralomra juttatásához. A
vizsgálat ezen áldozatai a tudásnak, tanultságnak, a
szakszerűségnek hivatottai. De hivatástalanok a szellemi érték
tekintetében; sőt gyakran – jóllehet kevésbé gyakran, – az erkölcsi
érték tekintetében is.
A szellemi értéket tekintve, gyakran nem rendelkeznek semmi
észbeli találékonysággal. Az ő találékonyságukat visszaszorították,
elapasztották, elrejtették. Ha volt is, nincs többé. Egész életükre nem
egyebek, mint eszközök. Sok dolgot tanítottak nekik, de
mindenekfelett értelmi engedelmességet. Tovább folytatják az
értelmi engedelmességet, agyvelejük jól készített jármű, jól
meggyártott és jól elhelyezett erőátviteli szíj. «A regény és a dráma
közti különbség» – mondja Brunetière87 – az, «hogy a drámában a
személy cselekvő, a regényben pedig szenvedő». Nem tudom vajjon
igaz-e ez, de a hivatalnokról azt lehet mondanunk, hogy a
leggyakrabban nem gondolkozik, helyette gondolkoznak.
Hivatástalanok még – jóllehet kevésbé és ritkábban – az erkölcsi
értékre nézve. Az értelmi engedelmesség gyakorlása által
hozzászoktatták az erkölcsi engedelmességhez és a legnagyobb
részben alig törődnek függetlenségükkel. Mily jó, – igen jó
összhangban van mindez. A hivatalnokok ezen korlátozó cooptatiója
– melyről beszéltem, – miként mondtam, a hivatalba lépésre
szorítkozik. Ezen pillanattól fogva a hivatalnok egyedül a kormánytól
függ; a hivatalnokot tehát tíz esztendeig, amíg a neveltetése tart,
vezérlőire való tekintettel a teljes függésre készítik elő. Jól van; egy
kissé túlságosan jól van. Jó volna, ha a hivatalnok nevelése
meghagyna neki az értelmiség egy kevés eredetiségével együtt, egy
kevés jellembeli eredetiséget is.
Nagyon lelkiismeretesen, sőt nagyon dicséretes buzgalommal
kutattak egy a demokrácia hibái ellen szolgáló másik gyógyszer után
is, egy másik gyógyszer után, a hivatástalanság ellen. Azt mondták:
«a tömeg hivatástalan, ám legyen! tessék felvilágosítani. A széles
körben kiterjesztett elemi oktatás, megoldása az összes
nehézségeknek, sőt megoldása az összes kérdéseknek.»
Az arisztokraták egy kissé mulattak efölött: «dehát hogyan –
kiáltottak fel, – miféle ellenmondás ez. Demokraták vagytok, vagyis ti
a kitünő politikát – miként mi hajdan már mondtuk – a «politikai
erényt» a tömegnek, vagyis a tudatlanságnak tudjátok be. Hát miért
akarjátok felvilágosítani a tömeget, vagyis miért akarjátok, hogy
elveszítse az erényt, azt az erényt, amely szerintetek éppen az ő
kitünőségét képezi?» A demokraták azt felelték, hogy a tömeg már
úgyis nagyon magasan állott az arisztokraták felett amint volt s még
inkább felette fog állni, ha tanultsággal fog bírni. Az ellentmondást a
fortiori oldották meg.
Annyi bizonyos, hogy a demokraták erősen összefogtak a
népoktatás munkájában. Az eredmény: először, hogy a nép sokkal
tanultabb, mint valaha s én azok közzé tartozom, akik megbecsülik
ezen kitünő eredményt. De az eredmény ezenkívül még az is, hogy
a nép telítve van téves eszmékkel és az kevésbé örvendetes.
A régi köztársaságok ismerték a demagogokat, vagyis a
szónokokat, akik a nép összes hibáit a végletekbe hajtották,
amelyeket szép nevekkel ékesítettek fel, neki magának pedig
hízelegtek. A modern nagy demokráciának megvannak a maga
demagogjai, – ezek a néptanítók. Ezek a népből származnak s
büszkék, hogy ahhoz tartoznak, amiért nem lehet őket ócsárolni,
minden iránt, ami nem a népet illeti némi bizalmatlansággal
viseltetnek, annál inkább a néphez tartoznak, mert értelmileg elsők a
nép körében, máshol pedig alsóbbrangúak; és nem azt a csoportot
szeretjük leginkább, amelyben vagyunk, hanem azt, amelynek az
élén állunk. Ők tehát mélységesen demokraták.
Ez eddig teljesen elfogadható. A tanítók azonban korlátolt módon
töltik be ezen tisztüket, minthogy nincs, csak féltanultságuk, vagy
inkább – mert ki az, akinek tökéletes, vagy nagy a tanultsága? – a
tanítóknak csak kezdetleges a tanultságuk. A kezdetleges tanultság
tehát talán képessé tesz egy eszme bírására, de bizonyára
képtelenné tesz arra, hogy két eszmével bírjunk. A kezdetleges
tanultságu ember mindig egyetlen egy ideával és rögeszmével bíró
ember. Keveset kételkedik. A tudós gyakran kételkedik, a tudatlan
ritkán, a bolond soha. Az egyetlen ideával bíró ember többé-
kevésbbé áthatolhatatlan mindazon okoskodással szemben, amely
ezen ideától idegen. Egy indus író mondá: «Meggyőzheted a tudóst,
nehezebben győzheted meg a tudatlant, a féltudóst soha.»
