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Textbook Ebook The Roman Empire in Crisis 248 260 Paul N Pearson All Chapter PDF
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Paul N Pearson
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The Roman Empire
in Crisis, 248–260
The Roman Empire in Crisis, 248–260
When the Gods Abandoned Rome
Paul N Pearson
First published in Great Britain in 2022 by
Pen & Sword Military
An imprint of
Pen & Sword Books Ltd
Yorkshire – Philadelphia
The right of Paul N Pearson to be identified as Author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
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Contents
Acknowledgements
List of Plates
List of Maps
Introduction
Prologue: Millennium
Part I: Philip to Decius, 248–251 CE
Chapter 1 Empire at the Millennium
Chapter 2 Rebels
Chapter 3 The Forces of Conservatism
Chapter 4 Escalation of the Gothic War
Chapter 5 Ostrogotha Takes the Initiative
Chapter 6 The Road to Abritus
Part II: Gallus to Valerian, 251–260 CE
Chapter 7 Gallus
Chapter 8 253: World in Flames
Chapter 9 Restorers of the Human Race
Chapter 10 Turbulence
Chapter 11 Nadir
Chapter 12 Disintegration
Epilogue: Rome Abandons the Gods
Literature Cited
Notes
Acknowledgements
I
thank Cardiff University for supporting my investigations through
the provision of an Honorary Professorship. Jesper Ericsson of
the Hunterian Museum in Glasgow was very helpful in arranging
photography of the Sponsian coin and several other associated
pieces, and discussed their significance. Aleksander Bursche
provided helpful input relating to his discoveries of Roman gold in
Eastern Europe and commented on the relevant text sections. I am
grateful to Jana Grusková and Otto Kresten for permission to
reproduce photographs of the Vienna Palimpsest with spectral
imaging, as made at the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek by the
Early Manuscripts Electronic Library Project FWF P24523-G19; and
also Gunther Martin for discussion of the Scythica Vindobonensia. I
am grateful to the staff of the Maltepe Open Air Museum in Plovdiv
District, Bulgaria, for kindly arranging access to that fascinating site
before the formal opening, and also the staff of the Regional History
Museum at Razgrad for discussions regarding the topography of
Roman Moesia and the battlefield of Abritus. I am very grateful to
Bridget Wade for her support and discussion throughout the project
and helping interpret the archaeological sites in Plovdiv. Peter
Davies, Christine Dubery, Diana Frost and Trisha Humphreys of the
Crewkerne Ancient History Group contributed to various convivial
discussions while the work was in development. Thanks also to Phil
Sidnell, Matt Jones and Chris Trim for their efficient and professional
work seeing the manuscript through to publication.
List of Plates
T
his book is a narrative account of a dozen momentous years in
the history of Rome intended for anyone interested in ancient
history. The timeline stands alone, but it roughly follows on
from my earlier book, Maximinus Thrax, which was published in
2016. As I remarked in the introduction to that book, the third
century has a special appeal because it is not part of the corpus of
shared learning that has become known as ‘general knowledge’.
Many people can name a string of famous Romans – soldiers,
statesmen, emperors, and even poets – but one can safely bet that
none of them would hail from the period discussed herein. That is
not because it was an uninteresting or unimportant time; far from it,
as I hope the reader will agree.
Although I am an academic, my intention here is to tell the story
for the general reader rather than scholarly research as such. It is,
therefore, mainly a work of synthesis. I have engaged with a wide
range of questions that are actively being studied by many
specialists. Occasionally I have made what I believe to be proposals
that may be worthy of broader consideration by scholars. I have
made copious use of footnotes to try to do justice to the wide range
of primary and secondary literature and so that none of my
suggestions
or inferences stands unsupported.
The central organizing principle of the text is the passage of time.
