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HYDROELECTRIC
ENERGY
Renewable Energy
and the Environment
ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
SERIES EDITOR
Abbas Ghassemi
New Mexico State University
PUBLISHED TITLES
Introduction to Bioenergy
Vaughn Nelson and Kenneth Starcher
Bikash Pandey
Ajoy Karki
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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v
vi Contents
Index ..............................................................................................................................................403
Preface
Hydropower generates over 1000 GW globally, producing more than 4000 TWh each year, around
16.5% of the world’s total electricity. This makes it by far the largest source of renewable electric-
ity when the world is racing against time to combat climate change by greening its energy supply.
Although water wheels were utilized by humans as a source of energy since antiquity, industrial-
scale hydropower required the development of modern turbines starting in the first half of the
nineteenth century, building on fundamentals of hydraulic machines spelled out by the great math-
ematician, Euler, half a century earlier. Hydroelectricity saw a period of rapid growth starting late
in the nineteenth century with the discovery and proliferation of alternating current, progress in
manufacturing and metallurgy, and breakthroughs in civil engineering, which enabled the construc-
tion of large dams. By 1940, over 1500 dams supplied 40% of the electricity in the United States.
Construction of new hydroelectric projects slowed in the 1960s when concerns began to grow about
the social and environmental challenges associated with large dams.
Together with other renewable energy technologies, hydroelectricity has a critical role to play
in the ongoing global transition to clean energy. Although starting from a small base and currently
contributing only a small fraction to the world’s electricity supply, wind and solar energy are grow-
ing rapidly, already adding more gigawatts each year than hydroelectricity does. In addition to its
own generation, hydroelectricity helps the growth of all renewables by providing energy storage
as power grids around the world attempt to integrate ever higher percentages of variable renew-
able energy. Investment into pumped storage hydroelectricity is expected to grow alongside other
renewables.
Hydroelectricity provides an alternative to new investment in coal-based generation for indus-
trializing countries whose power needs are growing rapidly. Coupled with other renewables,
hydroelectricity provides these countries a pathway to low-carbon growth. Increased investment
into small hydropower features prominently in planned climate actions of most countries both for
supplying their grids and for providing electricity in regions of the countries that remain under-
electrified. Where resources exist, micro-hydro often provides the lowest cost source of power to
remote communities.
The bulk of this book covers the engineering disciplines of civil engineering, hydrology, hydrau-
lics, and mechanical and electrical engineering as they relate to hydroelectricity. The authors, Bikash
Pandey and Ajoy Karki, have written different chapters based on their areas of expertise. In addi-
tion to technical subjects, they have explored the economics of hydroelectric projects, social and
environmental considerations, and engagement with communities necessary for their development.
Chapter 1 probes the history of water power, the development of hydroelectricity, and its continu-
ing relevance today. Chapter 2 goes into the basic physics of how falling water generates power, and
describes the main types of modern hydroelectric systems in use today and their major components.
Chapter 3 describes how site selection and feasibility studies are carried out. Chapters 4 through 8
explain the principles behind how civil structures of hydroelectric plants are designed, including
the intake, headrace, gravel trap, settling basin, forebay, penstock, and the powerhouse. Chapters 9
through 12 explore the design of different types of hydraulic turbines, which are in use and being
developed. Chapter 13 focuses on the electrical aspects of hydroelectricity including the workings of
generators, controllers, and power transmission and distribution. Chapter 14 discusses the economic
analysis of infrastructure projects. Chapter 15 describes the social and environmental challenges of
hydroelectric project and participatory processes required for sustainable development.
xiii
Acknowledgments
We are indebted to our colleagues at Winrock International and Sanima Hydro & Engineering (P.)
Ltd., Nepal, for the insight and feedback they have provided. We especially acknowledge the contri-
bution by Nirmal Raj Joshi, senior engineer, Sanima Hydro & Engineering (P.) Ltd., who proofread
the civil engineering chapters and assisted us in preparation of questions at the end of their chapters.