A néptanítót nem lehet meggyőzni. Ha pedig csatlakozunk hozzá,
meggyőződésében megerősítjük, de még inkább, ha vitatkozunk
vele. Tantételének rabja, nem ő van a tantétel birtokában, de a
tantétel tartja őt hatalmában. Egész lelkével szereti azt, mint a pap
vallását, minthogy az az igazság, minthogy szép, minthogy üldözve
volt és minthogy annak meg kell mentenie a világot. Nem búsúl ha
győzedelmeskedik az, de boldog lenne magát feláldozni érte.
Meggyőződött és érzelgős demokrata. Meggyőződése erős
alapot nyujt érzelmeinek, érzelmei pedig csodálatosan hevítik
meggyőződését. Meggyőződése legyőzhetetlenné teszi az
ellenvetések ellen, érzelmei ellenségessé teszik ellenfeleivel
szemben. Az olyan embernek, aki nem demokrata, előtte nincs
igaza, sőt mi több, gyűlöletes előtte. Közötte és az arisztokrata
között az a különbség van, ami az igazság és a tévedés között és
még nagyobb mint a jó és a rossz, a jó vagy a tisztesség és
becstelenség között. A néptanító fanatikus hűbérese a
demokráciának.
Minthogy egyetlenegy idea embere, egyoldalú s minthogy
egyoldalú, határozottan következetes és mértéken felül
következetes, minden erővel, egész a végletekig. Ez az idea,
amelyet más ideák nem kereszteznek és amely nem is tűr
feltartóztatást és előre tör olyan nekilendüléssel, amelyet sem
önmaga, sem más nem fékez, rövid úton halad. Tehát a néptanító az
összes demokratikus ideákat, a természetes és következetes
végletekig viszi.

Telve «okoskodó ésszel»88 kifejti mindazt, melyet ezen eszmék


tartalmaznak és neki nem csupán természetesnek, de üdvösnek
látszik megadni azoknak utolsó kifejlődésüket mint végcélt és
azoknak összes következményeit, mint eredményeket. Mindez,
amely elvben jó, jó maga is, csupán Montesquieu hiszi, hogy
valamely jó intézmény tönkre mehet alapelvének túlságbavitele által.
A néptanító logikus következtetéseit a következő két
demokratikus elvből vonja le: nemzeti souverainitás és egyenlőség;
ezeket szigorú módon vonja le és a következő végeredményekhez
jut.
Egyedül a nép souverain. Egyéni és egyesülési szabadság
lehetséges, de csak a nép által megengedett egyéni és egyesülési
szabadság. Mindkét szabadság csak megengedett lehet és nem
szabad másnak lenniök. Az egyén gondolkozhatik a maga módja,
beszélhet a maga módszere, írhat a maga modora, cselekedhetik a
maga tetszése szerint, de egyedül annyira, amennyire a nép neki
megengedi; mert ha ezt az egyén tehetné akár korlátlanul, akár
korlátolva, de olyan korlátok között, amelyeket más hatalom
határozna meg mint a nép, akkor ő volna souverain, vagy azon
hatalom, amely megállapítaná ezen határokat, nem a nép és nem
volna többé nemzeti souverainitás.
Ez annyi, mintha egyszerűen ezt mondanánk: a szabadság azon
jog, melynél fogva mindazt tehetjük, amit akarunk a törvény korlátai
között. Hát ki hozza a törvényt? a nép. A szabadság tehát azon jog,
hogy tehetjük mindazt, aminek tevését a nép megengedi. Semmi
több, Ami ezentúl van az az egyén souverainitásának kezdete és a
nép souverainitásának letünése.
– De olyan szabadság, melyszerint tehetjük mindazt, amit a nép
megenged és kizárólag azt, amit a nép enged meg, ez ugyanolyan
szabadság, mint XIV. Lajos alatt volt, vagyis egyáltalán nem
szabadság.
– Jól van. Nem lesz szabadság, hacsak a törvény meg nem
engedi. Akartok szabadok lenni a törvény ellenére?
– De a törvény zsarnoki lehet; zsarnoki, ha igazságtalan.
– A törvénynek joga van igazságtalannak lenni, különben a nép
souverainitása lenne korlátolva, aminek nem szabad lenni.
– Az alaptörvények, az alkotmányt megállapító törvények a
népnek ezen souverainitását korlátolhatják, hogy az egyénnek
annyi-amennyi szabadságot biztosítsanak.
– És a nép meg volna kötve! És a nép souverainitása el lenne
törölve. A nép nem lehet lekötve. A nép souverainitásának épnek és
érintetlennek kell lennie.
– Dehát nincs semmi egyéni szabadság?
– Az, amit a nép eltűr.
– Nincs egyesületi szabadság?
– Még kevésbé; mert az egyesület a nemzeti souverainitásnak
önmaga által való korlátozása. Az egyesületnek meg vannak a maga
törvényei, ami demokratikus szempontból esztelenség, képtelenség
és szörnyűség. Az egyesület korlátolja a nemzeti souverainitást,
miként egy szabad város, egy place de sûreté tenne; korlátolja a
nemzetet, visszaszorítja és visszatartja azt egy bejárásnál. Ez állam
az államban; ahol egyesület van, ott más szervezet is van, mint a
nagy népszervezet. Olyan ez, mint azon állat, amely függetlenül élne
egy sokkal nagyobb állatban és amely függetlenül élősködnék rajta.
Csak egy egyesülés lehet, a nemzeti egyesülés, különben a nemzeti
souverainitás korlátozva van, vagyis le van rontva. Semmiféle
egyesületi szabadság nem állhat fenn.