I find that describing events in sequence, without too much
foresight, is a fine way of imagining what it must have been like to
experience them. Decisions that people made are often best
understood without the benefit of hindsight. Putting the story
together was especially challenging for the final few years of my
chosen period when the precise timing and sequence of events is
not firmly established and subject to vigorous debate. I did not want
to trouble the reader by presenting too many alternative timelines
and scenarios, so I have chosen what I think is the most likely
chronology, while signposting where the major uncertainties lie. My
justification is that the narrative is itself what scientists call a ‘model’
– a framework explanation that can be confirmed or refuted when
new evidence comes to light.
Telling the story of the crisis years is no easy task. Events are fast-
moving and intricate and the historical sources are particularly
patchy and challenging to interpret. Because of this, sweeping
histories of Rome have tended to skirt over the period in just a few
sentences. Fortunately, however, important new information has
come to light in recent years. Significant archaeological finds have
been made that are directly relevant to the period, foremost of
which is the discovery of the great battlefield of Abritus, which I
have studied myself. Fundamental new insights have also been
gleaned regarding the nature and course of an appalling pestilence
that swept the empire. Most amazing, however, is the discovery of
substantial new chunks of history which were written down for
posterity by Dexippus of Athens, a man who lived through the
period. These priceless pages have been meticulously recovered,
published and translated for the first time, the definitive edition
appearing in 2020.1 I applaud everyone in that task for the heroic
effort of scholarship involved and the spirit of openness and
collaboration that is evident from all the publications. Dexippus’s text
is still very incomplete, and more may yet be deciphered, but it
invites a radical new interpretation of events that had previously
defied analysis. Details of all these discoveries – scientific,
archaeological and historiographical – will be provided in due course,
but together they make it possible to throw new light on a neglected
but important interval of history when classical civilization crumbled
and a new world order began to emerge.
Prologue
Millennium
T
he year that we now count as 248 of the Common Era was
Rome’s millennium. By the standard reckoning a thousand
years had passed since Romulus had used his plough to mark
out the city boundaries on the Palatine Hill. The Romans even
claimed to know exactly when the city was founded: 21 April, 753
BCE. Every year, that day was celebrated as Rome’s birthday and also
as a festival sacred to Pales, god of livestock, shepherds and drovers
(or perhaps goddess; the Romans seem to have been undecided on
the sex of this particular deity, or even whether there were one or
two of them, so ancient was the cult).1
Romulus was the mortal son of Mars, the god of war, and as every
Roman knew he had been abandoned at birth with his twin brother
Remus on the banks of the Tiber. The babies had been discovered
by a she-wolf who sustained them with her milk, then by a
woodpecker who fed them morsels, and finally by a shepherd, who
took them in. As adults, the twins decided to establish a settlement
but they argued bitterly about the best location. The dispute became
so violent that Romulus killed his brother before founding the city
that bears his name.2 The story would seem to portend a violent and
warlike future for Rome with much internecine struggle. Subsequent
generations usually managed to live up to that expectation, and
never more so than in the period covered by this book.
Amazingly there may be some vestige of truth in the city’s
legendary origin. Archaeological discoveries on the Palatine Hill –
rudimentary buildings, the remains of a wall, and so on – date back
to around the middle of the eighth century BCE when Romulus is
supposed to have lived there. An important riverbank trading centre
was established around that time, with links across the
Mediterranean.3
The first major milestone in the city’s history is of deep
significance for understanding the events described in this book.
Around 509 BCE, the fledgling city-state had become tired of
tyrannical rulers and expelled the last of its kings. An orderly
Republic was instituted, headed by pairs of supreme magistrates
called consuls who were elected annually. It should have been a
time of celebration and optimism but a great plague struck the city,
indicating the displeasure of the gods. One of the new consuls,
Publius Valerius Publicola, sought to appease them by sacrificing to
Proserpine, goddess of fertility. In the winter months, this goddess
(who is identified with the Greek Persephone) was confined to the
Underworld as the part-time enforced wife of Pluto, but she was set
free in the spring, bringing new life to the fields and crops. Perhaps
Proserpine could bring about spiritual renewal for Rome? The
sacrifices worked. The plague ceased, heralding a new springtime
and a joyous new age or saeculum in which Rome was set to thrive
as a free Republic with endorsement from on high. At some point it
was decreed that the sacrifices should be renewed every hundred
years, each time ushering in a new Golden Age.
