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Noise in the Plastics
Processing Industry
Second Edition
Bob Peters
Boca Raton London New York
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P
reface
Noise in the Plastics Processing Industry: A Practical Guide to Reducing Noise from
Existing Plant and Machinery was published by RAPRA in 1985. It was written by a
group of experts in noise and vibration, including several from the Health and Safety
Executive, with detailed knowledge of the industry. It was 52-pages long, with 25
pages devoted to 25 case studies, illustrating successful examples of noise reduction.
The purpose of the book was to provide practical guidance to reducing noise at the
source to reduce the noise exposure of those employed in the industry, and preventing
noise-induced hearing loss in employees.
The risk of damage due to exposure to high levels of noise has been known about for
a long time. In 1713, a treatise on diseases in workers by the Venetian physician B.
Ramazzini included a description of how those hammering copper have their ears so
injured by that perpetual din …. ‘that workers of this class become hard of hearing
and, if they grow old at this work, completely deaf’. With the coming of the industrial
revolution and the introduction of steam power, the problem of occupational noise
exposure became acute. Workers making steam boilers in particular succumbed to
deafness in such numbers that it became known as ‘boilermakers disease’.
In 1831, Dr J. Fosbroke, writing in the The Lancet claimed that deafness in blacksmiths
was a result of their occupation. In 1886, a Glasgow physician, Dr. T. Barr, found that
≈75% of the boilermakers that he examined were deaf to the extent that they had
difficulty in hearing (or could not hear at all) a public speaker. He compared these
boilermakers with some in other occupations and found, for example, that only 8%
of letter-carriers suffered deafness to the same degree.
In 1963, the Wilson Report, a widespread report on all aspects of noise affecting
society, recommended three lines of attack on the problem of hearing loss from noise
exposure in the workplace: more widespread voluntary action within industry on the
basis of existing knowledge; legislation on the basis of existing knowledge; research
to try to obtain a more definite understanding of the relationship between noise and
hearing loss, with legislation to follow, if necessary, when the results of the research
are available.
iii
Noise in the Plastics Processing Industry
Also in 1963, the UK government publication Noise and the Worker was issued to
provide specific guidance concerning the hazards of occupational noise, and the date
of issue of this booklet became, by general consensus, the time from which employers
should have been aware of the risks, and taken actions to protect their employees.
In 1972, the UK government issued a code of practice for reducing the exposure
of employed persons to noise which contained guidelines for noise-exposure limits
framed in terms of a newly defined noise measure, the continuous equivalent noise
exposure level over a duration of 8 h: LAeq,8 h. In 1981, draft regulations were
published in response to an European Community (EC) directive and in response
the UK government issued draft proposals for legislation in a consultative document
Protection of Hearing at Work, which eventually led to the Noise at Work Regulations
1989.
In 1970, the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) published a guidance document
entitled Reduction of Machinery Noise.
In 1982, the HSE issued the first of several collections of Case Studies 100 Practical
Applications of Noise Reduction Methods.
The 1985 RAPRA guide was published in response to this guidance – this volume is
an updated version of the 1985 guide Noise in the Plastics Processing Industry: A
Practical Guide to Reducing Noise from Existing Plant and Machinery.
So what has changed since 1985? It is perhaps easiest to start first with what has
not changed. The laws of physics that determine how sound and noise is generated
and propagates from the source to the receiver have not changed. Thus, breaking
up lumps of hard plastic with rotating steel-cutting blades remains (as in 1985) an
inherently noisy process. Human hearing has not changed: prolonged exposure to
high levels of noise in the workplace continues to cause noise-induced hearing loss,
or industrial deafness. The standard methods for reducing noise still involve, as in
1985, using sound-insulating, sound-absorbing and vibration-isolating materials,
and the use of standard noise-control solutions such the use of enclosures, silencers
screens and barriers.
One new noise-reduction technique has been developed – active noise control – but it
is more suited to reduction of a fairly constant level of low-frequency noise in a specific
location rather than variable levels of high-frequency machinery noise, although it
can be used for the reduction of noise from fans and compressors.
Other changes include:
• Improvements in noise prediction, including ‘noise mapping’ software.
iv
Preface
• Improvements in instrumentation to give better diagnostic techniques.
• Advances in technology has meant that many noise-producing processes and

activities can be automated so that employees can monitor and control machinery
remotely from a quiet environment, rather having to be in attendance close to
the machine and being exposed to high noise levels.
• New quieter technologies have replaced older noisier processes e.g., replacing
petrol- or diesel-powered equipment by much quieter electric motors; replacing
impact forces by hydraulically/pneumatically driven silent ‘squeeze’ forces.
• Vastly increased amount of information published and readily available about

noise and its control.
• More regulations and guidance documents have been published and come into
operation since 1983. These include the European Union (EU) Directives on Noise
in the Workplace, and on Machinery Noise; UK Noise at Work Regulations in
2005; and the HSE Noise Case Studies on noise reduction measures.
Nobody reads a book like this from cover-to-cover like a ‘page turner’ novel – rather
they will read certain chapters, or sections of chapters depending on their interest and
their ‘need to know’ at the time. Therefore, an attempt has been made to help readers
to navigate through the book and find what they want to know. In addition to a
detailed contents list at the front of the book, each chapter starts with an introduction
explaining what the chapter will cover, and concludes with a brief summary.
Chapter 1 covers a brief explanation of the ideas and terminology which will be used
in later chapters. Chapter 2 is a review of the ways in which noise can be reduced
either at the source, during the sound transmission path, or at the point of reception.
Chapter 3 gives examples of how noise from plastics processing machinery can be
reduced with material taken from the 1985 RAPRA publication. Chapter 4 covers
the nature of noise-induced hearing loss in the context of noise exposure levels in the
workplace. The requirements of the Noise at Work Regulations 2005 are discussed
in terms of noise-exposure action levels and limits which, if exceeded, impose duties
on employers and employees. Chapter 5 discusses the types of hearing protection
available, their performance, issues relating to their selection and use as part of a
hearing-conservation programme (including difficulties and limitations) and the
need for information instruction and training for employees. Chapter 6 covers
noise generated in the workplace which can also cause disturbance to people in the
vicinity. This chapter briefly reviews target noise levels which should be achieved
within the environment so as not to cause disturbance to people living and working
nearby. It outlines strategies for minimising noise emission and suggests relevant
v
standards and codes of practice relating to industrial noise in the environment and
noise disturbance. Chapter 7 discusses the ability to predict noise levels and how
they can play an important part in the control of noise. The methods used to predict
noise levels within and outside the workplace are briefly outlined and the benefits
of prediction of noise levels illustrated using a simple model. Chapter 8 shows the
different ways of specifying noise emission from machinery, and the EU regulations on
machinery noise. Noise test codes for plastics granulators and shredders are reviewed
and a report on the effectiveness of directives is discussed. Chapter 9 discusses that,
although the priority should always be given to using quieter machinery and equipment
wherever possible, much can also be done to reduce noise levels by careful design of
the workplace. Chapter 10 lists various case studies. A very important part of the
original 1985 book was the use of case studies to illustrate the various ways in which
noise has been reduced in workplaces in the plastics processing industry. Since then,
case studies for all types of noisy industries have been widely publicised by the HSE.
This chapter reviews some existing case studies, including those in the original 1985
RAPRA book, and presents some new ones.
The original book, published in 1985, was practical in its approach, with limited
theory and no mathematical equations. As far as possible, the same approach has
been adopted in this version, with the justification that there are now many other
texts available where the reader can find more detailed theory and mathematical
prediction formulae if required. A bibliography of further reading is given at the
end of each chapter.
The 1985 RAPRA book will be a hard act to follow, but it is hoped that readers will
find this revised version informative and useful.
vi
C
ontents
1 Basic Concepts and Terminology of Sound and Vibration .......................... 1

1.1 Sound Pressure, Frequency and Wavelength .................................... 1
1.1.1 Sound ................................................................................ 1
1.1.2 Sound or Noise? ................................................................ 1
1.1.3 Sound Pressures ................................................................. 1
1.1.4 Frequency ......................................................................... 2
1.1.5 Broadband Noise .............................................................. 2
1.1.6 Pure Tones ......................................................................... 3
1.2 Frequency Weightings and Frequency Analyses ............................... 3
1.2.1 A-Weighted Decibels.......................................................... 3
1.2.1.1 A Brief History of the A-Weighting and its
Relationship to Loudness....................................... 4
1.2.2 Frequency Analyses ......................................................................... 5
1.2.3 Wavelength ..................................................................................... 7
1.2.3.1 The Significance of Frequency and Wavelength
in Noise Control .................................................... 8
1.3 The Decibel Scale ............................................................................ 9
1.3.1 ‘Level’ Means ‘dB’ ........................................................... 10
1.3.2 What do Changes in dB Level Mean in Ordinary
(Non-Decibel) Terms? ...................................................... 10
1.3.3 Subjective Effects of Changes in Level ............................. 11
1.3.4 Combining Sound Levels ................................................. 11
1.3.5 Prioritising Control of Multiple Noise Sources ............... 13
1.3.5.1 Segregating Quiet and Noisy Areas...................... 13
vii
1.3.6 Average Sound Levels ...................................................... 14

