PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

PrEd 132n: curriculum become useful or functional members of the community.

The Teacher and The School Curriculum
8. This represents what is taught at home: part of family
Concomitant experiences or related experiences allowed by the family. This
CURRICULUM Curriculum curriculum may be received at church, for instance, through
- represents all the learning experiences that the students have under the religious expression, lessons on ethics, morals, and values,
guidance of the teacher or school. shaped behaviors, or social experiences based on what the
- The word ‘curriculum’ originated from the Latin word ‘currere,’ which family prefers.
means “to run” or “to run a course.” 9. This type of curriculum includes the behaviors, attitudes, and
- A curriculum usually refers to a comprehensive and content-rich course of Hidden, implicit knowledge that the school’s s culture unintentionally teaches to
study approved for teaching in schools, which is anchored on any country’s or covert the students. It is the type of curriculum that is implied by the
standards. curriculum school structure and environment, much of what happens in
- To have a simplified approach to the curriculum, let us try to explore four daily or established routines. Though not deliberately planned,
basic definitions, according to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009). it can influence behavior and the quality of achieved learning
 The curriculum is a plan for achieving goals. outcomes. Teacher-learner interaction, parental support, and
 The curriculum is subject matter or content. physical health and other factors make up the hidden
 The curriculum is a field of study. curriculum.
 The curriculum is dealing with learners’ experiences. 10. That which we do not teach or according to Tanner & Tanner
Null or censored (2007) must not be taught to the students, thus giving students
TRADITIONAL CURRICULUM VS. PROGRESSIVE CURRICULUM curriculum the message that these elements are not relevant in their
educational experiences or prohibited in our society. Not
Traditional Curriculum Progressive Curriculum teaching some particular ideas may be due to authorities’
 A curriculum from a traditional  The progressive point of view mandate, to a teacher’s lack of knowledge, or to deeply held
point of view takes a more linear goes beyond the usual notion assumptions and biases.
and highly academic approach to about the curriculum as a listing
learning. of school subjects, syllabi, or
 Lectures, use of educational course of study. (Bilbao et al., CURRICULARIST
materials, recitations, and 2015) - A curricularist is someone who specializes in the field of curriculum. A
assignments are part of the standard  It provides the students with curricularist can also be defined as a person who takes part in knowing,
systems. more hands-on research and a planning, writing, initiating, implementing, evaluating, and innovating the
 It has been commonly employed chance to learn in the field, with curriculum.
due to its tried-and tested the guidance of the teachers. Role Description
framework, as evident from  The curriculum is broadly
humanity’s progress in science, defined as the total learning Knower The teacher must master the subject matter or the content she is
medicine, technology, literature, etc. experiences that a student about to teach. His/her knowledge of the content may come from
 Typically, it involves a teacher undergoes. formal or informal experiences.
conveying facts to the learners. The  This tenet is anchored on John Writer The teacher must record and preserve knowledge, subject matter,
curriculum centers on a specific Dewey’s definition of or content. He/she must write textbooks, modules, laboratory
body of knowledge- moral experience and education. He manuals, references, and even electronic or digital resources.
standards, social conduct, and skills, posited that reflective thinking
to be transmitted as these are is a means that unifies Planner The teacher must plan on a yearly, monthly, weekly, or daily basis.
considered as necessary for the curricular elements. This will guide the teacher in implementing the curriculum,
learners.  Progressivists believe that considering different factors.
 It is treated as a written document education should focus on the Initiator The teacher must be open-minded to implement the curriculum,
(e.g., syllabus, books) where whole child, rather than on the most especially if it is recommended. He/she must not also
knowledge is found but is used as a content or teacher. hesitate to meet the challenges of doing things first.
means to accomplish intended goals.  Learning is rooted in the
(Bilbao et al., 2015) questions of students that arise Innovator The teacher must be creative and innovative enough to keep up with
through experiencing the world. the curriculum trends and changes.
Supporters: Robert M. Hutchins, Supporters: John Dewey, Hollis Implementor The teacher must give life to the curriculum. The teacher now
Arthur Bestor, Joseph Schwab, Caswell and Kenn Campbell, engages, guides, and facilitates his/her students to achieve the
Phillip Phenix Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and learning outcomes.
Harlan Shore, Colin Marsh and Evaluator The teacher must determine the extent to how the learning
George Willis outcomes are achieved, if the curriculum is working, if there should
be modifications in the curriculum, etc.
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
Types of Curriculum Description CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
1. Most of the curricula found in schools are recommended. This - a process generally focuses on the planning, developing, implementing,
Recommended type of curriculum is proposed by scholars, national agencies maintaining and reviewing of the curriculum, while ensuring that the
or ideal (DepEd, CHED, TESDA), professional organizations, or stakeholders of this vital process show high commitment and ownership of
curriculum international bodies (e.g., UNESCO). Recommendations come the curriculum.
in the form of memoranda or policies, standards, and guidelines. - It is a strategic and systematic process involving different people and
This type of curriculum is formulated at a high level of procedures.
generality. - It implies a change that is done to alter, modify, or improve existing
conditions.