Rome survived as a Republic for almost 500 years until an
effective monarchy was re-established by Octavian, who ruled from
27 BCE and is regarded as the first Roman emperor. Crucially, he did
not base his claim to rule on his evident military genius and ruthless
suppression of all challengers but rather on his successful
intercession with the gods through his role as highest priest.
Octavian was careful to style his autocratic rule as denoting another
dawning Golden Age. The Senate of Rome awarded him the
numinous title augustus (related to the word for religious augury) as
a personal name, hence he is generally known simply as Augustus.
The propaganda of his regime focused relentlessly on the benefits of
peace and prosperity that had been brought about through his
divine offices, in contrast to the catastrophe of civil war that had
preceded it. Every subsequent emperor appended the name
Augustus to their own so it quickly became synonymous with the
office.
In 48 CE, the emperor Claudius, a descendant of the first Augustus
by aristocratic adoption, celebrated the eight hundredth anniversary
of the founding of the city and another new Golden Age. He held a
spectacular event called the ludi saeculares (or ‘secular games’ as
the phrase is usually translated). It was styled as the spectacle of a
lifetime because no person then alive would live long enough to see
the next such event.4 A century later in 148 CE it was the turn of
Antoninus Pius to celebrate 900 years.
In the early third century, the theme of cyclical decline and
renewal continued to be ingrained in the Roman worldview,
especially via the Stoic philosophy. The more gloomy intellectuals
were apt to regard their world as having been in long decline and in
desperate need of renewal. All manner of ills from failed harvests
and diseases to earthquakes and strange portents were blamed on
the fact that the world was in old age (senectus mundi). The
foremost historian of the time, Cassius Dio, had famously declared
‘our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and
rust’.5 A new springtime was to be expected, but as usual it would
require approval from the gods.
In 248 CE the emperor at the millennium was Marcus Julius
Philippus, or Philip I as he is known to history. It is clear from the
propaganda that he made a huge effort to celebrate the glory of
Rome. Three days of public holiday were declared, running from 21
– 23 April. It was the perfect time of year for a street party with
spring well underway and the dead heat of summer yet to arrive.
But far from being ‘secular’, in the modern sense of non-religious,
the whole event was steeped in the traditions and rituals of Roman
religion. The focus was on averting evil by honouring, appeasing and
pleasing the gods through sacred ritual, including solemn sacrifice,
spells and incantation.6
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“And where is your husband?”
“He is in London. My father does not know that such a person
exists.”
“Great Cæsar’s ghost!”
“No; I have never dared to tell him yet. I married from school,” she
continued, and in a few hurried sentences gave the outline of her
story, omitting her husband’s name and profession, and all reference
to her small son. “You see how I am situated. I have not ventured to
tell the truth yet, and I confide my secret to your honour and your
keeping.”
“Of course it is perfectly safe,” he began, rather stiffly, “and I feel
myself very much honoured by your confidence, and all that.”
“Oh, Lord Tony, please don’t talk to me in that tone,” she
exclaimed, with tears in her eyes. “I told you—because—you are
what men call ‘a good sort;’ because I feel that I can rely upon you;
because, though you like me, you don’t really care for me, you know
you don’t; nor have I ever encouraged you or any man. My father is
devoted to you; he is determined to—to—well—you know his wishes
—and I want you to allow him to think that you have cooled, and
have changed your mind. You—you understand?”
“And play the hypocrite all round!”
“Yes, but only for a little while.”
“Rather hard lines, when I have not changed my mind. Is Rachel in
the swindle?”
“No—oh no!—no one but you and me and my husband, and a
friend of his.”
“And pray, when do you intend to discharge your little domestic
bomb?”
“When I go home. If I were to speak now, I should be turned out,
probably on the hall door-steps, and the party would be broken up.”