1.4 Maximum and Peak Sound Pressure Levels................................... 15
1.4.1 Time-Weighted Sound Levels .......................................... 16
1.4.1.1 Peak Sound levels ................................................ 16
1.5 Sound Pressure Levels and Sound Power Levels ............................ 17
1.5.1 Relationship between Sound Pressure Levels and
Sound Power Levels ........................................................ 18
1.6 Sound-Generating Mechanisms: Noise from Vibrating Surfaces,
from Air Flow and from Impacts .................................................. 18
1.6.1 Air Flow-Generated Noise – Aerodynamic Noise ............ 19
1.6.2 Noise from Vibrating Surfaces ......................................... 20
1.6.3 Noise from Impacts ........................................................ 21
1.7 Airborne and Structure-borne Sound ............................................ 21
1.8 Sound Insulation, Sound Absorption and Vibration Isolation
and Damping ................................................................................ 22
1.8.1 Sound Insulation.............................................................. 22
1.8.2 Double-Leaf Partitions..................................................... 24
1.8.3 Sound Absorption............................................................ 26
1.8.3.1 Reduction of Reverberant Sound Levels by
Increasing Sound Absorption ............................... 27
1.8.4 Vibration Isolation .......................................................... 28
1.8.5 Materials for Sound Insulation, Sound Absorption and
Vibration Isolation .......................................................... 32
1.8.6 Damping.......................................................................... 32
1.9 Summary ...................................................................................... 32
2 Principles of Noise Generation and Control ............................................. 39

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 39
2.2 Good Planning, Management and Housekeeping .......................... 39
2.3 Mechanisms of Noise Generation ................................................. 40
2.4 The ‘Source Path Receive’ Model of Noise Control....................... 41
viii
Contents
2.5 Noise Control at Source ................................................................ 44

2.5.1 Machinery Noise – Generation and Control .................... 44
2.6 Noise Control during Sound Transmission.................................... 47
2.7 Isolation ........................................................................................ 47
2.8 Damping ....................................................................................... 51
2.9 Close Shielding or Acoustic Lagging ............................................. 53
2.10 Use of Screens and Barriers ........................................................... 56
2.11 Specification and Selection of Damping, Isolating and Lagging
Materials ...................................................................................... 61
2.12 Fans and Blowers .......................................................................... 62
2.13 Acoustic Attenuators or Silencers .................................................. 64
2.14 Jets and Exhausts .......................................................................... 69
2.14.1 Pneumatic Jet Silencers .................................................... 70
2.15 Punch Presses ................................................................................ 72
2.16 Mechanical Handling and Transport of Materials......................... 73
2.17 Active Noise Control .................................................................... 73
2.18 Specification of Noise Emission Levels from Machinery, Plants
and Equipment ............................................................................. 76
2.19 Diagnosis of Noise Sources, Paths and Mechanisms...................... 77
2.19.1 Identifying Sound-Radiating Surfaces .............................. 79
2.20 Hearing-Conservation Policies ...................................................... 80
2.21 Appendix 1: The Health and Safety Executive Noise
Reduction Topic Inspection Packs: Table E1 on Generic Noise
Control Measures ......................................................................... 81
2.21.1 Generic Noise-Control Measures ..................................... 81
2.21.1.1 Activity: Air Movement ....................................... 81
2.21.1.2 Conveying/Transporting ...................................... 82
2.21.1.3 Forming ............................................................... 82
2.21.1.4 Processing ............................................................ 82
ix
2.22 Appendix 2: Summary of Workplace Noise-Control Measures .... 83

2.22.1 Reduction of Noise Exposure by Organisational
Control ........................................................................... 83
2.22.2 Reduction of Noise Exposure by Technical/Engineering
Control ............................................................................ 84
2.23 Appendix 3: Top 10 Noise-Control Methods ................................ 84
2.22 Summary ...................................................................................... 85
3 Noise Control in the Plastics Processing Industries ................................... 89

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 89
3.2 Noise Control at the Source .......................................................... 89
3.3 Noise Test Code for Granulators ................................................ 100
3.4 Conclusion .................................................................................. 101
4 Noise in the Workplace .......................................................................... 103

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 103
4.2 The Ear and Hearing – The Ear and How it Works .................... 104
4.3 Audiometry – The Measurement of Hearing ............................... 106
4.4 Types and Sources of Hearing Loss ............................................. 106
4.4.1 Conductive Hearing Loss............................................... 107
4.4.2 Sensorineural Hearing Loss ........................................... 107
4.4.3 Presbycusis .................................................................... 108
4.4.4 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss .......................................... 108
4.4.5 Acoustic Trauma ........................................................... 110
4.4.6 Nature and Effects of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss ....... 110
4.4.7 Development of a Dose–Response Relationship for
Noise-Induced Hearing Loss .......................................... 111
4.4.8 Estimation of the Risk of Hearing Damage.................... 111
4.4.9 Combined Effects of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss
and Presbycusis.............................................................. 112
4.5 Otoacoustic Emission ................................................................. 113
4.6 Summary of the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005 ..... 114
x
Contents
4.6.1 Action and Limit Values ................................................ 114

4.6.2 Duties of Employers ...................................................... 114
4.6.2.1 Assess Risks to Employees ................................. 115
4.6.2.2 Take Action to Reduce Noise Exposure ............. 115
4.6.2.3 Provide Employees with Hearing Protection ...... 115
4.6.2.4 Ensure Legal Limits on Noise Exposure Are
Not Exceeded .................................................... 116
4.6.2.5 Maintenance and Use of Equipment .................. 116
4.6.2.6 Carry Out Health Surveillance if the Risk
Assessment Indicates that there is a Risk to
Health ............................................................... 116
4.6.2.7 Provide Employees with Information,
Instruction and Training .................................... 116
4.6.3 Duties of Employees ...................................................... 117
4.7 Duties of Suppliers and Manufacturers of Equipment ................. 117
4.8 Carrying Out Risk Assessments .................................................. 118
4.8.1 Fixed Positions .............................................................. 119
4.8.2 Activity Samples ............................................................ 119
4.8.3 Noise Dosemeters for Mobile Employees....................... 119
4.8.4 Data-Logging Dosemeters.............................................. 120
4.8.5 Workplace Noise-Level Maps ........................................ 120
4.8.5.1 Peak Action Levels............................................. 121
4.9 Reporting the Risk Assessment/Noise Exposure Assessment ....... 121
4.9.1 Recording the Risk Assessment...................................... 121
4.9.2 When to Review the Risk Assessment ........................... 122
4.10 Action Plans ................................................................................ 122
4.11 Record-Keeping .......................................................................... 123
4.11.1 Record-Keeping In the UK ............................................. 123
4.11.2 Record-Keeping Worldwide ........................................... 124
4.12 Costs and Benefits of Measures to Reduce Noise in the
Workplace................................................................................... 125
xi
4.13 Hearing-Damage Claims ............................................................. 126

4.14 A Brief History of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss .......................... 126
4.15 Summary .................................................................................... 128
5 Hearing Protection and the Use of Personal Hearing Protectors ............. 133
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 133
5.1.1 Hierarchy of Hearing Protection Controls ..................... 133
5.2 Types of Hearing Protectors ........................................................ 134
5.2.1 Specialist Types.............................................................. 135
5.3 Noise-attenuating Performance of Hearing Protectors ................ 135
5.3.1 Octave-Band Method .................................................... 136
5.3.2 HML Method ................................................................ 137
5.3.3 SNR Method ................................................................. 138
5.3.4 Optimum Range for the Sound Pressure Level at the
Protected Ear ................................................................. 140
5.4 Inspection, Care, Maintenance and Replacement ........................ 140
5.5 Accounting for ‘Real World’ Protection ...................................... 140
5.6 Dual Protection ........................................................................... 141
5.7 Overprotection ........................................................................... 141
5.8 Selection of Hearing Protectors ................................................... 142
5.8.1 Adequate Noise-Attenuating Performance ..................... 142
5.8.2 Compatibility, Comfort, Convenience and Hygiene ....... 142
5.9 Difficulties and Limitations of Hearing Protectors ...................... 143
5.9.1 Costs of Ear Protectors ................................................. 144
5.10 Two Health and Safety Executive Reports on Hearing
Protection ................................................................................... 144
5.10.1 Real-World Use and Performance .................................. 145
5.11 The Need for Health Surveillance – Routine Hearing Tests ......... 146
5.12 Information Instruction and Training.......................................... 146
5.13 Hearing Protectors – Summary and Conclusions......................... 148
5.14 Conclusions ................................................................................ 149
xii
Contents
6 Noise in the Environment....................................................................... 151

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 151
6.2 Regulations, Standards, and Codes ............................................ 151
6.2.1 Nuisance and Planning .................................................. 151
6.2.2 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
Regulations.................................................................... 152
6.3 Criteria and Noise Targets for Environmental Noise Emissions .. 152
6.4 Noise-Impact Assessment Methods ............................................. 153
6.4.1 BS 4142:2014 ............................................................... 153
6.4.1.1 Character Corrections ....................................... 154
6.4.1.2 Assessment Procedure ........................................ 154
6.4.2 BS 7445/ISO 1996 ......................................................... 155
6.5 Criteria for Fixed Noise Levels .................................................. 155
6.6 Strategies for Minimising Noise Emissions and Disturbance
to Neighbours ............................................................................. 156
6.6.1 Good Relations with Neighbours .................................. 157
6.7 Effects on Health-Based Noise Limits ........................................ 158
6.8 Extracts from BS 8233:2014 Relating to Industrial Noise ........... 158
6.8.1 General .......................................................................... 158
6.8.2 Noise Emitted by Factories ............................................ 158
6.9 Summary of Main Points ............................................................ 159
7 Prediction of Noise Levels ...................................................................... 163