2. Also referred to as curriculum of control, it represents what is - For the change to produce positive results, curriculum development must be
Intended, official written as part of formal instruction or schooling experiences. It purposeful, planned, and progressive.
or written may apply to a course of study, lesson exemplars, syllabi, or - PHASES:
curriculum any curriculum document that is prepared for implementation to  Curriculum Planning – considers the vision, mission, and goals
support the intentional instructional plan of a school. (VMGs) of the schools. It also includes the strong educational belief or
3. It includes the different planned activities that the teachers and the philosophy of the school. All of these will eventually be translated
Taught or learners put into action in the classroom. The varied activities into specific, desired learning outcomes for the learners.
implemented are enacted to arrive at the intended learning outcomes or  Curriculum Designing – the way curriculum is conceptualized by the
curriculum purposes of the written curriculum. The taught curriculum relies formulation of intended learning outcomes, selection and organization
on the learning styles of the students and the teaching styles of of content, selection and organization of learning experiences or
the teacher. activities, and the selection of assessment procedures to measure
This type of curriculum is the delivered curriculum. achieved learning outcomes. It will also include the resources to be
utilized.
4. This includes the materials which should support or help in the  Curriculum Implementation – putting into action the plan, which is
Supported implementation of a written curriculum. Examples of these based on the curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning
curriculum materials are textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, and environment. Teacher and learner interactions will allow the
laboratory equipment. This type of curriculum also includes the curriculum to transpire in the classroom to achieve the intended
playground, zoo, museum, classroom, and other school learning outcomes.
facilities, enabling each learner to achieve real and lifelong
learning.  Curriculum Evaluation – determines the extent to which the desired
outcomes have been achieved. It will also uncover the factors that have
5. The teachers are doing a series of evaluations at the duration hindered or supported the implementation. It will also identify points
Assessed Or (formative assessment) and end of the teaching episodes where improvement can be made, and corrective measures are
tested (summative) to determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the introduced. This will, later on, contribute to the decision-making of
Curriculum students are progressing. Assessment tools and different types curriculum planners and implementors.
of assessments (paper and pen, performancebased) are utilized.
Hence, this type of curriculum verifies whether the taught
curriculum has succeeded.
6. This denotes the learning outcomes attained by the students.
Learned, The learning outcomes are indicated by the results of
received or assessment tools and changes in the
achieved student’s behavior, which can either be cognitive, psychomotor,
curriculum or affective. This pertains to what students actually take out of
the classrooms; those concepts and content that are truly learned
and remembered. This type of curriculum is also referred to as
the bottom line curriculum.
7. This refers to what the people or the general society believes MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Entitlement learners should expect to learn in the educational system to
- Models are patterns or tools that function to represent events or processes in
a compact and illustrative way to guide one’s actions.
- Using a curriculum model will lead to greater efficiency and productivity.
- Likewise, curriculum designers are guided to consider multiple variables
such as social and political realities and permit choices to develop students’
knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
- Interestingly, these models also reflect either a technical-scientific
perspective or a nontechnical-nonscientific perspective.
- Now, here are the curriculum development models which have been
instrumental in shaping different curricula.
- There are many models, but we will only discuss six of them.
A. Ralph Tyler’s Four Basic Principles or Tyler’s Rationale
 Ralph Tyler was the first person to develop the first curriculum
development model, emphasizing the planning phase.
 Tyler combined behaviorism with progressivism by stressing the
attainment of the learning objectives while taking into account the
learners’ needs.
 His principles are expressed in terms of questions.
 Tyler also identified three curriculum sources that must be carefully
studied when developing a curriculum: society, students, and subject
matter. Moreover, Tyler recognized the importance of educational
philosophies and psychological learning theories in screening
objectives for the curriculum.
B. Hilda Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model
 Hilda Taba (1962) developed another model, which is the “grassroots
approach.” “The model includes an organization of, and relationships
among, five mutually interactive elements—objectives, content,
learning experiences, teaching strategies, and evaluative measures—so
that a system of teaching and learning is represented” (Lunenburg,
2011).
 Expressed in seven (7) stages, the development of a curriculum
commences with identifying and understanding learners’ needs. It
begins where the learners are.
1. Diagnosing of needs. The students’ needs are identified.
Curriculum planning is anchored on the nature and
developmental needs of the students.
2. Formulation of objectives. Teachers specify the set of
objectives, the units of work to be accomplished by the students
within the allotted time.
3. Selection of content. With the objectives, the teacher decides the
scope of the curriculum. This includes the topics by which the
necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes are developed.
4. Organization of content. The teachers sequence the content
taking into consideration the students’ developmental needs,
academic achievement, abilities, and interests.
5. Selection of learning experiences. Students must be engaged
with the content through learning activities that have specific
functions.
6. Organization of learning experiences. Learning activities must
be organized in such a way that learning is connected. The
teacher needs to bear in mind the students he/she will be teaching.
7. Evaluating what has been accomplished. Curriculum planners
must determine just what objectives have been achieved.
C. Saylor and Alexander Model
 Galen Saylor and William Alexander’s (1974) model is composed of
four steps.
 The model also takes an administrative approach.
 According to Saylor and Alexander, the curriculum is a plan for
providing learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals
and specific objectives for an identified student population served by
the school.
1. Goals, Objectives, and Domains. Curriculum planners should
start by specifying major educational goals and specific
objectives they want to achieve. Every primary goal represents a
curriculum domain (personal development, human relations,
continued learning skills, and specialization). External variables
like accreditation standards and research findings are considered
in choosing the goals, objectives, and domains to adopt.