Csupán a nép által tűrt egyesületek lesznek, amelyek általa
mindig megszüntethetők, mindig feloszlathatók és leronthatók,
ellenkező esetben ez a nemzeti souverainitásról való lemondás
lenne, már pedig erről soha sem mondhat le.
– Van azonban egy némileg szent egyesülés, amelyre nem
terjeszkedik ki a népsouverainitás: ez a család. Az atya főnöke
gyermekeinek, neveli s kormányozza őket úgy, amint jónak látja
mindaddig, míg emberkort érnek.
Dehogy van! Ime a nemzeti szuverénitásnak még egy korlátja. A
gyermek nem az apáé. Ha a gyermek az apáé volna, a nemzeti
souverainitás csak minden ház küszöbéig jutna el és ez határozottan
azt jelentené, hogy nem volna sehol sem. A gyermek mint ember a
népé. Az övé olyan értelemben, hogy nem szabad résztvennie egy
olyan társaságban, amely máskép gondolkoznék, mint a nép, vagy
talán vele ellenkezőleg. Sőt veszélyes lenne rá nézve az, ha a jövő
polgárt húsz esztendőn keresztül a nemzeti gondolkozáson, vagyis
az államon kívül hagyná. Képzeljeték el magatoknak öt vagy hat a
méhkas törvényein, szabályain és alkotmányán kívül nevelt méhet
és képzeljétek el, hogy a méhek ezen csoportjaiból a méhkasban
százával volnának. Ez a méhkas romlása volna.
A népsouverainitásnak mindenekfelett a családba kell behatolnia,
mindenekfelett tagadnia kell a családi társaság szabadságát,
mindenekfelett le kell rontania a családi társaságot. Meg kell
engednie a szülőknek azon szabadságot, hogy megölelhessék
gyermekeiket, semmit többet; az a jog, hogy felnevelje őket – a
szülőikkel talán ellentétes szellemben – a népet illeti, amelynek itt
inkább mint máshol, talán sokkal inkább mint máshol, – minthogy az
érdek nagyobb, – teljesen souverainnek kell lennie.
Ime ez az, amit a néptanító – ami nekem megtámadhatatlannak
látszik – következetesen származtat le a nemzeti souverainitás
elvéből.
Az egyenlőség elvéből ezt származtatja le: «a természetnél fogva
és a törvény előtt minden ember egyenlő.» Vagyis – ha igazság
volna – minden embernek egyenlőnek kellene lennie a természet
szerint és hogy igazság legyen, minden embernek egyenlőnek kell
lennie a törvény előtt.
De hát nem egyenlők a törvény előtt és nem egyenlők a
természet szerint. Tehát szükséges, hogy azzá legyenek.
Nem egyenlők a törvény előtt. Egyenlőknek látszanak, de nem
azok. A gazdag ember – még tökéletesen és határozottan érintetlen
igazságszolgáltatással felruházott bíróságokat tételezve is fel, –
azon egyetlen tény által, hogy bőségesen képes jutalmazni az
ügyvivőket, (avoués) ügyvédeket és tanúkat, azon egyetlen tény
által, hogy hatalmával megfélemlíti mindazokat, akik
tanuskodhatnának ellene, egyáltalában nem egyenlő a törvény előtt
a szegénnyel.
Még kevésbé az a társadalom előtt, vagyis a társadalom
szervezett erőivel szemben. Ezen szempontból «befolyásos ember»,
«összeköttetésekkel bíró ember» lesz és olyan ember, akitől ugyan
senki sem függ, de akinek senki sem szeret útjába állni, vele
ellenkezni, fondorkodni ellene, sem neki ellentmondani. A gazdag és
szegény ember közt, bármi egyenlőknek képzeljük is őket, a törvény
előtt az a különbség, ami a parancsoló és az engedelmeskedő közt
van. Valóságos egyenlőség a társadalomban a társadalom előtt és a
törvény előtt csak akkor lesz, ha sem gazdagok, sem szegények
nem lesznek.
Dehát gazdagok és szegények mindig lesznek, amíg az
örökösödés fennáll. Az örökösödés eltörlendő.
De az örökösödés eltörlése után még mindig lesznek gazdagok
és szegények. Az az ember, aki rohamosan szerzett vagyont,
hatalmas ember lesz azokhoz viszonyítva, akik nem szereztek
vagyont és megjegyzendő, hogy jóllehet eltöröltük az örökösödést, a
hatalmas ember fia atyjának egész élete alatt maga is hatalmas lesz
annyira, hogy jóllehet eltöröltük az örökösödést, egy kiváltság, még
pedig a születési kiváltság fennáll és nincs egyenlőség.
Csak egyetlen eszköz van arra, hogy egyenlőség legyen és ez
az, hogy senki ne birjon és senki se szerezhessen vagyont. Az
egyetlen akként berendezett társadalmi rendszer, hogy senki se
bírjon és senki se szerezhessen vagyont: a vagyonközösség
rendszere, a kommunizmus,89 a kollektivizmus.90 A kollektivizmus
egyáltalában nem valami rendkívüliség, a kollektivizmus: az
egyenlőség; az egyenlőség: a kollektivizmus, vagy nem egyéb, mint
az egyenlőség kisértete és az egyenlőség hypocrisise. Ha valaki az
egyenlőségnek meggyőződésből és őszintén híve és aki
gondolkozott, kénytelen kollektivistává lenni. Nagyon szellemesen
mondá Bonald:91 «Tudjátok ki a deista?92 az az ember, aki nem élt
elég hosszú ideig, hogy atheistává legyen.» Mi pedig ezt mondjuk:
«tudjátok ki az antikollektivista-demokrata? az az ember, aki nem élt
elég hosszú ideig, hogy kollektivistává legyen, vagy aki hosszú ideig
élt ugyan, de gondolkozás nélkül, anélkül, hogy észrevette volna mit
tartalmaznak ideái».