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 163
7.2 Prediction (Simple Treatment) ..................................................... 163
7.3 Distance from the Noise Source .................................................. 163
7.3.1 Nearby Sound-Reflecting Surfaces ................................. 165
7.3.2 Sound Levels in Indoor Spaces ....................................... 165
7.3.3 Sound Distribution in Rooms – Direct and
Reverberant Sound ....................................................... 166
7.3.4 Ray- or Beam-Tracing Methods ..................................... 167
xiii
7.3.5 Outdoor Sound Propagation.......................................... 168

7.3.6 Ground Attenuation ...................................................... 168
7.3.7 Effect of Barriers between the Source and Receiver........ 169
7.3.8 Refraction of Sound in the Atmosphere ......................... 171
7.3.9 Absorption of Sound in Air ........................................... 173
7.4 Predicting Sound Levels Outdoors .............................................. 174
7.4.1 Calculations of Sound Level .......................................... 175
7.4.2 Examples of Noise-Level Predictions using Simple
Acoustic Models ............................................................ 175
7.4.3 Internal Noise Model..................................................... 176
7.4.4 External Noise Model.................................................... 178
7.5 Summary .................................................................................... 181
8 Specification of Noise Emission from Machinery and Machinery

Noise Regulations (The European Union Machinery Noise
Regulations) ........................................................................................... 185
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 185
8.1.1 Why is the Specification of Noise Emission so
Important?..................................................................... 186
8.1.2 Limitation of Sound Power Levels ................................. 187
8.2 European Union Machinery Noise Directives.............................. 187
8.2.1 Directive 2006/42/EC (Noise and Machinery
Directive) ....................................................................... 187
8.2.2 Directive 2000/14/EC (Noise Emission of Outdoor
Equipment Directive) ..................................................... 188
8.2.3 Standards....................................................................... 188
8.3 Noise Test Codes ........................................................................ 189
8.3.1 Noise Test Codes for Particular Industries ..................... 189
8.3.1.1 Part 1: Blade Granulators .................................. 189
8.3.1.1.1 BS EN 12012-1:2007+A1:2008 –
Annex A (Noise Test Code) ................. 190
8.3.1.1.2 Determination of Sound Power Levels . 191
xiv
Contents
8.3.1.1.3 Determination of Noise Emission

Sound Pressure Levels ......................... 191
8.3.1.1.4 Installation, Mounting and Operating
Conditions ........................................... 191
8.3.1.1.5 Information to be Recorded in a Test
Report ................................................. 191
8.3.1.1.6 Measurement Uncertainty.................... 192
8.3.1.1.7 Declaration and Verification ................ 192
8.3.1.2 Part 3: Shredders ............................................... 192
8.4 Summary .................................................................................... 195
9 Towards a Quieter Workplace ................................................................ 201

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 201
9.2 Separation of Quieter and Noisier Machines and Activities ........ 201
9.3 Increasing Distance ..................................................................... 201
9.4 Use of Partitions, Screens or Barriers........................................... 202
9.5 Using Sound-Absorbing Material ................................................ 202
9.6 Enclosures and Refuges ............................................................... 202
9.7 Automation ................................................................................ 204
9.8 Reduction of Structure-borne Sound ........................................... 204
9.9 Reduction of Noise Radiated to the External Environment ......... 205
9.10 Location of External Machinery and Equipment......................... 205
9.11 Summary .................................................................................... 205
10 Case Studies ........................................................................................... 207

10.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 207
10.2 Review of Existing Published Case Studies .................................. 207
10.2.1 HSE 100 Practical Applications of Noise Reduction
Methods ........................................................................ 207
10.2.2 HSE Sound Solutions Case Studies ................................ 208
10.2.3 HSE Industry Specific-Case Studies ................................ 209
10.2.4 Environmental Noise-Related Case Studies/Histories..... 211
xv
10.3 Additional Case Studies .............................................................. 225

10.4 Case Studies Provided by the Industrial Noise & Vibration
Centre ........................................................................................ 244
Glossary ............................................................................................................ 263
Abbreviations .................................................................................................... 273
Index .............................................................................................................. 277
xvi
1
Basic Concepts and Terminology of Sound
and Vibration
1.1 Sound Pressure, Frequency and Wavelength
1.1.1 Sound
Humans can hear sounds that are very small and rapid fluctuations which occur in air
pressure that can be detected by our eardrums. However, how small are the sounds
and how rapid are the fluctuations?
To answer the first question we must compare the size of the fluctuations with the
typical atmospheric pressure. To answer the second question, ‘how rapid’ is related
to the idea of the frequency or pitch of a sound.
1.1.2 Sound or Noise?
A very common definition of noise is ‘sound that is unwanted by the recipient’. At

home or at leisure, we can distinguish between sounds that we like and want to
hear or listen to, and those we do not, which we call ‘noise’. The difference is very
subjective, so what is a wanted and enjoyable sound for some people is regarded as
noise that is unwanted for other people.
If, however, we are considering occupational noise (i.e., noise in the workplace) and
the possibility of noise-induced hearing loss, the distinction disappears because the
damage to the hearing system may occur whether it is caused by sounds from noisy
machines or from prolonged exposure to very loud music.
1.1.3 Sound Pressures
A typical value of atmospheric pressure is about 100,000 Pascals (Pa), but varies with
weather conditions. 1 Pa = 1 Newton per square metre (N/m2), the scientific unit of
1
pressure. In more everyday terms, this is about 15 lbs force per square inch, or 1 kg
force per square centimetre.
The size of the fluctuations in atmospheric pressure which (if rapid enough) create
the sensation of sound range are from about 2 millionths of 1 Pa to about 200 Pa.
The lower end of this range is the threshold of hearing and the upper limit is the
loudest sound that would be tolerable to the human ear – the threshold of pain. Both
thresholds vary from person to person.
Hence, even the loudest sound in the audible range is only about one-thousandth
of the everyday, more or less steady atmospheric pressure on human eardrums. The
range of pressures, from smallest to largest, is about 5 million to 1: a very large range.
The amount of energy in a sound is proportional to the square of the sound pressure.
Hence, when the range of sound pressures is translated to a range of sound energies,
it becomes 25 million million to one: a truly enormous range. This makes us realise
what how delicate and sensitive our ears are as detectors of sound.
This enormous range of sound pressure and sound energies in the audible range
of sounds is one of the reasons that sound pressure is usually measured using a
logarithmic scale called the decibel (dB) sale, which helps to ‘squash’ or compress
the range in a more manageable and convenient range. The dB scale is explained
later in this chapter.
1.1.4 Frequency
The rapidity of pressure fluctuations at the human ear which cause the sensation of
sound is expressed as the frequency of the sound, and is measured in cycles per second,
or Hertz (Hz). The range of sound frequencies which are audible to the human ear
extends from about 20 Hz to about 20,000 Hz [i.e., 20 kilo Hertz (kHz)] but varies
from person to person and also depends upon age. The subjective sensation of the
‘pitch’ of a musical note is closely related to its frequency.
1.1.5 Broadband Noise
Most sounds and most noises contain a wide variety of frequencies, and are often
referred to as ‘broadband’ noises. Broadband sounds which contain a more or less
even spread of frequencies across the audio range include: ‘hissing’-type sounds; the
noise of a boiling kettle, from a frying pan, from a fountain or waterfall, from an
FM radio off-tune in between stations; ‘white’ and ‘pink’ noise used in audio testing.
2
Basic Concepts and Terminology of Sound and Vibration
Noise from an electric drill and many other cutting and abrasive power tools generates
mainly high-frequency noises, mainly in the 2000, 4,000 and 8,000 octave bands, and
noise in industry generally tends to be in the range of 3,000–6,000 Hz. At these high
frequencies, the human ear is most sensitive and most susceptible to damage from
over exposure to high levels of noise. Noise from pumps, fans, and diesel engines
tends to have a frequency spectrum (range of frequencies) with the highest levels at
lower frequencies, often in the range 63 to 250 Hz.
1.1.6 Pure Tones
A sound of just one single frequency is called a ‘pure tone’. The time signal ‘pips’ on
the radio and computer beeps are examples of a pure tone. A note played on a piano
or guitar is a mixture of pure tones and harmonics (multiples of the tone frequency).
Rotating machinery such as fans, motors, and gears produce pure tones and are
characterised by descriptors such as a ‘whine’, ‘whistle’, ‘drone’ and ‘hum’. Sounds
with a tonal component are important in the assessment of noise in the environment
because they are considered to be more annoying than similar levels of broadband
noise without the pure tone. Some machines and fans, for example, generate noise
with a mix of broadbands and tones.
1.2 Frequency Weightings and Frequency Analyses
The frequency content of a sound can be measured and investigated in one of two
ways. The first way involves applying an electronic frequency weighting (A, C or Z),
which gives a simple and rapid method based on a single measurement. The second
way is the more complicated method of frequency analyses, which splits the sound
into various bands of frequencies, usually into octaves or 1/3 octave bands.
1.2.1 A-Weighted Decibels
The vast majority of noise measurements are of A-weighted decibels (dBA).