Similarly, Chandan Shakya, civil engineer, Sanima Hydro & Engineering (P.) Ltd., has drafted the
majority of drawings in this textbook. Last, and far from least, we would like to express our unre-
served gratitude to our respective families that have put up with the dozens of weekends we spent
working on the book.
xv
Authors
Bikash Pandey is the innovations lead for clean energy at Winrock International, based in
Washington, DC. His work experience encompasses 25 years in policy design, review, and imple-
mentation of a range of clean/renewable energy and climate change projects in Asia, Africa, and
Latin America. His current areas of work include clean energy finance, low emission development,
last mile electrification through mini-grids, community-based electrification, and powering agricul-
ture. Mr. Pandey is one of the pioneers of mobilizing independent power producer (IPP) investment
into hydroelectricity and establishing a micro-hydro sector in Nepal to electrify rural communities.
He has designed hydropower programs and trained practitioners in over a dozen countries in the
proper design of hydropower systems. Mr. Pandey is also actively involved in global discussions
around sustainable development of hydroelectricity. He participated as a member of the forum that
set up the World Commission on Dams. Mr. Pandey holds an MS degree from the Energy and
Resources Group at the University of California, Berkeley, and an SB degree in electrical engineer-
ing from MIT.
Ajoy Karki is a water resources engineer with over 22 years of experience in management, design,
and studies of hydropower, rural electrification, and renewable energy projects. He has worked as a
hydropower engineer in 15 countries covering South Asia, Central Asia, and East and West Africa.
He completed his MS degree in hydraulic engineering at IHE-UNESCO, The Netherlands, in 2000.
He also holds degrees in civil engineering from the University of Iowa and physics (cum laude) from
Coe College, Iowa. Mr. Karki has published a number of papers as both the lead author and a coauthor
in the South Asian Energy Journal, Pakistan; Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand; World
Resource Foundation, UK; and Earthscan, UK. He has also provided extensive training courses in
hydropower design in various countries in Asia and Africa, and has prepared training manuals and
guidelines such as the Manual for Survey and Layout Design of Private Micro-Hydropower Plants
for International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Nepal (1999; coauthor).
xvii
1 Development of Hydropower
a. Horizontal Norse wheel. The simplest design from ancient times is the vertical shaft Norse
wheel, which continues to operate to this day—often with minimal improvement to the
ancient technology—in tens of thousands mountainous, rural areas from West Asia to
Southeast Asia next to streams where vertical drops of 3–5 m are easily available. Water
flows ranging from 30–200 liters per second (lps) are directed from streams along a short
canal to develop the drop. The water is accelerated down a steeply inclined wooden chute
from the top canal and hits paddles, which are placed obliquely on a wooden hub below the
millhouse with a significant velocity. The horizontal runner is connected through the verti-
cal shaft to rotate the top stone grind wheel as shown in the diagram below. This arrange-
ment enables the runner to directly drive the grindstone at a speed of around 100–150
revolutions per minute (RPM) without the need for any gearing. The mills make use of the
1–2 horsepower (hp) produced [3] to grind maize, wheat, millet, barley, and other grains
into flour for local consumption (Figure 1.1).
Although it would seem that this straightforward design should have been the first to
be developed and disseminated within the Roman Empire, records covered to date do not
show this to be the case. Instead, Wikander [4] notes that there are no certain records of
the horizontal wheel technology until the seventh century AD.
b. Undershot waterwheel. A description of the first undershot waterwheels is provided by
the first century BC Roman architect and chronicler of Roman technology, Vitruvius. He
describes the waterwheel as having its lower end immersed in the watercourse so that the
paddles could be driven by the velocity of the running water. Vitruvius’s account is of a
geared watermill to mill grain that combines two separate Greek inventions of the toothed
gear and the waterwheel (Figure 1.2).
1
2 Hydroelectric Energy
2
1
3
4
5
6 10
7
8
9
FIGURE 1.1 Traditional horizontal water mill. (From Saubolle, B. R., and Bachmann, A., Mini Technology I,
Sahayogi Press, Kathmandu, 1978.)
Grain
Runner
stone
Bedstone
Undershot
waterwheel
Axle
tree
Gear mechanism
Being a river current machine, the undershot waterwheel gets all of its power from the
velocity of the stream and none from water falling from any height. This limits the total
power available from an undershot wheel typically to a few horsepower.* As explained in
Chapter 9, the power available from the river current is modest compared to utilizing the
energy in falling water. For example, the kinetic energy from a stream flowing at 1.5 m/s
is equivalent to the potential energy of water dropping only half a meter. The undershot
waterwheel would thus require a large “sweep area”—that is, large paddles as well as fast
flow of water to produce more than a few horsepower.