– De a kollektivizmus agyrém, utópia, lehetetlen. – Tényleg
lehetetlen azon értelemben, hogy azon országban, amely elfogadná:
a cselekvőség lendítő ereje kimerítettnék. Senki sem tenne kisérletet
helyzetének javítására, ami nem is volna soha megjavítható. Az
ország egyike lenne azon «holt vizeknek», amelyről egy mai
miniszter beszélt. Mindenki hivatalnok lévén, mindenki
megvalósítaná a Goncourt testvérek93 által ekként meghatározott
eszményét a hivatalnoknak: «az a jó hivatalnok, aki a lustaságot a
pontossággal egyesíti», ez végleges meghatározás. És az ekként
rendezett országot egy többé-kevésbbé törekvő szomszéd nép tíz év
múlva meghódítaná.
Ez bizonyos; de mit bizonyít ez? azt, hogy a kollektivizmus csak
akkor volna lehetséges, ha minden országban egyszerre
megvalósítanák. Háthogy egyszerre megvalósítható legyen minden
országban, ahhoz nem szükséges más, minthogy ne legyenek többé
különálló országok, vagyis hogy ne legyen haza. Bizonyára nem
szabad a kollektivizmust megvalósítani a haza eltörlése előtt, mert
ha úgy valósítanók meg, nem szolgálna másra, mint más országok
felsőbbségének a megalapítására, azon országoknak, amelyek nem
fogadták el azt; ekként a kérdéseket sorrendbe foglalva: először el
kell törölni a hazát, hogy ily módon megvalósítható legyen a
kollektivizmus.
Ugyis, ha a nemzetek szabadon a természet ellenére
szervezkednek, ha ösztönszerűleg hierarchikus, vagyis
arisztokratikus módon szervezkednek, ha főnökeik és alárendeltjeik,
ha hatalmasaik és alsóbbrendűik vannak, ez azért van így, mert
ennek így kell lenni a csatatéren és mert mindenik nemzet érzi, hogy
csatatér. Ha mindenik nemzet érzi, hogy csatatér, ez egész
egyszerűen azért van így, mert más ilyen nemzetek is vannak és
mert mindenik érzi és tudja, hogy itt más nemzetek is vannak. Ha
többé más ilyen nemzetek nem volnának és a nemzet többé nem a
természet ellen, hanem szabadon, vagyis egyenlőség szerint
szervezkednék, a természet talán nem lenne az egyenlőség híve, de
az egyenlőség felé hajolna azon értelemben, hogy sokkal több,
határtalanul több egyenlőt kreál, mint felsőbbrendűt.
Ekként az egyenlőség az örökösödés eltörlését és a javak
egyenlőségét követeli, a javak egyenlősége a kollektivizmust teszi
szükségessé, a kollektivizmus pedig a haza eltörlését követeli. Az
egyenlőség hívei, – tehát kollektivisták, következésképen
hazaellenesek vagyunk.
Így okoskodik nézetem szerint meg nem támadható teljes
következetességgel a néptanítók legnagyobb része, olyan
következetességgel, amely nem számol a tényekkel, csak saját
elvével és egyedül avval számol. Ekként fognak okoskodni holnap is,
ha okoskodásukat folytatják, amint valószínű is hogy folytatni fogják,
igen jó vitázók levén.
Hogy visszatérjünk arra és ismételjük, hogy ha a nemzeti
souverainitás és egyenlőség következetesen és parancsolólag ezen
végeredményekhez vezetnek, ez talán azért van így, mert a nemzeti
souverainitás és egyenlőség téves ideák és mert ez bizonyítja, hogy
tényleg téves ideák azok; nem igen valószínű, hogy ilyen folyamatuk
lesz, minthogy a népsouverainitás és egyenlőség azzal egyidejűleg,
hogy általános ideák, egyszersmind erzelmek is.
Ideákká változott érzelmek ezek, mint kétségtelenül minden
általános idea és ezek igen erős erzelmek. A népfenség igazság
annak számára, aki hisz benne: minthogy annak igaznak kell lennie,
mert előtte az éppen olyan felséges, mint Cæsar teljes pompájában
a régi római előtt és XIV. Lajos teljes pompájában a XVII. század
embere előtt.
Az egyenlőség igazság, valóság annak számára, aki hisz benne,
mert annak igaznak kell lennie, mert az az igazság, mert
becstelenség volna, ha az igazság nem lenne valóság. A demokrata
előtt a világ – mióta áll – többé-kevésbbé a népsouverainitás és
egyenlőség felé halad, ez tartalmazván amazt és amaz ennek
megalapítására lévén rendelve és annak megalapítására lévén
hivatva és egyik úgy, mint a másik maga a civilizáció és az az
állapot, amelyben az egyik vagy a másik nincs elérve, vagy vissza
van szorítva: a barbárság.
Ezek tehát dogmák. A dogma hatalmas érzelem, ha megtalálta
formuláját. Mindaz, amit ezen két dogmából az ember
következetesen levezethet: valóság, mert ez jog és ezt terjeszteni
kötelesség.