2. Curriculum Designing. Decisions are made on suitable learning
opportunities for each domain and how these opportunities will
be provided.
3. Curriculum Implementation. Based on the designed
curriculum, teachers will formulate their instructional plans for
them to choose appropriate teaching methods and strategies for
students to achieve the learning outcomes.
4. Evaluation. This step is proposed to be a comprehensive process
by utilizing a variety of evaluation techniques. The school’s total
educational program and curriculum plan, the effectiveness of
instruction, and students’ achievement should be taken into
account.
D. Wiggins and McTighe Backward Design (UbD) Model
 Wiggins and McTighe popularized the backward design or
Understanding by Design (UbD) framework in 2004.
 It became a byword in our country’s Philippine educational system
because it was used before the K-12 curriculum implementation. It
begins with the identification of desired results.
 After that, one determines the acceptable evidence of learning and ends
with planning the learning experiences and instruction.
 Stages:
1. Stage 1. This includes the essential understanding and skills that
students must have. It also calls for examining current curriculum
goals and established curriculum standards.
2. Stage 2. It calls for designing assessment evidence for validating
whether the desired learning is achieved. It also encourages the
use of authentic assessment for assessing and evaluating students’
learning. The placement of this stage in the model is strategic for
assessment to connect with the goals and instruction.
3. Stage 3. Teachers will decide on the activities/learning
experiences that will be useful in implementing the curriculum.
E. Hunkin’s Decision-Making Model
 In this model, Hunkins emphasized that the curriculum is dynamic and
that planners must not only consider diagnosis as the base and the
evaluation as the summit of the process.
 Hunkins suggested that although curriculum models are useful, it tends
to overlook the human aspect of curriculum planning, e.g., attitudes,
emotions, and values.
 Hence, curriculum models should not be treated simply as a recipe or
substitute for using one’s judgment on what is best for learning.
 Hunkin’s model has seven (7) steps which are as follows:
1. Curriculum Conceptualization and Legitimization.
Participants are asked to engage in thorough discussion and
understanding regarding the nature of the curriculum.
2. Curriculum Diagnosis. This stage has two major tasks: to
translate needs into causes and to create goals and objectives
from the requirements.
3. Content Selection. This step deals with determining the “stuff”
of the curriculum, which is what is to be taught and learned.
4. Experience Selection. This section emphasizes the delivery of
instruction, how the content is taught to the students.
5. Curriculum Implementation. This stage has two steps: the
initial piloting (dry run) to detect and work out possible problems
and the final diffusion where the management system is set up to
deliver the curriculum fully.
6. Curriculum Evaluation. This is an ongoing phase as long as the
curriculum is still in effect. It provides data on whether to modify
or stop the program.
7. Curriculum Maintenance. It consists of methods and means to
ensure that the implemented program is managed to function
continually.
F. Deliberation Model
 In this model, educators are communicating their views to their
colleagues and sometimes to their students on what are the goals of
education and what must be taught.
 True to its name, this Deliberation model acknowledges the need to
involve the stakeholders in curriculum planning.
 The comments and positions obtained during deliberations are essential
inputs in designing the curriculum.
 The steps of this model consist of:
1. Public Sharing. An educational group must come together and
discuss what needs to be accomplished.
2. Highlighting Agreement and Disagreements. The education
group must underscore what they have in common and also what
they differ in opinion.
3. Explaining Positions. The group members will take the
information from the previous phases and make clear the various
positions.
4. Highlighting Changes in Position. Educators make known any
change in position.
5. Negotiating Points of Agreement. This part engages the
participants in searching for solutions.
6. Adopting a Decision. It is in this part that the individuals
working together achieve consensus.
PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION (DUSHI, 2012)
 Curriculum principles stand for the values that a school believes what
is right in its context and what will give both their students and the community the
best chance or opportunity to succeed.
1. Principle of Learner-centeredness.
- The curriculum should be child-centered because the present
educational landscape emphasizes child-centeredness. In any scheme
of curriculum construction, the child should be the central figure. The
curriculum should be according to the students’ needs, interests,
attitudes, aptitudes, and abilities. There is an emphasis on satisfying the
students’ needs and maintaining their interest and motivation. In fact,
the curriculum is intended to promote the child’s development in the
desired direction so that he/she can adapt well in life.
2. Principle of Community-centeredness.
- The curriculum must represent the beliefs, attitudes, and skills that
exist in the community. The social and local needs of the students
should be taken into account. The students, understanding their role to
solve societal problems, should be in a position to face challenges. The
curriculum must reflect the values of democracy and the main concerns
of the country. The curriculum develops students who will soon be
contributing members of the community.
3. Principle of Activity-centeredness.
- The curriculum is designed around multifarious activities to cater to
students’ diversity. The tasks integrated into the teaching-learning
process should be a collection of experiences of practical exercises
where the students learn with his personal efforts and expertise. The
activities are chosen based on the students’ developmental needs.
Content and activities must be purposeful and must develop students’
creative and critical thinking skills. Learning activities enable students
to develop their learning through active exploration and engagement.
4. Principle of Variety.
- The curriculum should be broad-based to cater to different categories
of students so that they can take up subjects and engage in events
according to their abilities and interests.