Islamic engineers added a number of innovations to overcome the limitations of under-
shot wheels and significantly increased their output power. They mounted waterwheels on
the piers of bridges to take advantage of increased river flow and made adjustments for
them to operate at varying water depth. This overcame the problem of paddles ceasing
to be immersed in the lower water levels in the dry season when water wheels were fixed
to the banks of rivers. They also mounted undershot wheels on the sides of ships moored
midstream to achieve this same effect. There are reports that in the 10th century ship mills
made of teak and iron installed on the rivers Tigris and Euphrates could produce 10 tons
of flour every day.†
Arab engineers used undershot waterwheels to harness energy from the flow of a river
for irrigation and water supply by powering a noria‡ to lift water into an aqueduct at the
top of the wheel. The waterwheel did not drive any gears or millstones in the case of a
noria, which typically lifted water with pots attached to its outer rim. The diameter of
waterwheels driving the noria could be as high as 50–80 feet (15–25 m), providing a cor-
responding level of lift. Norias constructed by the 10th century could lift more than 40 lps
of water to these heights.
c. Overshot and breast shot wheels. The overshot and breast shot waterwheels were exten-
sively used by the Greeks and Romans for waterpower. These horizontal-axle machines
were significantly more powerful than the undershot wheel because they were able to uti-
lize potential energy as the weight of water dropped from a height in addition to kinetic
energy from its velocity as the water hit the paddle (Figure 1.3). This additional power
output of the waterwheel, which could easily add up to several kilowatts per wheel, was
used for grain and saw milling. The Romans also used waterwheels in mining projects—
typically reverse overshot waterwheels to dewater deep underground mines.
The best known of the Roman water mills is Barbegal located in present day Arles in Southern
France where around the second century AD [4] a series of overshot waterwheels reportedly pow-
ered a total of 16 flour mills to grind sufficient grain for an estimated 12,500 individuals [5]. The
waterwheels, each of a diameter of around 2.1 m and width of 0.7 m, were constructed in two rows
of cascades of eight, one placed below the other as shown in Figure 1.4. Hodge quotes in his article
in Scientific American (1990) an estimation by Robert Sellin of the University of Bristol, that the
total output power of the waterwheels must have been around 2 kW each derived from Sellin’s
approximation of the total flow in the aqueduct to be 0.3 m3/s and an efficiency of each waterwheel
to be 65%. This estimation is not unreasonable and would put the total cumulative mechanical
power output of the 16 waterwheels at around 32 kW—a significant amount of power at a single
location for the times.
* From Chapter 12, Ps = 0.5ρAsVs3Cp where ρ is the density of water = 1000 kg/m3, A is the sweep area, V is the water
velocity, and C is the coefficient of performance or the efficiency. For example, if the river current is 1.5 m/s, and C is
estimated at 20% for a rudimentary machine, the shaft power would be 330 W for every square meter of sweep area where
the sweep area is the area of the wheel pushed by the current and would roughly be the area of each paddle.
† http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm
‡ Noria is an Arabic word for a machine using buckets attached to a wheel or a rope, which is used to lift water into an
Water flow
Flume
Wheel
rotation
Tail race
FIGURE 1.4 An artist’s representation of water mills of Barbegal. (Courtesy of Connexions, http://cnx.org
/contents/bd6bf3d4-a285-48fd-bec9-08aa607cd84e@1.)
Scholars had until recently sought to explain what appeared to be the relatively slow spread of
waterpower in antiquity with the dominant discourse that waterpower was not widely used within
the Greek and Roman empires on account of the availability of low-cost labor, both slave and
free. This view was supported by the writing of Vitrivius, which listed waterpower among those
“machines which are rarely employed” when he was describing technological development late in
the first century BC. Archaeological findings, such as the Barbegal site in the 1930s, and research
Development of Hydropower 5
particularly after the 1980s point to larger scale adoption, particularly of vertical waterwheels for
milling, than had originally been thought. Wikander writes, for example, that the “advent and tri-
umph of the watermill” was already in full swing in different parts of the Roman Empire by the
first century AD with some cities having a collegium of water millers by around 200 AD [4]. By the
end of the first millennium, water-powered mills for grain, timber, and stone cutting were running
in most large settlements in Europe. The Domesday Book recorded 6500 mills in England alone.