A-weighting is an electronic frequency-weighting network that attempts to build the
human response to different frequencies into the reading indicated by a sound-level
meters so that it relates to the loudness of the sound.
3
1.2.1.1 A Brief History of the A-Weighting and its Relationship to

Loudness
Although the human ear can detect sound waves over a wide range of frequencies,
from about 20 Hz to about 20 kHz, it is not equally sensitive to all these frequencies.
It is most sensitive to frequencies in the range 1,000–4,000 Hz (i.e., 1–4 kHz). This
is also the range at which most noise often occurs in industry and the range at which
the ear is most sensitive to damage from over exposure to noise (i.e., to noise-induced
hearing loss, or ‘industrial deafness’). The human hearing system is less sensitive to
lower frequencies (below about 5,000 Hz).
The variation in human hearing to different frequencies was investigated by Fletcher

and Munson (1933) in the USA and by Robinson and Dadson (1954) in the UK,
among others. They tested how human subjects judged the loudness of pure tones
at different sound levels and frequencies. This work resulted in the production of
a set of ‘equal loudness contours’. These showed, for example, that a tone at a low
frequency, such as 100 Hz, would have to be several dB higher to sound equally as
loud as a tone at a higher frequency of 1,000 Hz.
The shape of these curves was simulated electronically and built into the sound-level
meter to give a sound-level reading, in dBA, which to some extent at least corresponded
to the sensation of the loudness of the sound.
Originally, three frequency weightings were produced: A, B and C. These correspond

to the difference in the shapes of the equal loudness contours at different sound levels.
The B weighting is now no longer in use and the A weighting has been used throughout
the world as the usual way to measure sound and noise levels. The C weighting was
designed originally to simulate the human hearing response at high levels of sound.
The C weighting is much flatter (i.e., shows much less variation with frequency) than
the A-weighting curve and is still used (e.g., in the Noise at Work Regulations) if a
more or less flat, unweighted frequency response is required. In 2003, the Z-weighted
decibel (dBZ) was introduced. This is completely flat and will probably eventually
replace the use of the C weighting. The values of these weighting (to the nearest dB)
at octave-band frequencies are shown in Table 1.1.
4
Table 1.1 Frequency weightings (to the nearest dB)

Octave band (Hz) dBA dBC dBZ
63 −26 −1 0
125 −16 0 0
250 −9 0 0
500 −3 0 0
1,000 0 0 0
2,000 1 0 0
4,000 1 −1 0
8,000 −1 −3 0
dBC: C-weighted decibel
Table 1.2 Some typical sound levels in dBA

140 dBA Threshold of pain
120 dBA Jet aircraft at 100 m
100 dBA Very loud road drill, loud disco
90 dBA DIY drill (close to ear), food blender, lorry (roadside)
80 dBA Alarm clock, doorbell, telephone ringing, traffic at a busy roadside
70 dBA Moderately loud hair dryer, vacuum cleaner
60 dBA Normal person–person conversation, washing machine
50 dBA Quiet urban daytime, large office, TV in domestic living room
40 dBA Quiet office, library
30 dBA Bedroom at night, soft whisper
20 dBA Just audible, broadcasting studio, rustling leaves
0 dBA Threshold of hearing (for a young person with normal hearing)
5
1.2.2 Frequency Analyses
Although a single value such as dBA is useful for assessing the effect of a noise, a more
detailed knowledge of the frequency content of the noise is sometimes required, for
example, if it is necessary to specify noise-control measures. The sound pressure level(s)
(Lp) is measured in a series of frequency bands and shown as a graph or chart of sound
pressure levels against frequency, called a frequency spectrum. The most commonly
used method of frequency analysis is octave-band analysis, which is appropriate for
noise-control purposes. 1/3 octave-band analysis is used for measurements of building
acoustics and narrowband analysis is used to identify the frequency and thence the
source of pure tones among broadband noise.
Examples of octave-band noise spectra are shown in Figure 1.1 for a typical
predominantly low-frequency noise such as a fan or a pump, for a predominantly
high-frequency noise such as an electric drill or angle grinder, and also for pink noise,
which has a flat noise spectrum. Although the overall dBZ levels are similar for low-
and high-frequency sources (81 and 82 dBA, respectively) there is a big difference in
their dBA levels: 82 dBA for the mainly high-frequency noise source and 69 dBA for
the low-frequency source. For a source of pink noise with a constant octave-band
level of 65 dB, the overall noise levels are 72 dBA and 74 dBZ, respectively.
Examples of octave band noise spectra

90
80
70
Noise level / dBA
60
50
40
A low frequency noise (e.g. fan or pump) High frequency noise e.g. power hand tool
Pink noise (flat spectrum)
30
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Octave Band / Hz
Figure 1.1 Examples of octave-band noise spectra
6
Sometimes, if the noise contains a tone, or series of tones, it is better to carry out
a narrowband analysis to identify the exact frequencies of the various tones. This
strategy can help to identify, rather like a fingerprint, the particular source of the
tonal noise. Figure 1.2 shows an example of a narrowband analysis.
Frequency response
60
40
Amplitude (dB)
20
-20
-40
102 103 104

Frequency (Hz)
Figure 1.2 Example of a narrowband analysis of a tonal sound. Note that there
are several examples of narrowband spectra in the case studies of Chapter 10.
Reproduced with permission from E. Ballastero, London South Bank University,
London, UK. ©2017, London South Bank University
1.2.3 Wavelength
At any point in a sound wave, the sound pressure varies periodically with time at
a rate which is dependent on the frequency. At a nearby point, the sound pressure
7
will also vary in the same way, but at the same moment will be slightly out-of-step,
or out-of-phase, with the pressure at the first point. As the distance between the two
points increases, their sound-pressure cycles become increasingly out of step. That
is, their phase difference increases until the distance between the points reaches a
certain value, and then the pressure fluctuations at the two are back in step, back
in phase. This distance is the wavelength of the sound at that frequency. Looking
at waves on the surface of water, the wavelength is the distance between two wave
crests, or between two wave troughs.
The frequency, f, and wavelength, λ, of the tone are related by the speed of sound,
c, in the medium according to Equation 1.1:
c = f.λ. (1.1)
The speed of sound in air varies with temperature, from about 330 m/s at 0 °C to
about 340 m/s at 20 °C. The speed of sound in air does not vary with frequency, and
so the wavelength decreases as the frequency increases. Hence, low-frequency sound
has a long wavelength and high-frequency sound a short wavelength. Taking the latter
figure for the speed of sound in air, Equation 1.1 gives a wavelength of 0.34 m at 1,000
Hz, increasing to 3.4 m at 100 Hz and reducing to 0.034 m (or 3.4 cm) at 10 kHz.
1.2.3.1 The Significance of Frequency and Wavelength in Noise Control
The velocity of sound depends only on the medium in which the sound is propagating,
for example, air or water, or some building material, such as brick or concrete. The
frequency of the sound depends entirely on the sound source. A sound wave may be
transmitted from air via brickwork into water and then back into air again – and its
frequency would remain unchanged as it moved from one medium to another, even
though the wavelength would change.
It is important to know the frequency content of sounds because almost all of the
acoustic parameters and properties associated with noise measurement and control
vary with frequency, including the sensitivity of human hearing, the sound-absorbing
and sound-insulating properties of materials, and the performance of noise sources.
8
Thus, for example, the effectiveness of various noise-control measures such as

attenuators and silencers, acoustic tiles, partitions, enclosures, barriers and anti-
vibration mounts varies with frequency. Usually, it is easier to achieve noise reductions
for high frequencies than for lower frequencies. The subjective impression created
by the sound will also depend very much on its frequency content. Pure tones tend
to be more annoying than broadband noise at the same sound level. The frequency
of a pure tone also determines the subjective nature of its pitch. The frequency of a
tone also determines the subjective measure of its pitch.
Wavelength is important in determining how sound travels. That is, how it is

reflected by surfaces, scattered by obstacles, and the extent to which it bends around
barriers (a property of sound called ‘diffraction’). The wavelength of a sound has a
profound effect on the way it interacts with obstacles in its path. Thus, for example,
the effectiveness of a noise barrier in shielding noise depends on its size compared
with the sound wavelength, and so the barrier will always be more effective at high
frequencies than at lower frequencies. The pattern of sound radiation from a noise
source (e.g., a loudspeaker) will depend very much on its size relative to the sound
wavelength. For a loudspeaker, the sound pattern that it radiates will become more
directional with increasing frequency. The same is true for the noise radiated from
machinery and other noise sources.
These characteristics have practical implications for the noise-control engineer, who
can sometimes reduce the effect of high-frequency noise by shielding, or by using the
source direction to direct the sound away from the receiver. The resonance frequencies
of lengths of pipes or ducts, and of certain types of reactive silencers, depend on the
wavelength of the fluid (liquid or gas) inside the pipe or duct, which will in turn depend
on the temperature of the fluid inside the pipe or duct. Therefore, the noise-control
engineer designing silencers of this type for hot flue gases, for example, will need to
take into account how the speed of sound in the gas varies with temperature because
this will affect the wavelength of sound in the air or gas travelling through them.
1.3 The Decibel Scale
The dB scale is a logarithmic scale, so first a very brief introduction to logarithms

is warranted.
If we write 100 as 10 × 10, or as 102, then 2 is called the logarithm of 100 to the
base of 10.
9
On this same basis:

• Log 10 = 1
• Log 100 = log 102 = 2
• Log 1000 = log 103 = 3
• Log 1,000,000 = log 106 = 6,
• Log 1,000,000,000000 (i.e., one million million) = log 1012 = 12
Hence, we can see that a range of numbers from 1 to 1,000 becomes, on a log scale,
compressed to a range from 1 to 3, and a range from 1 to a million (106) becomes
on a log scale a range from 1 to 6, and a range of million million (= 1012) to a range
from 1 to 12.
This is what happens when we express the enormous range of sound energies or
sound powers (rate of supplying or of using up energy) on the dB scale.
1.3.1 ‘Level’ Means ‘dB’
On the dB scale, sound pressures are called sound pressure levels (the word level
indicating that a dB scale is being used). The threshold of hearing (20 × 10−6 Pa)
becomes a sound pressure level (or sometimes just a sound level) of 0 dB, and the
threshold of pain (100 Pa) becomes 120 dB.
1.3.2 What do Changes in dB Level Mean in Ordinary (Non-Decibel)