5. Principle of Integration.
- The learning domains (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) must be
equally emphasized. Knowledge and experience must be considered in
designing teachinglearning and assessment tasks. The curriculum
connects different areas of study by cutting across subject-matter lines,
emphasizing unifying concepts. Integration focuses on making
connections for students, allowing them to engage in relevant,
meaningful activities connected to real life. There must be a link
between what is learned in school and the needs of society.
6. Principle of Forward-looking.
- The curriculum should not focus only on catering to students’ present
needs, but it must also enable them to lead a thriving social life in the
future. This highlights the capability of adjustment in different
circumstances of life. Students are equipped with the needed
knowledge, skills, and attitudes to face the challenges that may come in
the future. Students may be exposed to acquire the ability to study the
real aspect of any situation. There is an emphasis on foresightedness.
7. Principle of Culture-based/Conservativeness.
- To preserve and transmit our cultural heritage is one of the core
functions of education. This is important for human progress. Thus, the
curriculum needs to underscore a sense of respect for their traditions
and culture. Students need to know his past culture and traditions and
to preserve them. Curriculum designers must make a suitable selection
of the elements of culture, keeping in view their educational value and
the developmental stage of students.
8. Principle of Creativity.
- The conservation of culture helps to sustain society, but it should not
just be transmitted but enriched. The curriculum should include
provisions to develop the child’s creative powers so that he or she
becomes a contributory member of society. Raymont says, “In [a]
curriculum that is suited to the needs of today and of the future, there
must be definitely creative subjects.”
9. Principle of Motivation.
- Intrinsic motivation is needed for a student to learn effectively.
Motivation ensures that students learn knowledge, skills, and values in
a meaningful way. Positive emotion fuels the students’ engagement in
deep learning. Interest and motivation will be developed once the
student finds the curriculum engaging and goal-directed. The
inclination to learn is heightened when the curriculum is suited to the
students’ mental and physical development.
10. Principle of Comprehensiveness.
- There must be a variety of subjects and course works to satisfy a
variety of students from different communities. The curriculum should
be inclusive to cater to the needs and total development of every
student. The curriculum should maintain a balance between direct and
indirect experiences.
11. Principle of Utility and Flexibility.
- The curriculum should be of practical use to the students by
considering various regional and national conditions. Work
experiences should be an emphasis. The content of the curriculum
cannot be the same for all times to come. It should not be static. For it
to be useful, the curriculum must be dynamic and change with the
changing times. It must reflect the latest trends in the field of
education.
MAJOR CURRICULUM FOUNDATIONS
 Aside from the principles we have just discussed, firm foundations also
ground the field of the curriculum.
 There are four categories of curriculum foundations:
1. Philosophical foundations
2. Psychological foundations
3. Sociological foundations, and
4. Historical foundations.
 These foundations guide and inform teachers, educational planners, and
policymakers on the curriculum that will be produced and implemented.
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS
 An educational philosophy or strong belief about learning is necessary for
teachers, educational planners, and policymakers.
 It serves as the starting point in any decision made for the curriculum.
 Our educational philosophies allow us to answer questions like
- “What are schools for?”,
- “What subjects are important to be learned,”
- “What methods in teaching should be used?” and
- “What outcomes should be achieved?”
Philosophy Description
Essentialism It advocates instilling in students the “essentials” or “basics of
academic knowledge and character development for them to
become model citizens. It emphasizes high academic
standards and cultural literacy. Teachers act as authorities of
the subject areas and decide what is essential for the students.
Methods of teaching rely much on lectures, drills,
memorization, and textbooks. It views the curriculum as a list
of content or planned activities.
Perennialism It focuses on educating the rational person and cultivating the
intellect. It emphasizes teacherguided seminars and mutual
inquiry sessions to assist students in learning and thinking
with reason. It also focuses on classical subjects, literary
analysis, and the use of Great Books. It claims that the goal of
education is to teach the truth that is the same across time,
place, and peoples. Therefore, the curriculum should be the
same for all students.
Progressivism It aims to promote democratic social living. It argues that
education must be based on the fact that humans are social
beings and learn best in real-life and cooperative activities. It
focuses on a curriculum centered students’ experiences,
interests, needs, and abilities. The teacher serves as a learning
facilitator, guiding students to become lifelong learners. Also,
the teacher should stress the connections between different
disciplines.
Reconstructionis It believes in the rebuilding of the societal and cultural
m infrastructures. It looks into the present society with critical
eyes and points to its ill aspects. Students are to study
problems and think of ways to improve society. Teachers act
as prime agents of social transformation and cultural renewal.
The school curriculum should constantly change to meet the
changes in society. Global education and using standards and
competencies are also stressed.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
 Psychological foundations provide us the basis to answer questions
regarding the nature of the teaching-learning process and the characteristics
of our learners.
 It addresses queries like
- “What is the effective way of organizing the curriculum?”,
- “What learning outcomes are achievable for students according to their
level?” and
- “What teaching practices can enhance learning better?”.
Perspective Description
Behaviorism Persons involved are Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, B.F.
Skinner, and Albert Bandura. This perspective believes that
learning is manifested as external, observable, and measurable
behavior. Collectively, this perspective encompasses classical
conditioning, connectionism, operant conditioning, and
observational learning.