(Yes, and there were several good days’ deer-stalking still in
prospect, thought Lord Tony, much as he was concerned at this
recent astounding confidence.)
“I know you are dreadfully vexed,” she said humbly; “but you will
forgive me and stand by me, won’t you?” and she looked at him
appealingly. She had really most lovely and expressive eyes; who
could refuse them anything?
“Meaning, that I am to neglect you openly, slight you on all
occasions?”
“There is a medium; you need not be too marked in your defection,
unless you like”—with a short, hysterical laugh.
“I don’t like the job at all; but I will lend you a hand, and be a party
to the fraud. Whoever is your husband, Mrs. What’s-your-name, is a
deuced lucky fellow!”
“Then it is a bargain, that you keep my secret?”
“Yes; here is my hand on it!”
At this instant (it is constantly the way) Mr. West paused and
looked behind, and was extremely pleased. He had intended to
shout to this tardy pair to hurry on, for the carriages were waiting, the
horses, of course, catching cold. However, he must make
allowances, under the circumstances.
Evidently Tony had come to the point again, and been accepted.
He hastened down the road in great delight, hustled the company
into various vehicles, and departed in the landau vis-à-vis to Mrs.
Leach (the wretched condition of her hair and complexion discounted
many delightful recollections of her beauty); and he took care to
leave the dog-cart behind, for the sole use of the happy couple.
CHAPTER XXI.
AN INTERRUPTION.
It was certainly strange that Lord Tony had not sought him out the
evening after the picnic, said Mr. West to himself, considering that it
was all settled now. Indeed, it struck him that his future son-in-law
pointedly avoided him, and had lounged out of the smoking-room
when he found himself with him alone. Of course, Lord Tony was
aware that his consent was granted, but he would have liked him to
have come to him at once. The next day, despite an effort to escape,
Mr. West captured his reluctant quarry en route to the stables, and
said, as he overtook him, rather out of breath, “Well, my boy, I see
you made it all right yesterday! Why have you not been to tell the old
man—eh?” and he beamed upon him and poked him playfully with
his cane.
Lord Tony suddenly found himself in a very nice moral dilemma.
Oh! here was a fix and no mistake!
“There is nothing to tell yet, Mr. West,” he blurted out.
“What! when I saw you both philandering behind the party hand-in-
hand, and—and—left you the dog-cart on the strength of it!”
“Oh, I only took Miss West’s hand for a moment—to—to ratify a
promise.”
“Promise of what?” impatiently.
“A promise of her friendship,” stammered his companion. It was a
moment of mental reservations.
“Oh!” with an expression of deepest scorn. “That wasn’t the way
we made love when I was a young man. What a miserable milk-and-
watery set you are! Friendship!”
“Yes, I know there is a falling off,” admitted Lord Tony, with
humility. “But we are not as energetic in any way as the last
generation. We prefer to take things easy, and to take our own time.
Miss West is young—‘marry in haste and repent at leisure,’ you
know,” he pursued collectedly. “You must not rush Miss West, you
know. She—she—all she asks for is time.”
“Did she name any time?”
“Er—well—no.”
“I’m afraid you mismanaged the business—eh? You just leave it to
me. I’ll arrange it!”
“No—no—no. That’s just the one thing I bar. Interference would
dish the whole concern. I beg and implore of you to leave—a—well
alone—for the present, at any rate. Miss West and I understand one
another.”
“I’m glad of that; for I’m blessed if I understand either of you!”
exclaimed his disgusted listener.
“Ah! hullo, there goes Miss Pace, and I promised to play tennis
with her. I must go and get my bat and shoes.” Exit.