Terms?
A change in level of 3 dB represents a doubling or halving of sound power or sound

energy (power is energy per unit time). Hence, if a single source of noise, an electric
drill, for example, produces a sound level of say, 85 dBA, at a particular position,
and if a second drill produces exactly the same level at this position, then when the
second drill is switched on the combined sound level will increase by 3 to 88 dB.
The increases for different numbers of identical sources are shown in Table 1.3 below:
Another way of looking at Table 1.3 is that an increase of 10 dB represents a 10-fold

increase in sound power or sound energy (i.e., 10 noise sources all operating together),
and 20 dB represents a 100-fold increase, and 30 dB a 1,000-fold increase, and so
on. Conversely, if a reduction of 20 dB in noise level is required, this means that the
sound power must be reduced to one-hundredth of its present value.
10
Table 1.3 How the dB level increases for multiple identical noise sources
Quantity of different sources Increase in level in dB
2 3
3 5
4 6
5 7
6 8
7 8.5
8 9
9 9.5
10 10
100 20
1,000 30
1.3.3 Subjective Effects of Changes in Level
So far we have been considering objective increases or decreases in level, but it is

also important to understand the subjective hearing sensation that these changes in
sound level will produce. The hearing system itself has a logarithmic response, which
is a second reason for using dB (in addition to its convenience in compressing the
enormously wide range of sound powers into a manageable scale).
Subjectively, for most people:
• An increase of 3 dB produces a noticeable increase in loudness.
• An increase of 10 dB results in a doubling of loudness.
• A further increase of 10 dB (i.e., an increase of 20 dB) results if a 4-fold increase

in loudness.
1.3.4 Combining Sound Levels
When more than one noise source is operating at once it becomes necessary to consider
how the individual sound pressure levels combine. The dB values are based on
logarithms, so we should not expect them to obey the rules of ‘ordinary’ arithmetic. We
demonstrated above that a doubling of sound energy, power or intensity corresponds
to an increase of 3 dB. Hence, if two machines each individually produce a level of
11
say, 90 dB, at a certain point, then when both are operating together we should expect
the combined sound pressure levels to increase to 93 dB, but certainly not to 180 dB!
Table 1.4 gives a simple method for combining levels in pairs based on adding to the
higher level a correction that depends upon the difference between the two levels.
Although this is only an approximate method, it should give results that are accurate
to the nearest dB, which is satisfactory for most purposes.
Table 1.4 Combining decibels