* http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/waterwheels/
6 Hydroelectric Energy
During the Middle Ages, large wooden waterwheels were developed with a maximum power
output of about 50 hp. The modern, large-scale waterwheel owes its development to the British civil
engineer John Smeaton, who first built large waterwheels out of cast iron around 1759.* During
the industrial revolution, large waterwheels generated tens of kilowatts of power to run cloth mills
and mining operations. The largest waterwheels constructed in the 1800s were more than 20 m in
diameter and produced several hundred kilowatts of power.
Alongside the steam engine, waterpower played an important role in powering the Industrial
Revolution. It gave impetus to the growth of the textile, leather, and machine-shop industries in the
early 19th century. Although the steam engine had already been developed, waterpower remained
in high demand where resources were available because coal was scarce and difficult to transport
and wood was often unsatisfactory as a fuel. Availability of waterpower became a major determi-
nant in the development of early industrial cities in Europe and the United States until the open-
ing of the canals provided cheap coal around the middle of the 19th century. Because waterpower
resources were not evenly distributed, it had a major influence on the location of industry and popu-
lation centers in Europe and America. Availability of waterpower determined the location of textile
mill towns in the United States, for example.
* http://www.ieahydro.org/What_is_hydropower’s_history.html
Development of Hydropower 7
TABLE 1.1
Breakthroughs in Hydropower Development
1827 French engineer Benoit Fourneyron develops a high-efficiency (80%) outward flow, centrifugal water turbine in
which water was directed tangentially through the turbine runner, causing it to spin. Fellow French engineer
Jean V. Poncelet designs an inward-flow turbine that uses the same principles.
1848 James B. Francis, an English engineer working in the United States, improves on these designs to create a highly
efficient inward flow reaction turbine. The Francis has established itself as the most widely used hydropower
turbine in the world today.
1878 Lester Allen Pelton develops the Pelton turbine, improving over the Knight wheel, the first efficient impulse
turbine design using the split double cup bucket design to convert kinetic energy of water to horsepower, to
substitute for steam engines used for gold mining in California.
1880 Grand Rapids, Michigan: Sixteen brush-arc lamps are powered using a water turbine at the Wolverine Chair
Factory in the first industrial use of hydropower to generate electricity.
1881 Niagara Falls, New York: A brush dynamo is connected to a turbine in Quigley’s flour mill to generate DC power
to power machinery and light city street lamps.
1889 Oregon City, Oregon: Willamette Falls station, the first AC hydroelectric plant, transmits single phase power
13 miles to Portland at 4000 volts and steps it down to 50 volts for distribution.
1891 Frankfurt on Main, Germany: The first three-phase hydroelectric system is used for a 175 km, 25,000 volt
demonstration line from a plant at Lauffen.
1898 Decew Falls 1 (St. Catherines, Ontario, Canada) transmits power at 22,500 volts, 66 2/3 Hz, two-phase, a distance
of 56 km to Hamilton, Ontario.
1914 S. J. Zowski develops a high specific speed reaction (Francis) turbine runner for low head applications.
1919 Viktor Kaplan demonstrates an adjustable blade propeller turbine runner at Podebrady, Czechoslovakia. British
company Gilkes patents the Turgo turbine providing an alternative to Francis turbines for small hydropower
<10 MW range.
1920 Hydropower provides 25% of U.S. electrical generation. Federal Power Act establishes Federal Power
Commission authority to issue licenses for hydro development on public lands.
1929 The Rocky River Plant at New Milford, Connecticut, installs the first major pumped storage hydroelectric plant.
1933 The Tennessee Valley Authority is established.
1937 Power is generated at Hoover Dam, Arizona/Nevada. Bonneville Power Administration is established. Bonneville
Dam, the first Federal dam, begins operation on the Columbia River.
1940 1500 hydroelectric facilities provide 40% of electrical generation in the United States. Hydropower capacity
tripled since 1920.
1941 Power is generated at Grand Coulee power plant, Washington—the largest hydroelectric plant in the world at
6800 megawatts installed capacity.
1950 The Soviet Union begins construction of large hydropower plants as “Great Building Sites of Communism”—part
of a massive postwar industrialization project. Hydroelectric stations completed include Zhighuli (2320 MW,
completed 1957) and Volga (2583 MW completed 1961).
1968 The U.S. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act protects rivers in their natural state by excluding them from consideration as
hydroelectric power sites.
1974 The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act ensures equal consideration of fish and wildlife protection in the
activities of federal agencies.