Tegyük hozzá, hogy a néptanítót ugyanazon értelemben vezetik
még a kevésbé általános érzelmek, amelyeknek ereje önmagukban
van. A községben a lelkésszel áll szemben, aki miként ő az egyedüli
személyiség ezen helységben, aki némi tanultsággal bír. Kifejlődik a
vetélkedés és a befolyás harca. A lelkész a történeti kapcsolatok
következtében többé-kevésbbé meleg párthíve lesz néha a
monarchiának, az arisztokráciának majdnem mindig. Részese egy
olyan testületnek, amely állami rend volt, meg van győződve, hogy
testülete mindennek dacára még mindig állami rend. Ha a
kormányrendszer konkordatumos, a kormányrendszer állami
testületnek ismeri el a papi testületet, miután éppen úgy tekinti őket
mint a bíróságot vagy a hadsereget. Ha a kormányrendszer az állam
és egyház elkülönítésének rendszere, a papi testület előtte még
inkább állami rendnek látszik, mivel erős alapokon még az ország
határain túl is szervezve, olyan kollektiv személyiséget alkot, amely
nem minden veszély nélkül és nem is minden eredmény nélkül
gyakran összeütközésbe kerül magával az állammal is.
Mivel egy olyan történeti hatalomnak részese, amely különbözik
a nemzeti hatalomtól és amely nem kirendeltsége a nemzeti
hatalomnak, a lelkész többé-kevésbbé határozottan és öntudatosan
arisztokratikus gondolkodású.
Versenytársa a néptanító annyival inkább beleveti magát a
demokratikus elvek áramlatába és kedvvel öleli azokat magához,
amely kedvbe mindig annyi féltékenység, mint meggyőződés vegyül.
Különösen ő az, aki hiszi inkább mint a XVIII. század valamely
filozófusa, – mivel neki áll igen nagy érdekében, tapasztalásból és
lelkesedésből hinni, – hogy mindaz, amit a lelkész tanít, tiszta
feltalálása a szellemes elnyomatásnak, hogy a papok meg akarták
fékezni és bilincsekbe verni a népet, hogy uralmukat
egyszersmindenkorra megalapítsák és innen ered a Diderot94 és
Holbach95 felújított bölcsészeti eszméivel való tüntetése. A tanító
előtt szinte lehetetlennek látszik, hogy a pap ne legyen nagy bűnös.

«Az atheizmus arisztokratikus», mondá Robespierre,96


megemlékezve Rousseauról. Az atheizmus demokratikus, mondják
a modern néptanítók. Honnan ered ezen különböző megítélés?
Abból, hogy a szabad gondolkozás divatban volt a XVIII. században
a nagy uraknál, az Istenben vetett hit pedig egyértelműleg a népnél;
abból, hogy a mai papság azon indokokból, amelyeket elmondtam
és visszaemlékezve a demokrácia győzelmeinek első idejében az
egyházuk által kiállott üldöztetésekre, megmaradt arisztokratának
vagy azzá lett inkább, mint valaha. Az atheizmus tehát
demokratikussá vált, mint fegyver a deisták ellen, akik általában
arisztokraták.
Az atheizmus különben – bármit hitt légyen is erről Robespierre –
elég jól megfér az aljas demagógia közérzelmeivel. Nem lenni
lekötve semmi által, nem lenni korlátolva semmi által souverain
hatalmában, ime ez a nép uralkodó eszméje; vagyis inkább az, hogy
a nép ne legyen kötve semmi által, ne legyen korlátolva semmi által
souverain hatalmában: ime a demokrata kedvenc eszméje. Ámde
Isten korlát, Isten kötelék. De miként a demokrata nem engedi meg
az olyan évszázados alkotmányt, amelyet a nép ne volna képes
lerontani és amely megtiltja neki a rossz törvények hozatalát, miként
a demokrata nem engedi meg – Aristoteles terminologiáját
alkalmazva – a törvények uralmát, egy régi törvényhozás uralmát,
amely visszatartja a népet és határok közé szorítja a decretumok
mindennapi gyártásától: épen úgy nem engedi meg a demokrata az
egy Istent, akinek megvannak a maga parancsolatai, megvan a
maga törvényhozása, amely régibb és felsőbb minden más
törvénynél és minden decretumnál és aki korlátot állít a nép
törvényhozási velleitasai, szeszélyes mindenhatósága, egyszóval a
nép souverainitása elé.
Sedán után megkérdezték Bismarck-tól: «Most, hogy Napoleon
letört, ki ellen fog ön hadat viselni?» ezt felelte: «XIV. Lajos ellen». A
demokrata megkérdeztetvén atheismusa felől, ezt felelhetné:
«Mózes ellen hadakozom».
Innen ered a demokraták atheismusa, innen ered a néptanítók
atheismusa. Innen ered a formula «sem Isten, sem úr», ami az
anarchista számára nem kíván semmiféle javítást, sem pótlékot, –
de amit a demokrácia számára ekként kell módosítani: «sem Isten,
sem úr, egyedül a nép».
Viktor Hugo mondá 1849, vagy 1850. évi nagy politikai beszédei
egyikének végén: «… és ezentúl csak két hatalom lesz: a nép és
Isten». A modern demokrata tudni véli, hogy ha Isten van, a nép
souverainitása meg van támadva, ha hisz Istenben.