Add to the higher level Difference between levels
3 0
3 1
2 2
2 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
0 10
Reproduced with permission from R.J. Peters in Noise Control (A Pira Environmental
Guide), Pira, Leatherhead, UK, 2000. ©2000, Pira
Example:
As an example of the use of Table 1.4, consider the combining of four dB levels: 82,
84, 86 and 88.
The levels are combined in pairs using Table 1.4. The first two levels in the series, 82
and 84 (a difference of 2), are combined to give 86 dB. This ‘running total’ is then
combined with the next in the list, 86 dB (a difference of 0), to give a new running
total of 89 dB, which is then combined with the final value, 88 dB (a difference of
1), to give a total combined level of 92 dB.
According to Table 1.4, differences of more than 10 dB are negligible, so the lower
of the two levels can be ignored. Although the levels may be taken in any order, it is
12
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preserving the old village intact. Eventually there will have to be a
ring-road round all old cities, like Oxford, which stand at the
intersection of important highways, or the concentration of traffic at
the centre will become unmanageable.
We have hardly grown accustomed yet to the great new arterial
roads, though several are already in use. They seem to me to
represent one of our highest achievements in civil engineering as
they sweep majestically through cuttings and over embankments
with an uninterrupted width of a hundred feet or more. In some ways
they are the biggest thing we have in England, out of scale with our
doll’s-house villages and landscapes, and out of character with our
little winding lanes. It will be years before the trees that line them
turn them into magnificent avenues, but by that time we shall have
learned to accept them and even to admire them. Presumably we
shall see an end of telegraph-poles soon, and that will be all to the
good. But there are other things that engineers might bear in mind.
The great road that runs south-west from Birmingham to the Lickey
Hills, a noble highway in width, is disfigured by tramway poles and
wires. Is that necessary in 1927? Surely the petrol-engine, which has
done much to spoil the country, can atone for some of its crimes
here by taking the place of electrically driven vehicles?
In Birmingham, as in the narrow streets of Ipswich, and—still worse
—in the beautiful Wharfedale valley, is to be seen a more frightful
abortion, the “trackless tram.” There has been a proposal to extend
this hideous system in Wharfedale on a broad highway cutting
across some fine country. Surely motor-buses could serve every
purpose that the lumbering trackless tram fulfils.
The new arterial roads start with a clean sheet: it is to be hoped that
it will remain clean. Recently the Minister of Transport addressed a
circular to local authorities, reminding them that, under the powers
conferred on them by the Advertisement Regulation Act of 1907,
they could take action in respect of unsightly advertisements along
the great new arteries, and urging them to do so. One distinct
advantage of modern road-construction is that the dust nuisance has
practically ceased to exist. Another innovation that has recently
appeared is a small black and white “lighthouse” at every important
crossing. The Ministry of Transport might institute a competition for
designs for these useful but not always beautiful accessories.
The question of road-development is inextricably bound up with the
larger question of town-planning, on which I have touched already in
another connection. Before approaching the vital matter of
controlling the design of individual buildings, we must consider this
wider aspect. The fact is that town-planning enthusiasts are
disappointed with the progress made since the passing of the 1909
Act. We had hoped for more far-reaching results. The nation as a
whole has failed to realise the importance of this question or the
great responsibility that legislation has put upon all local authorities.
Whether from the point of view of appearance, of health, or of mere
business, town-planning is the only national method of providing for
the future.
It is futile to write letters to The Times about lost opportunities:
common-sense would have saved the situation in nearly every case,
for town-planning is idealised common-sense. People who have
bought a house in a half-developed suburb wake up one morning to
find a shop rising on the opposite side of their road. They pack up
their furniture and flit to another half-built district a mile further out;
and then it happens again. So they keep on moving, at considerable
expense to themselves. They lose all interest in local affairs, indeed
they never stay long enough to acquire such an interest, and nobody
gains by their journeys except the removal contractor. But in a town-
planned district an area is set apart for dwelling-houses, another for
shops, another for factories. The position of each area is determined
by local conditions, by the “lie of the land,” by the prevailing wind,
and by the situation of railways and roads. There is a place for
everything, and everything is in its place. This branch of town-
planning is called “zoning.” Sites are reserved for municipal
buildings, for schools, churches, cinemas and all the other
requirements of our complex life. Roads are planned wide where
heavy traffic is anticipated, narrow elsewhere. Thus in a properly
planned area there is no need for large sums to be paid out of the
rates for compensation when a road has to be made or widened,
because the land for the road has been earmarked in advance. A
man who erects a shop in a new street runs no risk of having made
an error of judgment in selecting his site: he knows that this will be
the main shopping street and no other. Thus town-planning is good
business, but like many other movements for reform its inception
was due to far-sighted dreamers. However, it has not yet caught hold
of the popular imagination, and, in the recent case of the East Kent
coalfield, where, if ever, there was a crying need for its adoption, the
imaginative enterprise of some leading Men of Kent seems to have
started the movement which made it possible. This last example
shows admirably how town-planning may be utilised to save the
countryside. In one sense East Kent could not be saved: coal had
been found there, and was too valuable to be neglected, for, after all,
we cannot afford to throw away any of our natural resources at the
present time. Yet it was unthinkable that this lovely district, the cradle
of our race and the playground of half London, should be allowed to
become a second Black Country. So everything that can be done will
be done to preserve Canterbury and Sandwich and other priceless
relics of antiquity, to save trees, to prevent the blackening of the
fields by smoke and the disfigurement of the landscape by tall
chimneys, above all to avoid any repetition of those squalid black
villages that have driven miners to desperation in other colliery
districts. This is one of the ways in which town-planning can serve
the nation.
The development of a modern town is inevitably centrifugal; it
spreads and sprawls outwards along the main roads into the country
unless that tendency be checked. Every mile that it grows outwards
means a few minutes’ extra time for travelling to and from work,
congestion increases at the centre, and the country—as a place for
recreation—is driven further and further away. A feeling that this
system is essentially wrong has resulted in some well-meant efforts
to create “Satellite Towns,” of which Letchworth and Welwyn are
examples. They are satellites to London in the sense that London is
within hail for emergencies: thus Harley Street is a useful resort in
some cases, while the sanctuary of the British Museum Reading
Room satisfies bookworms, and Oxford Street contents the other
sex. But the main object of the promoters was to remove industries
and workers bodily into the country, so that labour might be carried
on in pleasant surroundings, never more than a few minutes’ walk
from green fields. The intention is to limit the ultimate population of
these towns to 30,000-50,000. When that figure is reached, another
centre will be started. So far, neither town has grown very rapidly,
and industry has been slow to move out, in spite of the heavy cost of
carrying on business in London. But the “Satellite Town,” a
praiseworthy attempt to secure the amenities of the old country town
for modern workers, is a factor to be reckoned with in the future. The
new L.C.C. town at Becontree in Essex is being properly laid out on
rational town-planning lines, but is to be purely residential, for people
working in London, so does not constitute a “Satellite Town.” A
remarkably successful scheme for providing something better than
the ordinary haphazard suburb, which normally deteriorates with the
certainty of clockwork, is to be seen in the Hampstead Garden
Suburb. This will never deteriorate appreciably, because its residents
are guaranteed against any interference with their amenities. It is laid
out scientifically, not merely exploited on short-sighted commercial
methods.
But though so much can be done by means of town-planning, that
new power has not yet been utilised to any appreciable extent in
regard to controlling the actual design of buildings. The high level of
design achieved at Hampstead and Welwyn is due to private control
exercised by a Company, but Ruislip, Bath, and—quite recently—
Edinburgh, have adopted the clause in the Town-Planning Act which
allows an authority to prescribe the “character” of buildings, and thus
to veto any design which, in their opinion, is likely to conflict with the
amenities of the place.
There was, as we all know, a great development of municipal
housing after the War. It was encouraged, subsidised, and even
controlled to some extent by the State, which still continues its work
in that direction, though in a greatly modified form. The houses
erected under these auspices have been subjected to a great deal of
criticism, much of it both ignorant and ill-natured. Let us recall the
circumstances. A vast number of dwellings had to be provided in a
great hurry for men who had every claim on the nation’s gratitude.
Through no fault of their own they were homeless. For a variety of
reasons these houses were very expensive, even allowing for the
general rise in prices. There was a wave of idealism in the air, and
the authorities had taken opinions from every reliable source as to
the type of house required: these were to be “homes for heroes,”
with a bath h. and c. A book of designs was prepared in Whitehall for
the guidance of local authorities and their architects. These designs
met with general approval among competent critics, but with some
derision from the general public, who greeted the “homes for heroes”
as “rabbit-hutches” or “boxes.” That was because they were devoid
of trimmings and built in small groups instead of in long rows. There
are housing-schemes good and bad, but most people who
understand architecture and who are prepared to wait a few years,
till hedges and trees have given these simple buildings their proper
setting, consider that the new houses generally represent an
advance on anything done hitherto. Simplicity in building is, within
limits, a virtue, especially in the country.
The design of these houses was entrusted to architects to an extent
never approached previously; sometimes they were the work of
private practitioners, sometimes of young architects employed under
the direction of the local surveyor, sometimes by the local surveyor
or engineer himself. The degree of ability in design possessed by
these several functionaries is naturally reflected in their products. In
that queer book Antic Hay, Mr. Aldous Huxley makes an eccentric
architect, “Gumbril Senior,” voice his views on the design of artisan
houses: “I’m in luck to have got the job, of course, but really, that a
civilised man should have to do jobs like that. It’s too much. In the
old days these creatures built their own hovels, and very nice and
suitable they were too. The architects busied themselves with
architecture—which is the expression of human dignity and
greatness, which is man’s protest, not his miserable acquiescence.”
But Gumbril Senior was a visionary, and most architects feel that
they can do much to save England in her present plight. The trouble
is that they are allowed to do so little.
It is equally possible to expect a reasonably high standard of design
in the other buildings erected under a local authority: its schools,
libraries, and so on. Nor ought one to find unworthy architecture
produced by any Government Department, whether it be a post-
office, a telephone-exchange, a military barracks, or a coastguard
station on a lonely cliff. There was a time when every post-office and
police-station bore the marks of red-tape, but of late there has been
a noteworthy change for the better. Again and again one sees with
pleasure a village post-office or telephone-exchange which
harmonises perfectly with the old village street. No longer are the
designs stereotyped; local tradition and local colouring are
considered. As time passes we may hope to witness the
disappearance of the hideous sheds and huts that survive to remind
us of the War, now so long ended.
Apart from national and municipal architecture, the design of which
must be assumed to be in competent hands, there is a great deal of
building carried out by large corporate bodies who have it in their
power to insist on good design, and above all on design which
accords with local surroundings. Among these are railway
companies, banks, “multiple” shops, and brewery companies. Among
many of these various undertakings there seems to be positively an
architectural renaissance at work, and real imagination is being
displayed at last. The Underground Railways in and round London
are employing clever artists to design their stations and notices and
posters, some of the other railways are providing really attractive
houses for their employees, and both public-houses and banks in the
country-towns are slowly beginning to take on the colour of their
environment. There are two other types of commercial undertaking
which might well follow this excellent example: the cinema
companies and the garage proprietors. Between them they continue
to furnish us with a plentiful stock of eyesores all over the country,
mainly because they are striving to attract notice and because they
always forget to take their hats off to the village street. If the Council
for the Preservation of Rural England can do anything to teach them
better manners they will effect a real service to England.
Occasionally one sees an attractive petrol-station: a few pounds
spent in prizes would produce a crop of good designs from
architects. One hesitates to offer any advice to the builders of
churches of any kind, but here again one asks no more than decent
respect for the spirit of old England.
The toughest nut to crack in all this matter of design is, however, the
question of the shop and the dwelling-house, under which head I
include, as a matter of courtesy, the bungalow. An Englishman’s
house is his castle, and he resents any interference with the rights of
the subject. Is it reasonable to impose on him any restriction as to
the outward appearance of his home, in regard to its design, its
colour, or the materials of which it is composed? It is true that he has
to submit to local building by-laws which prescribe the thicknesses of
walls, size of timbers, precautions to be taken against fire, and many
matters concerned with health. Often he has to place his house a
specified distance back from the road, behind what is called a
“building-line.” But the local authority is not empowered to interfere in
any matter of æsthetics, unless it adopts the Town-Planning Act and
enforces the clause, already mentioned, relating to the “character” of
buildings.
But such “interference” is not unknown in the case of leasehold
property. Many owners of large estates insert clauses in leases
prescribing the materials to be used in building, the size of house to
be erected, perhaps the tints to be used in painting, and almost
always insist that painting is to be done every so many years. They
may also require that no garages, sheds, or other excrescences are
to be added to the building without the permission of their surveyor. It
is quite reasonable to suggest that these restrictions might be
increased to achieve the purpose we have in mind. Thus the
frequent instances that we see of a row of stucco dwellings being
distempered different colours, and thereby destroying the effect of a
balanced architectural scheme, might be avoided. The present ruling
autocrat in Italy has recently introduced a measure to deal with this
very point, and tenants of houses in a street have to distemper their
external walls the same colour at the same time. Much of the
“restless” appearance of modern streets and terraces is due to a
neglect of this obvious procedure. A concerted appeal to large
owners of property to safeguard the amenities of their estates by
further action on various lines might lead to great improvement, and
something might even be done in the same direction by restrictive
covenants in conveyances of freehold land.
Much has been said lately about the necessity for the control of the
speculative builder who continues to provide most of the smaller
houses and bungalows and shops in this country, and this is the
most difficult problem of all. Such control must obviously have the
sanction of the law to be effective, and therefore must be ultimately
vested in the local authorities, for it is impossible to imagine that
Whitehall is to be held responsible for the approval of every plan in
the country. As I have already pointed out, the rural districts present
the most urgent case for our attention, and here control is most
difficult of all. In a great city like Manchester or Leeds a local Fine Art
Committee might be formed of people competent enough and
disinterested enough to exercise this very delicate function in a
statesmanlike way, without fear or favour. Edinburgh, Bath and
Oxford have already led the way: towns like Cambridge, Coventry,
and Canterbury would be well advised to follow suit. Birmingham has
an Advisory Art Committee without statutory powers.
But imagine the Rural District Council of Nether Footlesby dealing
with a design by Sir Felix Lutfield, r.a., for a large country-house in
their area, for it must be remembered that control of design would
apply to houses great and small, designed by architects great and
small as well as by people who were not architects. These worthy
men might reject his plans because they disliked the appearance of
the chimneys; or Councillor Trapp, a plumber by calling, might have
a grievance against Sir Felix owing to an unfortunate difference of
opinion arising from a previous association in building. It is evident
that such a position is unthinkable. Nor would the situation be
materially improved if the two auctioneer-architects practising in
Nether Footlesby, the retired art-mistress living in the village, and the
Vicar of the parish, were entrusted with this responsible task. It
needs little imagination to realise that a small advisory committee of
this calibre would be nearly as dangerous and quite as futile as the
Rural District Council itself. Even if control were administered on a
county basis, there are small counties in England where it would be
difficult to enlist a committee of men whose decisions would be
readily accepted by the bigwigs of the architectural profession. It
seems to me that a very carefully drafted scheme of control might be
organised for most of the large cities and perhaps half the counties
of England, though even then the situation would bristle with
difficulties, but for the more scattered districts—where at least an
equal number of mistakes is being made—the problem seems
insoluble. The London Society and the Birmingham Civic Society are
the sort of bodies that might be trusted to frame a scheme, but even
they would experience many setbacks before they obtained statutory
powers. Much good work in the direction of controlling unwise
development in France has been done by the local Syndicats
d’initiative, bodies which exist to preserve the amenities of each town
or district. A study of the methods used in France, and of measures
adopted recently in Italy, would doubtless be helpful in our own case.
Failing control of this kind, it has been suggested that the builder
must be “brought to his senses,” in the diplomatic words of a writer in
The Times of January 7th, 1927. But, so long as the builder
continues to sell his houses without any difficulty and at a
considerable profit, he may not see any reason for admitting that he
is deficient in sense. Who, for instance, is to be empowered to stop
him decorating his gables with a ludicrous parody of half-timbering,
made of inch boards which warp in the sun? The small builder
obtains many of his designs from printed books or from weekly
journals, and the following authentic extract from a recent publication
shows how it is done:
“Having a plot of land 80-ft. frontage by 120-ft., I should be
pleased if some reader would submit a plan and elevation-
sketch of a detached house, something attractive, dainty,
and very arresting.”
The words I have italicised explain some of our present troubles. The
desire of the builder and of his client, for the “very arresting” house
causes many of the incongruous additions to our landscape.
Something might be done, as the President of the R.I.B.A. has
suggested, to supply the builder with stock designs of good
character, adapted to the needs of each locality; for, as I have noted
before, the use of copybooks in the eighteenth century produced
houses which if sometimes dull were at least dignified and often
charming. But a process of very slow conversion will be necessary
before we can hope to rid the public of this desire for “very arresting”
buildings.
In the control of design would have to be included restrictions on
colour and material so far as is reasonable, but it is quite
impracticable nowadays to insist that a man building a house in a
Yorkshire dale must employ the traditional stone walls and stone
slates: it is doubtful if anybody will ever legally prevent him using the
pink asbestos-cement tiles that clash so violently with the dull tones
of the landscape. Similarly, it is idle to expect that a modern factory
building should be erected to harmonise perfectly with rural
surroundings: one can only ask that its designer may bear in mind
the spirit of the place, and treat it as tenderly as circumstances
permit. But we may reasonably press for further action in the
abatement of factory smoke and domestic smoke, for that nuisance
spreads forty or fifty miles away from industrial areas, and cities like
Leicester—where smoke is hardly visible—are few and far between.
The Coal Smoke Abatement Society has long worked towards this
end, and its arguments are familiar to most people. Its supporters
are convinced that smoky chimneys are wasteful as well as
unhealthy and unpleasant. But it seems certain that we can eliminate
a large part of our coal-smoke by utilising electric power far more
extensively than we now do, by harnessing our rivers and by utilising
all the waste water-power that is running from reservoirs to towns in
aqueducts and pipes.
It has been suggested lately that much of the ugliness of colliery
districts might be mitigated by judicious planting of trees on pit-
banks. But smoke is one factor that prevents this, for it blackens and
stunts all vegetation. Then the recent coal-strike showed that in any
such emergency gleaners would soon be at work on the banks,
grubbing for coal among the tree-roots. Lastly, even if trees did grow
in such inhospitable soil, there is some doubt whether they would be
tenderly treated by those for whose benefit they were planted.
It has been pointed out, earlier in this chapter, that Acts of
Parliament have already empowered local authorities to remove
unsightly hoardings and advertisements of all kinds, so that it only
remains now for public opinion to press them to proceed in this
admirable work. The author of Nuntius, in this series of essays,
prophesies that advertising will not become more aggressive, adding
that a sign which spoils a beautiful landscape is a very ineffective
advertisement and hence that the “few existing” (sic) will soon
disappear. Let us hope so. But one hesitates to accept his earlier
statement that, if there were no hoardings on empty sites, these
would become rubbish dumps. At all events, the recent action of the
petrol combines in removing their hideous advertisements nearly all
over the countryside represents a great victory for public opinion. On
the whole, advertising is becoming more artistic, possibly more
restrained. But house-agents continue to be terrible sinners in this
respect. Close to my home is an avenue, still miraculously
preserving its beauty, though surely doomed. But at the end of it is a
group of seven enormous hoardings erected cheek-by-jowl by rival
agents and completely spoiling a fine vista. I cannot see that any
hardships would be inflicted on those Philistine touts if all agents’
boards were restricted to a maximum size of 2 square feet. Those
who wished could still read them, others need not. There are many
little details of design in village streets—the inn-signs, the lettering of
street-names, the lamp-standards—capable of improvement on
simple lines. In this connection one may mention the work of the
Rural Industries Bureau which, among its other activities in
encouraging the rustic craftsman, has endeavoured to find
employment for the village blacksmith on simple wrought-iron
accessories in common use and has prepared a selection of designs
for his guidance.
Some day a genius may show us how to make wireless masts less
unsightly, or perhaps we may be able to discard them altogether as
science advances. But this innovation has not greatly spoiled our
villages, nor does it seem probable that air travel will much affect the
appearance of the countryside: a few more aerodromes perhaps,
and on them, it is to be hoped, a more attractive type of building. The
air lighthouse or beacon will spring up here and there; another
subject for the ambitious young architect in competition.
But though it is now evident that a very great deal may be done for
the preservation of rural England by the exercise of legislative
powers which local authorities already possess, and by pressure on
corporate bodies and private landowners of the best type, the
ultimate success of the new crusade will depend on its ability to
influence public opinion. Two kinds of opinion are involved, that of
the country dwellers themselves, and that of the urban invaders of
the countryside. Probably most young people now employed in
remote villages and on farms would give their skin to get away from
what they regard as the monotony of rural life, and one must
sympathise with that view. The introduction of wireless and cinemas
will make their existence less irksome, and the phenomenal increase
of motor-bus facilities allows them to travel cheaply and frequently to
the nearest town, with its shops and bright streets. But none of these
things will teach them to prize the country, rather the reverse, for
many of the films they see show them uglification at its worst—in the
ricketty shacks of Western America. It might be possible to teach
them to admire their own heritage by occasional lectures at the
village institutes on town-planning and architecture; not the
architecture of great cathedrals and of foreign buildings like the
Parthenon, but the simple homely architecture of the village church,
the village barn, and the village cottage. A competent lecturer
accustomed to such an audience, avoiding like the plague all
sentimental talk about the glory of country life, might explain the
beauty of old bridges and mills, the simple skill of old craftsmen, in
such a way that his hearers would be less anxious to substitute
suburban vulgarities for everything that their rude forefathers of the
hamlet had made. Recently there was organised, in my own village,
an exhibition of drawings, engravings, maps, old documents, etc.,
illustrating the history and development of the district. It was visited
by a large number of people, including many children, and
undoubtedly it aroused much interest in things that had hitherto
passed unnoticed.
The urban motorist, whether he travels in a Rolls-Royce or a
charabanc, often provides an equally difficult problem. He may be a
superior person of great wealth, who avoids the hackneyed resorts
of trippers because he objects to the sight of beer-bottles and paper
bags on the heather, but, as a humorous artist recently reminded us,
he probably goes to a more secluded common and instructs his
chauffeur to leave the champagne bottles and disembowelled
lobsters under a gorse-bush there, for he has the soul and breeding
of the tripper, and litter does not offend him. The beach X—— in
Romney Marsh, already mentioned, was littered from end to end with
newspapers, cigarette packets, and confectioners’ debris, when last I
saw it.
Untidiness, ugliness, lack of respect for history and beauty, an
insane craze for speed in getting from one futile pursuit to another,
blatant advertisement, sordid commercialism—these are some of the
things we have borrowed from American life to vulgarise our own.
But when Americans come over to England, the thing that impresses
them most—far more than anything we can do in our towns—is the
harmony and peace of the English village and the English
countryside. They feel in their bones that there we “have them beat.”
It is simply heart-breaking, to those of us who know how future
uglification may be avoided and how much of the blundering of the
past may be remedied, to see the process of deterioration steadily
continuing. With more of brains and less of greed, more of public
spirit and less of vested interests, rural England may yet be saved.
SOME ADDRESSES
The Council for the Preservation of Rural England,
33, Bloomsbury Square, W.C. 1.
The Garden Cities and Town Planning Association,
3, Gray’s Inn Place, W.C. 1.
The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings,
20, Buckingham Street, W.C. 2.
The Commons and Footpaths Preservation Society,
7, Buckingham Palace Gardens, S.W. 1.
The Coal Smoke Abatement Society,
The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or
Natural Beauty,
The Scapa Society for the Prevention of Disfigurement in
Town and Country,
The Rural Industries Intelligence Bureau,
20, Eccleston Street, S.W. 1.
TO-DAY AND
TO-MORROW
Each, pott 8vo, boards, 2/6 net
THIS series of books, by some of the most distinguished
English thinkers, scientists, philosophers, doctors, critics,
and artists, was at once recognized as a noteworthy
event. Written from various points of view, one book
frequently opposing the argument of another, they provide
the reader with a stimulating survey of the most modern
thought in many departments of life. Several volumes are
devoted to the future trend of Civilization, conceived as a
whole; while others deal with particular provinces. It is
interesting to see in these neat little volumes, issued at a
low price, the revival of a form of literature, the Pamphlet,
which has been in disuse for many years.
Published by
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD.
Broadway House: 68-74 Carter Lane, London, E.C. 4.
FROM THE REVIEWS