1983 Power is generated at Itaipú power plant, Brazil/Paraguay, becoming the largest hydroelectric project in the world
at 12,600 megawatts installed capacity.
1986 The Electric Consumers Protection Act amended the Federal Power Act to remove public preference for
relicensing actions and gives equal consideration to nonpower values (e.g., energy conservation, fish, wildlife,
recreation, etc.) as well as to hydropower values when making license decisions.
1998 The World Commission on Dams is formed as a global multistakeholder process in response to social and
environmental conflicts around the building of dams to provide guidelines for better development of water
projects. It publishes “Dams and Development: a New Framework for Decision Making” in November 2000.
2008 The Three Gorges Dam project in China, the largest hydroelectric power station in the world goes into operation
(final capacity 22,500 MW reached in 2012).
8 Hydroelectric Energy
water turbines developed in the 19th and early 20th centuries to efficiently utilize hydropower sites
with a wide range of head and flow specifications.
1.2.2 hyDroelectricity
Hydropower grew dramatically all over the world with the invention of the electric generator
and particularly after it became possible to generate and transmit alternating current (AC) start-
ing around 1889. The growth in demand for electricity, improvement in turbine efficiency, rapid
increase in power output of hydropower turbines, and the civil engineering know-how to build
large dams all combined to tremendously expand the role of hydropower in global electricity
production. By 1920, hydroelectric plants were generating 25% of the all electricity consumed in
the United States, growing to 40% by 1940. The rates of growth of hydropower began to decline
starting in the 1960s, when environmental concerns about the damming of rivers, inundating
large tracts of land, and displacement of people associated with building large dams slowed the
construction of dams in OECD countries. Construction continued to expand in emerging markets
in Asia, Latin American, and Africa. Hydropower construction worldwide grew at around 2.7%
in 2015 [6].
Table 1.1 lists the breakthroughs in hydropower development, which followed after documen-
tation by French hydraulic and military engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor in the mid-1770s, in
four volumes of Architecture Hydraulique, the state of the art in vertical-axis and horizontal-axis
waterwheels. Technical progress starting around the first quarter of the 19th century, made it pos-
sible for hydropower to establish itself as a major global source of electricity generation within a
100-year period.
Hydropower generates more electricity than any other renewable energy resource with an
installed capacity of 1064 GW in 2015 with 3940 TWh generated worldwide and accounting for
16.6% of total global electricity production in that year [7].
Although most countries around the world use hydropower, its use is uneven. This is a function
of how hydropower resources are distributed, countries’ investment choices in the power sector as
well as their ability to mobilize resources. Table 1.2 lists the countries with the largest hydropower
production in the world [8].
TABLE 1.2
Largest Producers of Hydropower
% of World % Hydro in Total Domestic
TWh/Year Generation Power Supply
People’s Republic of China 699 19.6 14.8
Brazil 428 12.0 80.6
Canada 376 10.5 59.0
United States 345 9.7 7.9
Russian Federation 168 4.7 15.9
India 131 3.7 12.4
Norway 122 3.4 95.3
Japan 92 2.6 8.7
Venezuela 84 2.3 68.6
Sweden 67 1.9 44.3
Rest of the world 1054 29.6 13.6
World 3566 100 16.1
Countries such as Norway, Brazil, Venezuela, and Canada generate the majority of their electric-
ity from hydropower. This is also true of a number of developing countries, such as Laos, Bhutan,
Ghana, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Uganda, and Nepal. However, the
development of the hydropower sector in developing countries remains small compared to the full
potential.
1. Micro hydropower plants provide electricity to remote rural communities. The communi-
ties they serve are generally too remote to be supplied economically by the electricity grid.
The engineering design for micro-hydro systems tend to be simple and standardized as
far as possible for ease of operation and maintenance by local communities with limited
technical support from outside.
2. Mini-hydro and small hydro projects can either supply isolated rural towns or they can be
developed to supply power to the grid. Hydropower projects that sell power to the grid are
engineered and constructed to be financially viable and to provide commercial returns on
investment.
3. Small hydropower plants and some in the medium hydropower range are designed as “run-
of-river” (R-o-R) projects. R-o-R projects use a weir to divert water to the intake but do not
store water. They tend to have fewer environmental impacts than projects with dams and
reservoirs.