Végül pedig a néptanítót demokratikus érzelmeiben, összes
demokratikus érzelmeiben megerősíti politikai helyzete, melyet neki
Franciaországban teremtettek. Idegenszerű, zavart támasztó
rendellenesség az, hogy a XIX. század kormányai (igazságot kell
neki szolgáltatni, mindenek felett a most működő kormány) nagyon
tiszteletben tartották a felső- és középoktatás tanárainak
szabadságát és legkevésbé sem tartották tiszteletben a nép
tanárainak szabadságát. A felsőoktatás tanára, kivált 1870 óta
határozottan taníthatja mindazt, amit akar, kivéve az
erkölcstelenséget és a haza törvényeinek böcsmérlését. Sőt
vitathatja is a törvényeket azon egyedüli feltétel mellett, hogy elvként
álljon előtte, miszerint azoknak engedelmeskedni tartozik, amíg
eltörölve nincsenek. Politikai, társadalmi és vallási
véleményszabadsága teljes. Akadályozva néha csak tanítványainak
megnyilatkozásai által van. A középoktatás tanára majdnem hasonló
szabadságot élvez. Nincs alárendelve csupán a tanrendnek s ennek
is elég lazán. Azon szellemben, amelyben működik, jóformán soha
sincs nyugtalanítva. Bizalommal vannak iránta.
Másrészről talán egyetlen kormány sem jött arra a gondolatra,
hogy számonkérje a felső- és középoktatás tanáraitól azt az eljárást,
melyet a politikai választásainal tanusítanak, – még kevésbé, hogy
felkérje őket propaganda csinálására a kormánynak kellemes jelöltek
kedvéért.
Midőn átlépünk a középoktatás köréből az elemi oktatás körébe,
mindent megváltozva látunk. Először is a néptanítót nem
természetes előljárója a tanfelügyelő (recteur), vagy a
közoktatásügyi miniszter nevezi ki, hanem a préfet, vagyis a
belügyminiszter, vagyis a kormány politikai főnöke. Más szavakkal: a
hivatalnokok a nép által való azon kirendelesének van itt helye, –
amelyről fentebb beszéltünk – de itt egy közvetítővel kevesebb van.
A belügyminiszter kiváltképen az, aki ez idő szerint a nemzeti
politikai akaratot képviseli. És a belügyminiszter az, aki préfetjei által
nevezi ki a néptanítókat. Tehát a nemzeti politikai akarat az, amely a
néptanítókat választja. Lehetetlen nekik jobbat mondani, ez helyes
is, mert tudtukra kell adni, hogy politikai szempontból vannak
megválasztva és kell hogy politikai ügynököknek tekintsék magukat.
Tényleg nem is mások, vagy inkább mások, de mégis
mindenekfelett azok. Miként ezek a préfetektől, a préfetek pedig
sokban a képviselőktől függnek, nem a képviselők azok, akik
kirendelik őket, de a képviselők azok, akik elhelyezik, előléptetik,
kegyvesztettekké teszik és a többszörös áthelyezések által
éhinségre juttathatják őket, stb. Ó! Meglévén adva ekként a nehéz
és viszontagságos helyzet, ahova helyeztetnek azon kéz által,
amelytől várják kineveztetésüket, legalább az elmozdíthatlanság
nagyon viszonylagos s különben igen gyenge, de végre is arra
szolgáló biztosítékával kellene birniok! Nincs meg nekik. A
felsőoktatás tanárai elmozdíthatatlanok, pedig nekik erre nincs
szükségük; a középoktatás tanárai is körülbelöl azok; a néptanító
nem.
Tehát ki van szolgáltatva a politikusoknak, akik belőle választási
agenst formálnak, akik mint ilyenre számítanak reá, és akik alig
bocsátanak meg neki, ha hiába számítottak reá.
Ebből következik, hogy a néptanítók legnagyobb része demagog,
mert azok akarnak lenni, még pedig csudálatos elragadtatással és
lelkesedéssel; és hogy azok, akik nem akarnak demagógokká lenni,
akaratuk nélkül is demagógokká lesznek, mert kell, hogy azokká
legyenek.
Annyival is inkább, mert akként folynak a dolgok, hogy azzá
lesznek azok is, akiknek nincs arra semmiféle hajlandóságuk sem.
«Nincsenek zsoldosok a tülekedésben», mondá Augier.97 Sőt
belelovagolva néha akaratuk ellenére a harcba, kényszerítve lévén,
hogy legalább úgy tünjenek fel, mintha a tülekedésben
résztvennének: ütéseket kapnak s attól fogva, hogy megkapták
azokat, hozzá fűzödnek az ügyhöz és névhez a a melyért és amely
miatt kapták azokat. Mindig azzal végzik, hogy az lesz a
véleményük, amelyet neki tulajdonítani fogtok és demagógnak tartva
a fiatal néptanító attól kezdve, midőn a faluba megérkezett, s mivel
helyzeténél fogva ellent nem mondhat, rosszul fogadva, mint olyan
az ellenpárt által: a következő évben már kezd meggyőződött
demagog lenni.
A demokrácia ekként csupán olyan oktatást nyer, amely
megerősíti és meggyökerezteti hibáiban.
Arra volna szüksége, hogy ne képzelje magát mindenhatónak és
legyenek kételyei teljhatalma iránt és higyje, hogy ennek a
teljhatalomnak bizonyos határokkal kell birnia; neki minden
fenntartás nélkül, a korlátok nélkül való népsouverainitás dogmáját
tanítják.
Hinnie kellene abban, miszerint az egyenlőség annyira
természetellenes, hogy a természetet sem lehet kijavítani oly
módon, hogy az emberek között «a teljes egyenlőséget»
létrehozzuk, és hogy az a nép, mely azt megvalósítaná – ami
lehetséges – azon lények sorsára jutna, amelyek úgy akarnának
élni, mint a természet törvényeivel ellenlábasok; azt tanítják neki, –
ami különben igaz – hogy nincs egyenlőség, ha nem teljes, ha nem
tökéletes és hogy alkalmazni kell azt a javakra, a társadalmi
helyzetekre, az értelemre, az emberek magasságára és talán
természetére is és mindent el kell követni arra, hogy a teljes
nivellálás megvalósítható legyen.