Times Literary Supplement: “An entertaining series.”
Spectator: “Scintillating monographs.”
Observer: “There seems no reason why the brilliant To-day
and To-morrow Series should come to an end for a
century of to-morrows. At first it seemed impossible for the
publishers to keep up the sport through a dozen volumes,
but the series already runs to more than two score. A
remarkable series....”
Nation: “We are able to peer into the future by means of that
brilliant series [which] will constitute a precious document
upon the present time.”—T. S. Eliot.
Manchester Dispatch: “The more one reads of these
pamphlets, the more avid becomes the appetite. We hope
the list is endless.”
Irish Statesman: “Full of lively controversy.”
Daily Herald: “This series has given us many monographs of
brilliance and discernment.... The stylistic excellences of
this provocative series.”
Field: “We have long desired to express the deep admiration
felt by every thinking scholar and worker at the present
day for this series. We must pay tribute to the high
standard of thought and expression they maintain. As
small gift-books, austerely yet prettily produced, they
remain unequalled of their kind. We can give but the
briefest suggestions of their value to the student, the
politician, and the voter....”
Japan Chronicle: “While cheap prophecy is a futile thing,
wisdom consists largely in looking forward to
consequences. It is this that makes these books of
considerable interest.”
New York World: “Holds the palm in the speculative and
interpretative thought of the age.”
VOLUMES READY
Daedalus, or Science and the Future. By J. B. S. Haldane,
Reader in Biochemistry, University of Cambridge. Seventh
impression.
“A fascinating and daring little book.”—Westminster
Gazette. “The essay is brilliant, sparkling with wit and
bristling with challenges.”—British Medical Journal.
“Predicts the most startling changes.”—Morning Post.
Callinicus, a Defence of Chemical Warfare. By J. B. S.
Haldane. Second impression.
“Mr. Haldane’s brilliant study.”—Times Leading Article.
“A book to be read by every intelligent adult.”—
Spectator. “This brilliant little monograph.”—Daily News.
Icarus, or the Future of Science. By Bertrand Russell,
f.r.s. Fourth impression.
“Utter pessimism.”—Observer. “Mr. Russell refuses to
believe that the progress of Science must be a boon to
mankind.”—Morning Post. “A stimulating book, that
leaves one not at all discouraged.”—Daily Herald.
What I Believe. By Bertrand Russell, f.r.s. Third
impression.
“One of the most brilliant and thought-stimulating little
books I have read—a better book even than Icarus.”—
Nation. “Simply and brilliantly written.”—Nature. “In
stabbing sentences he punctures the bubble of cruelty,
envy, narrowness, and ill-will which those in authority
call their morals.”—New Leader.
Tantalus, or the Future of Man. By F. C. S. Schiller, D.Sc.,
Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Second
impression.
“They are all (Daedalus, Icarus, and Tantalus) brilliantly
clever, and they supplement or correct one another.”—
Dean Inge, in Morning Post. “Immensely valuable and
infinitely readable.”—Daily News. “The book of the
week.”—Spectator.
Cassandra, or the Future of the British Empire. By F. C. S.
Schiller, D.Sc.
“We commend it to the complacent of all parties.”—
Saturday Review. “The book is small, but very, very
weighty; brilliantly written, it ought to be read by all
shades of politicians and students of politics.”—
Yorkshire Post. “Yet another addition to that bright
constellation of pamphlets.”—Spectator.
Quo Vadimus? Glimpses of the Future. By E. E. Fournier
d’Albe, D.Sc., author of “Selenium, the Moon Element,”
etc.
“A wonderful vision of the future. A book that will be
talked about.”—Daily Graphic. “A remarkable
contribution to a remarkable series.”—Manchester
Dispatch. “Interesting and singularly plausible.”—Daily
Telegraph.
Thrasymachus, the Future of Morals. By C. E. M. Joad,
author of “The Babbitt Warren,” etc. Second impression.
“His provocative book.”—Graphic. “Written in a style of
deliberate brilliance.”—Times Literary Supplement. “As
outspoken and unequivocal, a contribution as could well
be imagined. Even those readers who dissent will be
forced to recognize the admirable clarity with which he
states his case. A book that will startle.”—Daily
Chronicle.
Lysistrata, or Woman’s Future and Future Woman. By
Anthony M. Ludovici, author of “A Defence of
Aristocracy,” etc. Second Impression.
“A stimulating book. Volumes would be needed to deal,
in the fullness his work provokes, with all the problems
raised.”—Sunday Times. “Pro-feminine, but anti-
feministic.”—Scotsman. “Full of brilliant common-
sense.”—Observer.
Hypatia, or Woman and Knowledge. By Mrs. Bertrand
Russell. With a frontispiece. Third impression.
An answer to Lysistrata. “A passionate vindication of the
rights of women.”—Manchester Guardian. “Says a
number of things that sensible women have been
wanting publicly said for a long time.”—Daily Herald.
Hephaestus, the Soul of the Machine. By E. E. Fournier
d’Albe, D.Sc.
“A worthy contribution to this interesting series. A
delightful and thought-provoking essay.”—Birmingham
Post. “There is a special pleasure in meeting with a
book like Hephaestus. The author has the merit of really
understanding what he is talking about.”—Engineering.
“An exceedingly clever defence of machinery.”—
Architects’ Journal.
The Passing of the Phantoms: a Study of Evolutionary
Psychology and Morals. By C. J. Patten, Professor of
Anatomy, Sheffield University. With 4 Plates.
“Readers of Daedalus, Icarus and Tantalus, will be
grateful for an excellent presentation of yet another
point of view.”—Yorkshire Post. “This bright and bracing
little book.”—Literary Guide. “Interesting and original.”—
Medical Times.
The Mongol in our Midst: a Study of Man and his Three
Faces. By F. G. Crookshank, m.d., f.r.c.p. With 28
Plates. Second Edition, revised.
“A brilliant piece of speculative induction.”—Saturday
Review. “An extremely interesting and suggestive book,
which will reward careful reading.”—Sunday Times.
“The pictures carry fearful conviction.”—Daily Herald.
The Conquest of Cancer. By H. W. S. Wright, m.s., f.r.c.s.
Introduction by F. G. Crookshank, m.d.
“Eminently suitable for general reading. The problem is
fairly and lucidly presented. One merit of Mr. Wright’s
plan is that he tells people what, in his judgment, they
can best do, here and now.”—From the Introduction.
Pygmalion, or the Doctor of the Future. By R. McNair
Wilson, m.b.
“Dr. Wilson has added a brilliant essay to this series.”—
Times Literary Supplement. “This is a very little book,
but there is much wisdom in it.”—Evening Standard. “No
doctor worth his salt would venture to say that Dr.
Wilson was wrong.”—Daily Herald.
Prometheus, or Biology and the Advancement of Man. By H.
S. Jennings, Professor of Zoology, Johns Hopkins
University.
“This volume is one of the most remarkable that has yet
appeared in this series. Certainly the information it
contains will be new to most educated laymen. It is
essentially a discussion of ... heredity and environment,
and it clearly establishes the fact that the current use of
these terms has no scientific justification.”—Times
Literary Supplement. “An exceedingly brilliant book.”—
New Leader.
Narcissus: an Anatomy of Clothes. By Gerald Heard. With
19 illustrations.
“A most suggestive book.”—Nation. “Irresistible.
Reading it is like a switchback journey. Starting from
prehistoric times we rocket down the ages.”—Daily
News. “Interesting, provocative, and entertaining.”—
Queen.
Thamyris, or Is There a Future for Poetry? By R. C.
Trevelyan.
“Learned, sensible, and very well-written.”—Affable
Hawk, in New Statesman. “Very suggestive.”—J. C.
Squire, in Observer. “A very charming piece of work, I
agree with all, or at any rate, almost all its
conclusions.”—J. St. Loe Strachey, in Spectator.
Proteus, or the Future of Intelligence. By Vernon Lee, author
of “Satan the Waster,” etc.
“We should like to follow the author’s suggestions as to
the effect of intelligence on the future of Ethics,
Aesthetics, and Manners. Her book is profoundly
stimulating and should be read by everyone.”—Outlook.