4. Large hydropower plants typically involve the construction of a dam to create a reservoir.
Some reservoirs are small and are used for storing water to supply daily or weekly peak
loads. Other reservoirs are large enough to store water during the rainy months to be avail-
able during the dry season and in some cases over multiple years to meet needs in dry
years. Reservoirs often serve multiple functions, including irrigation, flood control, and
recreation in addition to supplying water to power plants.
TABLE 1.3
Classification of Hydropower by Size
Classification Size
Micro hydropower Up to 100 kW
Mini hydropower Between 100 kW and 1000 kW
Small hydropowera Between 1 MW and 10 MW
Medium hydropower Between 10 MW and 100 MW
Large hydropower Larger than 100 MW
Although the basic principles are the same for all hydropower systems, designs become increas-
ingly more complex with size from an engineering perspective. Large hydropower projects often
include large dams, underground structures for tunnels and powerhouses, automated control sys-
tems to regulate flows and power output as well as dedicated high voltage transmission lines to
evacuate the power. Design standards are required to be much higher for larger projects involving
dams because the risk of catastrophic failure in terms of loss of lives, property, and investments are
potentially enormous. One example of such a high standard is that large dams are typically designed
to safely convey extreme flood flows with a return period of 10,000 years or higher.
* http://www.internationalrivers.org/problems-with-big-dams
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
motiveeranneet nuo ihmiset vaarallisiksi, sanoneet heidän levittävän
myrkkyään yhteiskunnassa ja olevan ilman moraalia, ilman uskontoa
ja ajattelevan vain omia nautintojaan. Tuo mies kai oli tuommoinen
uudenaikainen ihminen, joka nauraa kaikelle ja jolle mikään ei ole
pyhää. — — —
*****
Hän oli yksinään maailmassa. Hän tapasi erään kirjailijan, jota hän
aikaisemmin oli paljon ajatellut ja jota hän oli ihaillut, kuten monia
muitakin. Tämä mies oli viisas, ironinen, kylmä, häntä vihattiin ja
hänestä pidettiin, mutta häntä kohtaan tunnettu viha oli ehkä
suurempi kuin rakkaus. Tällä miehellä oli tapana osoittaa
ylemmyyttään äänensä sävyllä ja eräällä ominaisella kädenliikkeellä,
joka helposti loukkasi ihmisiä. Tämä mies laski leikkiä ihmisten
heikkouksista, leikki niiden kanssa kuin kissa hiiren kanssa. Tämä
mies nauroi niin herttaisesti ja niin katkerasti sille kullalle, jolla
ihmiskunta niin kernaasti itseään kultaa. Tämä mies oli intohimoisen
kiihkeä, egoisti, — mutta välillä taas melankolinen, raskasmielinen,
pilkallinen, hermostuneen eloisa, iloinen, mutta ilo oli jäistä iloa. He
olivat tuttavia, mutta kuitenkin toisilleen täysin tuntemattomia. He
olivat molemmat kaksoisluonteita omalla tavallaan. Se oli lyhyt ja
kiihkeä tuttavuus, ilman aikaa ja ilman valmistelua.» ‒ ‒ ‒
XI.
LAURI KIVEKÄS.
»En voi oikein paperilla kuvata tätä iltaa — Kivekäs puhui — moni
muu puhui — jokaisen silmät kiilti, jokaisen povi kohoili — eläköön
isänmaa — suomalaisuus — eläköön Kivekäs —! Maljat kilisi —
laulut helisi, booli virtaili! —»
*****
Minä en tiedä mitä sinä nyt tällä hetkellä ajattelet ja tunnet, vaan
minä rakastan sinua, minä annan henkeni sinulle ja rukoilen
Jumalaa varjelemaan sinua minulle.
Ida.»
»Sunnuntaina.
»Perjantai ilta.
»Armas!
»Oma Laurini! Minä kaduin että olin sinun antanut huomata sitä
levottomuutta joka minussa vallitsi ja joka kirjeissäni liian paljon tuli
esille. Mutta se on tullut omantunnon asiaksi ilmoittaa sinulle kaikki
vivahdukset. Minulla oli niin ikävä jäädä yksin tähän etäiseen
kaupunkiin» (nim. Viipuriin) »tuntui kuin kaikki lempeät tuulet ja
kauniit ilmat olisivat kadonneet sinun kerrallasi. Minä tunsin itseni
niin hyljätyksi ja yksinäiseksi. Minä sanon kun sinä, minä varmaan
pidän sinusta liian paljon.» —
»Laurini, armaani!
Ida.»