Cognitivism Persons involved are Atkinson and Shiffrin, David Ausubel,
Robert Gagne, Jean Piaget, and John Flavell. This perspective is
the opposite of behaviorism, which posits that learning is
primarily an internal process. Generally, this perspective includes
the concepts of information processing theory, meaningful
learning, subsumption, hierarchical learning, levels of cognitive
development, and metacognition.
Constructivis Persons involved are Jerome Bruner and Lev Vygotsky. This
m perspective puts a premium on the active role of the learner in
building understanding through their prior knowledge. This
perspective includes its two classifications, namely individual
constructivism and social constructivism.
Humanism Persons involved include Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and
Arthur Combs. This perspective advocates “humanizing” teaching
and learning. It considers the learner as a person who has feelings,
attitudes, and emotions, in addition to his capability to think and
do. Learning is also explained in terms of “wholeness.” This
perspective covers the Gestalt theory, Hierarchy of Needs, client-
centered therapy (client’s control over one’s own behavior), and
development of positive self-concept.
SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
 One of the significant sources of the curriculum is society for it provides the
context upon which the curriculum will be developed.
 Such a setting will present the prevailing conditions that will play a vital role
in determining what should be taught and why it is taught.
 The pressing needs, issues, and demands of society become one of the bases
on how the curriculum is shaped.
 Once they are considered, it helps ensure that the curriculum is inclusive,
responsive, and appropriate.
 However, it also important to note that schools should strike a balance
between (1) merely responding the society’s demands and (2) developing a
desirable kind of society through the curriculum.
 One person we can cite in the sociological foundations of the curriculum is
Alvin Toffler.
- He wrote the book entitled “Future Shock” and believed that
knowledge should prepare students for the future.
- He also suggested the emergence of homeschooling in the future, in
which parents might have the resources to teach the curriculum from
home through technology.
- Toffler also anticipated that schools and students would be working
creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age.
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
 The last curriculum foundation you will explore is the historical
foundation. It tells us how the field of the curriculum has grown over the years.
Who are the people who contributed to this field? Let us have eight of them.
Persons Contributions and Principles
Franklin Bobbit He started the curriculum development movement. He viewed
curriculum as a science that emphasizes students’ needs and
prepares them for adult life.
Werret Charters Like Bobbit, he also viewed the curriculum as a science and
should emphasize students’ needs.
He also proposed that subject matter and activities should match
the objectives.
William Kilpatrick Child development and growth is the purpose of the curriculum.
The curriculum fosters social interaction and small group
instruction. He also introduced the project method, where
teachers and students plan activities.
Harold Rugg The curriculum should develop the whole child. It should
produce outcomes through objectives and related learning
activities. He also emphasized social studies and suggested the
planning of the curriculum in advance.
Hollis Caswell Curriculum, instruction, and learning are related to each other.
The curriculum is structured around social functions of themes,
organized knowledge, and learner’s interest.
Ralph Tyler The curriculum is treated as a science and an extension of the
school’s philosophy. It is based on the needs and interests of the
students. The subject matter is classified as knowledge, values,
and skills. The curriculum aims to educate generalists.
Hilda Taba She contributed to the pedagogical and theoretical foundations
of concept attainment and critical thinking in the social studies
curriculum. She helped in laying the foundations of educating a
diverse student population.
Peter Oliva He described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavor. The
professional core of planners is composed of teachers and
curriculum specialists. Group activity brings about significant
improvement.
PETER OLIVA’S 10 AXIOMS FOR CURRICULUM DESIGNERS
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable.
2. Curriculum is a product of its time.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with new
curriculum changes.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of
alternatives.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process
rather than a “piecemeal.”
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic
process.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is.
ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM DESIGN
People have different names or labels for curriculum design, such as
course design, syllabus, unit plan, and lesson plan. Nevertheless, a curriculum
design has four essential elements. These four elements are distinct, but they are
and must be connected. Without those four components, any document(s) cannot
be called a curriculum. These elements can also be readily seen in the lesson plan,
a minuscule form of the curriculum.
1. Curriculum Intent
- Curriculum intent means the direction that will be taken as a result of
participating in the curriculum (Print, 1993).
- In simpler terms, it is the reason for undertaking the curriculum.
- Curriculum intent includes the aims, goals, and objectives in any
curriculum documents.
- Aims and goals are broader in scope, while objectives are more
specific.
- The 1987 Philippine Constitution contains the aims of education in our
country.
2. Content or Subject Matter
- The content or subject matter spells out the various topics to be
covered and learned; thus, it is the “meat” of the curriculum.
- With the era of “knowledge explosion,” it is apparent that not
everything can be contained in a curriculum.
- Thus, curriculum workers and other stakeholders face the task of
selecting what subject matter or content matters to be included in the
curriculum.
Justifications must support the selection of learning content. Primarily,
it should contain the essentials of teaching and learning, putting primacy to
the center of the educative process-the learners. Curriculum intents must also
be the basis for the content. The table below shows the criteria of curriculum
planners in selecting content (Scheffler, 1970).
Criteria Description
This criterion is the prime guiding principle for selecting content. It
1. Self-
Sufficiency tells us that content should aim at helping learners attain self-
sufficiency in the most economical way, i.e., less demand on
teaching effort, learning effort, and educational resources but with
more results and quality learning outcomes. This criterion helps
learners actualize their potentials and strengthen their identities in
the most efficient and economical way.