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Noise in the plastics processing

industry Second Edition Peters

Plastics in Medical Devices for Cardiovascular

A Guide to the Manufacture Performance and Potential of

Human Fatigue Risk Management Improving Safety in the

Computational fluid dynamics in food processing Second

The Microwave Processing of Foods Second Edition Marc

Photonic signal processing Second Edition Binh

Noise: A Flaw in Human Judgment Daniel Kahneman

Innumeracy In The Wild: Misunderstanding And Misusing

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

ISBN-13: 978-0-367-03025-4 (hbk)

Other changes include:

• Improvements in noise prediction, including ‘noise mapping’ software.

• Improvements in instrumentation to give better diagnostic techniques.

• Advances in technology has meant that many noise-producing processes and

• Vastly increased amount of information published and readily available about

1 Basic Concepts and Terminology of Sound and Vibration .......................... 1

1.3.6 Average Sound Levels ...................................................... 14

2 Principles of Noise Generation and Control ............................................. 39

2.5 Noise Control at Source ................................................................ 44

2.22 Appendix 2: Summary of Workplace Noise-Control Measures .... 83

3 Noise Control in the Plastics Processing Industries ................................... 89

4 Noise in the Workplace .......................................................................... 103

4.6.1 Action and Limit Values ................................................ 114

4.13 Hearing-Damage Claims ............................................................. 126

6 Noise in the Environment....................................................................... 151

7 Prediction of Noise Levels ...................................................................... 163

7.3.5 Outdoor Sound Propagation.......................................... 168

8 Specification of Noise Emission from Machinery and Machinery

8.3.1.1.3 Determination of Noise Emission

9 Towards a Quieter Workplace ................................................................ 201

10 Case Studies ........................................................................................... 207

10.3 Additional Case Studies .............................................................. 225

Glossary ............................................................................................................ 263

Abbreviations .................................................................................................... 273

Index .............................................................................................................. 277

1.1 Sound Pressure, Frequency and Wavelength

1.1.2 Sound or Noise?

A very common definition of noise is ‘sound that is unwanted by the recipient’. At

1.1.3 Sound Pressures

1.1.5 Broadband Noise

1.1.6 Pure Tones

1.2 Frequency Weightings and Frequency Analyses

1.2.1 A-Weighted Decibels

The vast majority of noise measurements are of A-weighted decibels (dBA).

1.2.1.1 A Brief History of the A-Weighting and its Relationship to

The variation in human hearing to different frequencies was investigated by Fletcher

Originally, three frequency weightings were produced: A, B and C. These correspond

Table 1.1 Frequency weightings (to the nearest dB)

Table 1.2 Some typical sound levels in dBA

1.2.2 Frequency Analyses

Examples of octave band noise spectra

Figure 1.1 Examples of octave-band noise spectra

102 103 104

1.2.3.1 The Significance of Frequency and Wavelength in Noise Control

Thus, for example, the effectiveness of various noise-control measures such as

Wavelength is important in determining how sound travels. That is, how it is

1.3 The Decibel Scale

The dB scale is a logarithmic scale, so first a very brief introduction to logarithms