Szüksége volna arra, – minthogy igen természetes, hogy
kevesebb hajlamunk van a nyomasztó terhek iránt – hogy
megerősíttessék benne a hazafias érzelem; hogy tanítsák neki,
miszerint a katonai szolgálat egy gyülöletes és barbár multnak
fájdalmas hagyománya, és mielébb el kell tüntetni a békés civilizáció
köréből.
Egyszóval – Aristotelessel szólva – a demokrácia italát neki
egészen tisztán töltik,98 miként ezt a demagógok az athéneiekkel
tették és ahonnan a gyógyszernek kellene jönni, onnan a mérgezés
ered.
Így nyilatkozik ugyanez az Aristoteles az egyenlőségről, egy
szellemes és mélyen járó beszéddel: «Inkább a szenvedélyekben,
mint a javakban kell megvalósítani az egyenlőséget». és hozzáteszi:
«ezen egyenlőség, csakis a törvények által adott nevelés gyümölcse
lehet». Ez helyes. A nevelésnek csak egy végcél felé szabad
irányulnia: vissza vezetni a szenvedélyeket az egyenlőséghez, a
léleknyugalomhoz, a léleknek egy bizonyos egyensúlyához. Azt
találjuk, hogy a modern demokráciának adott oktatás nem egészen
ezen szellemben halad előre, – de egészen az ellenkezőben.
XII.

AZ ÁLOM.

Tehát melyek azon gyógyszerek, amelyeket ezen modern


betegség, az értelmi- és erkölcsi kontárság ellen alkalmaznunk
lehet? Melyek a főbb eszközei annak – miként Fouillée99 mondja –
hogy kikerüljük azon szirteket, amelyek a demokráciát fenyegetik?
Azt hiheti bizonyára az olvasó, hogy nem látok semmi gyógyszert,
minthogy egy dédelgetett betegséggel állunk szemben, olyannal,
amely csak önmaga által gyógyítható.

Fouillée5) egy felsőbb arisztokratikus kamarát ajánl, vagyis olyat,


amely az ország összes hivatottságát képviselné, mindazok által
választva, akik az országban kölünös hivatottsággal bírnak: ú. m.
bíróság, hadsereg, egyetem, kereskedelmi kamara stb.
Nagyon helyes; de szükséges volna, hogy a demokrácia
helyeselje ezt; és éppen ezen hivatott csoportok iránt bizalmatlan,
úgy tekintvén azokat, – egyébiránt teljes joggal, a szónak bizonyos
értelmében – mint arisztokráciát.
Az államnak még egy erőteljes beavatkozását javasolja a
közerkölcsiség helyreállítására, ú. m. az alkohol-, szerencsejáték- és
pornographia-ellenességet.
Azonkívül, hogy ezen beszédében bizonyos visszahatás érzik,
mert ez tisztán az 1873. évi «erkölcsi rend» («l’ordre moral»)
programmja, meg kell jegyezni, – miként ezt maga Fouillée is
beismeri – hogy az állam egyáltalán nem ölheti meg azt, ami őt élteti
és nem ronthatja le bevételeinek főforrásait. A demokrácia – ezt a
demokrácia igaz képviselői maguk beismerték – «nem olcsó
kormányzat»; mindig azon reményben alkották meg, és részben
azon szándékból, hogy gazdaságos kormányzat legyen, és mindig
veszteséggel járt, minthogy a párthívek nagyobb számára van
szüksége, mint más kormányzatnak és kisebb számú elégedetlenre,
mint más kormányzatnak, és mert ezen párthíveket egy-vagy
másféle módon meg kell jutalmazni és ezen elégedetleneket le kell
fegyverezni, megvásárolván őket egy-vagy más módon.
A demokrácia legyen bár régi vagy modern, mindig egy esetleges
zsarnoktól való rettegésben él, akit közellévőnek képzel. Ezen
zsarnok ellen, aki egy energikus kisebbséggel kormányozna,
rendkívül nagy többségre van szüksége, amelyet magának kegyek
által kell biztosítania és ezen zsarnoktól el kell vonnia az
elégedetleneket, akik támogatói lesznek, lefegyverezvén őket még
nagyobb kegyek által.
Tehát sok pénzre van szüksége. Ezt a gazdagok osztályának
lehető legnagyobb kifosztása által találja meg; ámde ez igen korlátolt
forrás, mivel a gazdagok osztálya igen kicsiny. Sokkal könnyebben s
bőségesebben megtalálja a közönség bűneinek kihasználása által,
mivel a közönség nagyszámú csoport. Innen ered szükségképeni
kedveskedése a «korcsmák» iránt, «amelyeknek bezárása sokkal
inkább veszélyes volna rá nézve, mint a templomok bezárása», –
miként Fouillée mondja. A növekedő szükségletek miatt – miként ezt
jósolja – semmi kétség, hogy ne tulajdonítsa magának a kéjházak
monopoliumát és a szeméremellenes iratok kiadását, hogy «pénzt
szerezzen». És mindezek után kénytelen eltürni ezeket azon
haszonért, amelyet nehány vállalkozótól kap, vagy pedig a maga
számára sajátítja ki azokat, hogy hasznot húzzon azokból: nemde
mindegy az erkölcsi eredmény – és a pénzügyi művelet a második
esetben nem sokkal jobb-e, mint az elsőben?