2. The content to be learned should contribute to the basic ideas,
Significance concepts, principles, generalizations, and the general aims of the
curriculum. The content is significant if it becomes the means
through which the learner develops his/her cognitive, affective, or
psychomotor skills. Moreover, it is significant if it addresses the
learner’s cultural context.
3. Validity The subject matter is valid if it is authentic or genuine. The
authenticity of the content is affected by the knowledge explosion in
the fast-changing times. What may be right before may become
inaccurate or even false in the long run. Hence, there must be a
regular validity and verification check.
4. Interest This criterion drives the learners to learn better. Since learners are at
the core of the curriculum, content must engage the learners. It must
be meaningful and has value in their present and future life. It must
contribute to their welfare.
5. Utility The content’s usefulness is relative to the learners who are going to
use it. It must have some meaning to the learners’
lives. The utility of the content is also relative to time. In terms of
time, two kinds of utility must be considered.
Current utility - deals with what must be learned for immediate
application for learners to be successful in their present living.
Future utility - concerned with content that prepares students for
future events and consequences.
6. The level of complexity and difficulty must be aligned to the
Learnability developmental level of the learners. It must also be appropriate for
the students. The content must also be optimally placed, sequenced,
and organized to ensure learnability. This criterion is aligned with
the psychological principles and theories of learning.
7. This criterion urges curriculum planners to be realistic in the light of
Feasibility available resources and facilities, teacher expertise, existing
policies, and time. In short, feasibility reminds us of practical
limitations. It is also concerned whether there are opportunities for
learning content outside the typical teaching-learning setup.
3. Learning Experiences
- Learning experiences serve as the vehicle for attaining the objectives of
the curriculum; thus, it is the “heart” of the curriculum.
- Learning experiences broadly refers to all the instructional methods
and strategies that will be used in teaching the content or in
implementing the curriculum, in general.
- It represents the dynamic interaction between the teacher, learners, and
content.
- Learning experiences can be divided into two:
o teaching approaches and methods, and
o learning activities.
- There are many teaching methods that the teacher can use, may it be
time-tested or nonconventional methods.
- The K-12 law strongly encourages teachers to use constructivist,
inquiry-based, reflective, collaborative, and integrative teaching
methods.
- Teaching methods can also be done through the usual face-to-face
delivery mode, online learning, or blended learning modalities.
- To determine the learning experiences, the following are significant
considerations:
 Alignment with the learning outcomes and content (validity)
 Considers the developmental level of the learners
 The time allowed, materials, facilities and teacher’s expertise
(feasibility)
 Enhances learning the content and can motivate the students
 Fosters group interaction and collaborative learning, as well as
independent learning
 Challenging to develop students’ higher-order thinking skills
 Encourages the development of the three domains of learning.
4. Assessment and Evaluation
- The fundamental processes of assessment and evaluation include
different methods and tools that provide important data regarding the
outcomes of implementing the curriculum.
- Assessment results inform the teacher of the students’ progress and
how effective he/she delivered the lessons.
- Critically, it also gives the learners feedback on the quality of learning
they have achieved (or they are supposed to attain).
- Whatever assessment or evaluation methods that will be used, it is
necessary that it is aligned to the objectives or learning outcomes.
CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION
 refers to the process of arranging the contents in a particular subject or
discipline.
 According to Posner (1997), this represents the micro level of organizing
curriculum contents, unlike the macro level, which organizes the entire
curriculum from its philosophy down to the topics in each subject.
 Nevertheless, organizing the curriculum requires specific dimensions or
guiding features, just like selecting or preparing the various curriculum
elements.
 In the curriculum, there are two organizational dimensions that you
have to keep in mind.
1. Horizontal organization
- deals with the arrangement of curriculum elements at the same
point in time (Print, 1993). It takes into account the side-by-side
arrangement of the components in curriculum design. It also
focuses on building relationships among subject areas in a
particular grade/year level. For example, it may combine or relate
English and Business content or History and Economics.
2. Vertical organization
- looks into the sequence or progression of curriculum elements
across grade/year levels. It points out to the longitudinal
arrangement of content (Reyes, 2000). For example, it addresses
what concepts, values, and skills in Mathematics should be taught
from Grade 1 to Grade 12. It allows the teachers to look into
students’ mastery of lessons that will serve as the foundation for
later subjects.
The guiding qualities or features that must be followed in addressing
curriculum content are laid down by Palma (1992) in his BASIC principle.
Features Description
1. Content should be distributed fairly in terms of width and depth.
Balance This guarantees that the essential topics are covered and taught in
sufficient depth or detail. Balance ensures that teachers avoid either
content overload or content deficiency.
2. There should be smooth flow or connections as content complexity
increases across grade levels (vertical) or within the same subject or
Articulatio discipline (horizontal). This prevents gaps or overlapping contents
n and assures seamlessness. The articulation quality necessitates that
a team of writers and implementers must plan the curriculum.
3. Sequence This feature refers to the logical order arrangement of the topics
through time. The sequence can be done in either vertical or
horizontal terms. Contents can be sequenced
based on a particular curriculum design principle. Print (1993)
identifies the five commonly used design principles:
a. Simple to Complex – learners are presented first with easy
content then eventually with more challenging content
(e.g., progressive-spiral)
b. Prerequisite learning (part-to-whole) – some information
must be learned first before learning other information
(e.g., prerequisite subjects)
c. Chronology – reflects the order of events on how they
happened (e.g., History)
d. Whole-to-Part – takes a deductive approach in which
learners are presented first with an overview or general
concepts then to specific ideas or skills.
e. Increasing Abstraction - based on the idea that students
learn most effectively when they start with concepts or
skills that are most likely relevant to their personal
experiences
4. This quality or feature refers to the linking of knowledge and
Integration experiences in the curriculum. For a better quality of learning,
topics must not be taught in isolation but should be connected to
other subjects or disciplines. This will allow the learner to have a
unified view of the curriculum.