At the end of September the tide of enjoyment at Clane was at its
height. Theatricals were in rehearsal—that fertile field for flirtation
and fighting. The bags of the season had been enviably heavy; the
poor neighbours were sensible of a pleasant circulation of money
and new ideas; prices were rising steadily. The wealthy neighbours
appreciated Mr. West’s princely hospitality, and spoke of him as “not
a bad sort in his way, though a shocking little bounder.” Mrs. Leach
had prolonged her visit, and her attentions to her host were
becoming quite remarkable. He was not an ardent sportsman; his
short legs were unaccustomed to striding over the heather-clad
mountains; he did not want to shoot deer—in fact, he was rather
afraid of them. So he left the delights of his shooting to well-
contented, keen young men, and was easily beguiled into long
saunters among the grounds and woods in the syren’s company. To
tell the truth, they were not much missed, and they frequently rested
on rustic seats, and talked to one another with apparent confidence
—flattering confidence. He spoke of Madeline’s future—his earnest
desire to see her suitably married. “A girl like her might marry a
duke; don’t you think so, Mrs. Leach?”
“She might,” said the lady, but without a trace of enthusiasm in her
voice—in fact, there was an inflection of doubt. “She is undeniably
lovely, but——”
“But what?”
“I—well—I am sentimental” (about as sentimental as a
charwoman), “and I have my own ideas. I think that dear Madeline
has a private romance: that she either cares for some one whom she
can never marry——”
“That’s nonsense,” interrupted her companion, impatiently. “I have
her word of honour that there is no one she wants to marry.”
“Oh, well, she may have loved and lost,” said the lady, sweetly;
“for, speaking as a woman, it is inconceivable that a girl who is, or
was, heart-free could be absolutely indifferent to every one. She has
dozens of admirers, for she is not only very pretty, but”—and she
smiled enchantingly into Mr. West’s little eyes—“very rich—your
heiress. It is my opinion that Madeline has some little closet in her
heart that you have never seen—that she is constant to some
memory. Of course, time tries all things, and in time this memory will
fade; but I am positive that dearest Madeline will not marry for some
years.” Then she tapped his arm playfully. They were sitting side-by-
side in a shady path in the vast pleasure grounds. “You will be
married before her yourself.”
“I—I—marry! I have never dreamt of such a thing.”
“Why not, pray? You are comparatively young. A man is always
young, until he is really going downhill. A man is young at fifty. Now,
look at a woman at fifty!” and she paused expressively.
He turned his eyes upon her. Little did he suppose that he was
contemplating a woman of fifty—a woman who was extravagant,
luxurious, dreadfully in debt, almost at the end of her resources and
her friends’ forbearance, and who was resolved upon marrying him
whom she had once called “that vulgar horror, the little Australian
squatter.”
He looked at her with a rather shame-faced air and a grin. Alas!
flattery was hurrying him to destruction. She was an extremely
handsome woman, of the Juno type—erect, stately, with bright, dark
eyes, dark hair, a short straight nose, and beautiful teeth (some were
her own). She was dressed in a pale yellow muslin, with white
ribbons, and wore a most fascinating picture-hat and veil; her gloves,
shoes, and sunshade were of the choicest, and it was not
improbable that, in the coming by-and-by, Mr. West would have the
pleasure of paying for this charming toilette.
“A woman of fifty,” she pursued, “is an old hag; her day has gone
by, her hour of retreat has sounded. She is grey, stout—ten to one,
unwieldy—and dowdy. Now, a man of fifty shoots, hunts, dances as
he did when he was twenty-five—in fact, as far as dancing goes, he
is thrice as keen as the ordinary ball-room boy, who simply won’t
dance, and is the despair of hostesses!”
“I’ve never thought of marrying,” he repeated. “Never!”
“No; all your thoughts are for Madeline, I am aware, and the
alliance she is to make; but my motto is, ‘Live while you live; live
your own individual life, and don’t starve on the scraps of other
people’s good things.’”
“Do you think any one would have me, Mrs. Leach?” he asked, as
he leant on his elbow and looked up into her glorious eyes.
She was the Honourable Mrs. Leach, well-connected, fashionable,
handsome, and—oh, climax!—“smart.” Yes, the idea was an
illumination. How well she would look at the head of his table and in
the landau!
“Dear Mr. West, how humble you are! I am sure you would—(she
meant his money)—make any reasonable woman happy.” She
glanced at him timidly, and looked down and played coyly with her
châtelaine.