Fouillée még arról is biztosít, hogy a reformnak «felülről és nem
alólról kell jönnie» és hogy «felülről és nem alulról jöhet a
megújhodás mozgalma».
Magam sem kívánok jobbat, de azt kérdem, hogyan lehet ezt
keresztülvinni? Minthogy határozottan minden a néptől függ, – vajjon
ki és mi hathat a népre, kivéve magát a népet? Minthogy minden a
néptől függ, mi által lehet azt megindítani, ha nem egy belső erő
által? – Minthogy bölcsésszel beszélgetünk, tehát használhatjuk
ezen szavakat: mi egy κινητης α κινητος-szal100 állunk szemben,
egy motorral, amely a lökést adja, de amely nem kapja meg azt.
Egy elv, vagy – ha így akarja az olvasó – egy előítélet tünt el: a
hivatottság előítélete; nem hiszik többé, hogy az ért a dologhoz, aki
kell hogy foglalkozzék vele, de abban sem hisznek többé, akit azért
kell megválasztani, hogy foglalkozzék vele. Következésképen
nemcsak hogy rosszul intéztetnek az összes dolgok, de az is
lehetetlen, hogy bármely mellékuton juthassunk el azok helyes
kezeléséhez. Nem látjuk a megoldást.
Nitzsche természetesen iszonyodott a demokráciától, csakhogy –
mint az összes energikus pesszimisták, mint az összes
pesszimisták, akik nem közömbösek – időnkint ezt mondá: «Vannak
lemondó, gyáva peszimisták, ilyenek nem akarunk lenni»; és midőn
nem akart azzá lenni, arra ragadtatta magát, hogy a demokráciát
jóakaró szemmel nézze.
Majd aesthetikus álláspontra helyezkedve ezt mondta: «le kell
szállni a néphez, amelyet éppen úgy nem hagyhatunk figyelmen
kívül, amint nem mehetünk el minden csudálkozás nélkül egy
hatalmas és egészséges növény mellett»; s jóllehet ez nagyon is
ellentétben áll mindazzal, amit «a marhacsordáról» és a «mocsári
marháról» mondott, ennek a gondolatnak mégis van némi értelme.
Azt jelenti, hogy az ösztön, – erő és hogy minden erő először
érdekes a megfigyelésre, azután meg hogy a cselekvés erélyével,
életösztönnel és a kiterjesztés rugójával kell bírnia.
Lehetséges, jóllehet határozatlan. Összegezve a mondottakat: a
tömeg csak számszerint hatalmas mivel eldöntetett, hogy csak a
szám határoz. Ez megoldási mód, ámde egy megoldási mód nem ad
valódi erőt annak, aki nem bír avval. A cselekvés ereje mindig annál
van, akinek szándéka van, aki kombinálja, fenntartja, prolongálja és
követi azt. Ha ez tökéletesen korlátolva, vagy pedig a tehetetlenség
vagy a tetterő minimumára van kárhoztatva, nem látjuk jól, hogy a
tömeg maga nélküle fog-e bírni a cselekvés erejével. Jobban kellene
magát kifejeznie.
Más alkalommal azt a kérdést veti fel Nietzsche, vajjon nem kell-
e tiszteletben tartani azon jogot, mellyel mindamellett bírhat a
sokaság, hogy magát azon ideál szerint kormányozza, amelyben sok
fokozat van, de amely az övé; vajjon megtagadhatjuk-e a tömegtől
azon jogot, hogy keresse igazait és azon hitét, hogy megtalálta
azokat, az ő életbevágó hitét, az életéről való hitet és azt, hogy
megtalálta ezen hitet? A tömegek az összes emberiségnek alapját –
és az összes kulturának telepét képezik. Ezek nélkül mi lenne
gazdáikból? Ezeknek szükségük van arra, hogy a tömeg boldog
legyen. Legyünk türelmesek; türjük el, hogy fellázadt rabszolgáink –
és egy pillanatra uraink, – őket kecsegtető illuziókat találjanak ki.
Gyakran – mert többször visszatér ezen gondolatra – rátérve
szokásos arisztokrataságára, úgy tekintette a demokráciát, mint
hanyatlást, a jövendő aristokrácia bekövetkezésének feltételét:
«Magasabb kultura csak nagy területen épülhet fel, csak
egészséges és erősen consolidált középszerűségen». (1887. Tíz
esztendővel előbb a rabszolgaságot úgy tekintette, mint amely a
görög és római magas kulturának nélkülözhetlen feltételét képezte.)
Következésképen az egyetlen ideiglenes, de még hosszú ideig
érvényben lévő végcél az ember kisebbítése; mert elsősorban egy
terjedelmes alap szükséges, amelyen az erős emberek faja
felemelkedhetik. «Az európai ember kisebbítése azon nagy
processus, amelyet nem szabad feltartóztatni, sőt inkább még
siettetni kell azt. Ez az aktiv erő, amely egy sokkal erősebb faj
felemelkedését engedi remélni, egy olyan fajét, amely bőségesen
bírná még azon tulajdonságokat, amelyek hiányoznak a kisebbitett
emberfajban: akarat, felelősség, biztonság, azon tulajdonság, mely
szerint célt tűz ki magának…»
Dehát hogyan származhatik a középszerűségből, a kétségtelenül
növekedő középszerűségből – miként Nietzsche képzeli – hogyan
mely természetes vagy mesterséges eljárás által fog a tömegből egy

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