5. This feature pertains to the absence of disruption or “smoothness”
Continuity of the curriculum through time. It must continuously flow from
before to now then to the future. In short, the curriculum endures
time. However, this does not mean the curriculum remains static as
it changes depending on the developments that occur. The
elements of continuity are repetition, reinforcement, and
enhancement of the content.
Curriculum evaluation is based on the need for alignment. This
alignment specifically refers to the coherence or matching between what learning
outcomes are expected to be accomplished (intended curriculum), how the
curriculum was delivered through the learning experiences (implemented or
taught curriculum) and what was actually attained or learned by the students
(achieved curriculum).
There are two ways of seeing curriculum evaluation.
CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS OR STRUCTURES
 According to Hilda Taba (1962), curriculum design is a statement that
specifies the curriculum elements, points out the relationships between those
elements, and indicates the principles of organization and its requirements in
terms of administrative conditions.
 It gives us a rational way of organizing the components or contents of the
curriculum.
 There are three major curriculum designs or structures commonly cited
and explained based on references.
1. Subject-Centered Design
2. Learner-Centered Design
3. Problem – Centered Design
SUBJECT-CENTERED DESIGN
 This is the most common type of curriculum design used in schools, which
focuses on the content.
 Subject-centered design is described to correspond to how textbooks are
written because textbooks are usually subject-specific.
 Among the few curricularist who believe in this design are William Harris
and Henry Morrison.
 Subject-Centered Design refers to different approaches in educational
curriculum design that focus on organizing content and learning experiences
around specific subjects or disciplines.
 Subject – centered curriculum design is further classified into four
variations:
1. Subject design
- Definition: In subject design, the curriculum is organized around
individual subjects or courses. Each subject is taught separately,
and the content is compartmentalized into distinct disciplines.
- Characteristics: This design is characterized by a clear
separation of subjects, with each subject having its own set of
topics, objectives, and assessments. Student’s progress through
the curriculum by completing courses in various subjects.
2. Discipline design
- Definition: Discipline design is similar to subject design but
places a stronger emphasis on the academic disciplines. The
curriculum is organized around the major disciplines such as
mathematics, science, humanities, and social sciences.
- Characteristics: The curriculum is structured based on the
traditional academic disciplines, and students follow a path that
deepens their knowledge within each discipline. This design aims
to foster a strong foundation in specific fields of study.
3. Correlation design
- Definition: Correlation design involves integrating and
correlating various subjects or disciplines to show the
interconnectedness of knowledge. It emphasizes the relationships
between different areas of study.
- Characteristics: This design encourages students to see the
connections between subjects, promoting a holistic understanding
of knowledge. Interdisciplinary projects and activities are often
incorporated to demonstrate the real-world applicability of the
integrated knowledge.
4. Broad field design or interdisciplinary design
- Definition: Broad field design, also known as interdisciplinary
design, takes integration a step further by combining multiple
subjects into a broader field of study. It goes beyond correlation
by creating a more seamless and comprehensive learning
experience.
- Characteristics: The curriculum is organized around overarching
themes or problems, and students explore these themes from
multiple disciplinary perspectives. This design encourages critical
thinking, problem-solving, and the application of knowledge
across various domains.
LEARNER-CENTERED DESIGN
 an educational approach that prioritizes the needs, interests, and abilities of
learners.
 It focuses on creating a student-centric learning environment.
 Here are three variations of Learner-Centered Design:
1. Child-Centered Design:
- Definition: Child-centered design places the child at the center of
the educational process, recognizing their unique characteristics,
interests, and developmental stages. This approach emphasizes
understanding and catering to individual student needs.
- Characteristics: Curriculum and instructional strategies are
tailored to the specific developmental levels, interests, and
learning styles of each child. Teachers act as facilitators, guiding
students in their learning journey based on their individual needs.
2. Activity or Experience-Centered Design:
- Definition: In activity or experience-centered design, the focus is
on providing students with meaningful and hands-on experiences.
Learning is viewed as an active process, and curriculum design
revolves around engaging activities that promote exploration and
discovery.
- Characteristics: Students participate in various activities and
experiences that are designed to be both educational and
enjoyable. The curriculum emphasizes real-world applications,
problem-solving, and experiential learning. This approach often
encourages collaboration and critical thinking.
3. Humanistic Design:
- Definition: Humanistic design in education is based on
humanistic psychology, which emphasizes the development of
the whole person. In the context of education, this approach
values the emotional, social, and ethical aspects of learning, in
addition to intellectual growth.
- Characteristics: Humanistic design fosters a positive and
supportive learning environment. It values student autonomy,
self-expression, and personal growth. Teachers strive to
understand and address the emotional and social needs of
students. The curriculum may include elements that promote self-
reflection, creativity, and the development of interpersonal skills.