What eyelashes she had, what a small white ear, what a pretty
hand! His own was already gently laid upon it, the words were
actually on his lips, when a bareheaded page burst through an
adjacent path, breathless from running. He had a telegram in his
hand, and halted the moment he caught sight of his master, who
instantly withdrew his hand and became the alert man of business.
Mrs. Leach was a lady, so she was unable to breathe an oath into
her moustache,—had oaths been her safety-valve. She, however,
thought some hasty thoughts of round-faced pages who brought
telegrams (which she kept to herself). Mr. West, however, was not so
self-possessed. As soon as he cast his eyes over the telegram he
gave vent to a loud exclamation of impatience, and then subsided
into an inarticulate mutter, whilst the page and the lady devoured him
with their eyes!
“Bad news, I’m afraid,” she said sympathetically.
“Um—ah, yes. My stockbroker in London has made a most
confounded mess of some business. Buys in when I tell him to sell
out. I wish I had him by the ear this minute.”
“Is there an answer, sir?” asked the page.
“Yes; I’m coming in directly. Tell the fellow to wait.” And Mr. West
and the handsome widow turned towards the house.
This vile telegram had entirely distracted his ideas. His mind was
now fastened on the Stock Exchange, on the money market; he had
not a thought to spare for the lady beside him.
“It’s the twenty-ninth, is it not?” he asked.
“Yes.”
“I must go home sooner than I intended. I shall have to be in
London next week. The fox is his own best messenger” (and the fox
was going to escape!).
Mrs. Leach had intended remaining in her present comfortable
quarters for another fortnight. This odious telegram had upset her
plans.
“Then, you will not return here?”
“Oh no. What would be the good of that?”
“It seems a pity. You will be losing all the lovely autumn tints.
October is a charming month.”
“Yes; but it is not charming when some one at a distance is making
ducks and drakes of your coin, and I’d rather see the colour of my
own money again than any autumn tint,” was the practical remark.
“I have had a most delightful visit here. I shall never, never forget
dear Clane, nor all your kindness and hospitality.”
“You must come to us in London.”
“Thank you so much, and I shall always be delighted to chaperon
dear Maddie at any time. A girl like her is in such a difficult position.
She is very young, you know, to go out without a married lady. Of
course, you are a host in yourself; but——”
“But Lady Rachel and Mrs. Lorraine take Maddie out, you know,”
broke in Mr. West, “and a girl can go anywhere with her father.”
“Now there, dear Mr. West, I differ with you totally—indeed I do. A
girl should have an older woman as well—a woman for choice who
has no young people of her own, who is well-connected, well-
looking, well-dressed, and who knows the ropes, as they say.” She
was sketching a portrait of herself. “And Madeline is so remarkably
pretty, too, the observed of all observers. I am so fond of her. She is
so sweet. I almost feel as if she were my own daughter. Ah! I never
had a daughter!” (But she could have a step-daughter; and if she
was once established as Madeline’s friend and chaperon, the rest
would be an easy matter.)
“I am very sorry to have to leave Clane sooner than I expected;
but business is business. Business first, pleasure afterwards.”
“And you have given us all a great deal of pleasure. I don’t know
such a host anywhere; and it has been such a comfort to me to talk
to you about my hateful law business, and to tell you things
unreservedly, and consult you. My odious brother-in-law, Lord
Suckington, never will assist me, and I never seem to be out of the
hands of my solicitors. Ah, here is your horrid telegraph-boy waiting.
May I go in and order tea, and pour you out a cup?”
In ten days’ time the entire party had dispersed. Madeline and her
father travelled over to London. As the latter took leave of Mrs.
Leech at Mallow Junction, and saw her into the Cork train, that
warm-hearted lady, looking bewitching in a charming travelling-cloak
and hat, leant out of the window and whispered as she pressed his
hand, “Good-bye, or, rather, au revoir. Be sure you write to me!”
And was it possible that he had seen a tear in her eye?
CHAPTER XXII.
MR. WYNNE’S VISITOR.