PROBLEM – CENTERED DESIGN
 an educational approach that centers around real-world problems,
encouraging students to engage in critical thinking, creative problem-
solving, and the application of knowledge to address authentic challenges.
 Here are two variations of Problem-Centered Design:
1. Life Situation Design:
- Definition: Life situation design involves structuring the
curriculum around real-life scenarios or situations that students
may encounter in their personal or professional lives. The aim is
to connect learning to the practical aspects of life.
- Characteristics: The curriculum is designed around situations
that students are likely to face outside the classroom. Students
explore and analyze these situations, applying knowledge from
various disciplines to develop solutions. This approach often
promotes interdisciplinary learning and helps students understand
the relevance of their education to real-world challenges.
2. Core Problem Design:
- Definition: Core problem design focuses on identifying and
exploring central or core problems that are significant and
relevant to the subject matter. The curriculum is organized around
these core problems, and students work collaboratively to address
them.
- Characteristics: The curriculum is structured around key
problems that are at the heart of the subject or discipline. Students
engage in in-depth analysis, research, and problem-solving
activities related to these core issues. This design encourages
critical thinking, research skills, and a deep understanding of the
fundamental challenges within a particular field of study.
CURRICULUM MAPPING
 A process used in education to visually represent and organize the content,
skills, assessments, and other elements of a curriculum.
 It provides a comprehensive view of what is being taught within a program
or course, helping educators align instructional activities with learning
objectives.
 The primary goal of curriculum mapping is to ensure coherence, continuity,
and effectiveness in the educational experience.
 Curriculum mapping improves the following:
 Horizontal alignment or coherence – also called “pacing guide,”
ensures that all teachers teaching the same subject or discipline teaches
the same content and attains the same learning outcomes in a common
timeline. It also ensures that assessment methods match the learning
outcomes or standards given.
 Vertical alignment or coherence - guarantees that significant
concepts in a subject are structured and sequenced logically across
grade levels so that students progressively learn or develop them
(hierarchy or spiral manner) with no unnecessary overlaps.
 Interdisciplinary coherence – when horizontal and vertical alignment
is already accounted for, connections across different subject areas can
be easily made. Teachers will be able to check specific skills or content
that can be addressed by more than one subject or course, (e.g.,
reading, writing skills), increasing the relevance of learning.
 Here are key aspects related to curriculum mapping:
 Components of Curriculum Mapping:
- Content: This includes the topics, subjects, or themes covered in
the curriculum.
- Skills: The specific skills or competencies students are expected
to acquire.
- Assessment: Methods used to assess student understanding and
progress.
- Instructional Strategies: The methods and approaches employed
to teach the content.
- Learning Objectives: Clear statements of what students should
know or be able to do.
 Benefits of Curriculum Mapping:
- Alignment: Ensures that instructional activities align with the
intended learning outcomes.
- Coherence: Provides a clear and organized structure for the
curriculum.
- Identification of Gaps: Helps identify areas where certain
topics, skills, or assessments may be lacking.
- Vertical and Horizontal Articulation: Shows the progression of
content and skills across grade levels (vertical) and within a
specific grade or course (horizontal).
 Process of Curriculum Mapping:
- Collaboration: Involves collaboration among educators to gather
input and insights.
- Data Collection: Gathering information on current curriculum,
standards, and assessments.
- Mapping Software: Utilizing specialized software or tools to
create visual maps.
- Regular Review: Regularly updating and reviewing the
curriculum map to reflect changes and improvements.
 Types of Curriculum Maps:
- Yearly Maps: Provide an overview of the entire year's
curriculum for a specific grade or course.
- Unit Maps: Detail the content, skills, and assessments for
individual units or modules.
- Assessment Maps: Focus specifically on the assessment methods
and criteria used.
 Use in Educational Planning:
- Curriculum Development: Guides the creation of new curricula
or the enhancement of existing ones.
- Professional Development: Identifies areas where educators
may need additional training or support.
- Communication: Facilitates communication among educators,
administrators, and other stakeholders.
APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
1. Laissez-faire approach
Also called “let-alone” approach, the teachers are given absolute power
to determine what they think is the best to be implemented in their
classrooms. Accordingly, teachers deliver lessons that they see as suitable
for their learners and choose whatever teaching method or strategy they
want. There is no strict monitoring or control in this approach.
2. Authoritarian control
The school management firmly regulates the teachers in following a
curriculum based on the given policy or memorandum. Teachers have no
freedom or authority in the subjects assigned to them. Absolute power is
exercised by the school head or principal in directing teachers to use
specified teaching methods. In short, this approach is dictatorial.
IMPLEMENTATION MODELS
1. Overcoming resistance to change (ORC) model
 focuses on coping and overcoming with staff resistance to change
immediately at present or at the time of the introduction of the
innovation
2. Leadership-obstacle course (LOC) model
 it extends the ORC model, focuses on data collection in determining
the nature and extent of the resistance to address it properly
3. Linkage model
 involves the cyclical steps of diagnosis, search, and retrieval,
formulation of the solution, dissemination, and evaluation
4. Organizational development (OD) model
 is an information-processing change strategy that enables the system to
improve its operations and the quality of interaction among its
members to facilitate the introduction of change.
5. Rand change agent model
 grounded on the premise that successful implementation of a new
program relies on.
- the features of the planned change;
- the competencies of the teaching and administrative staff;
- the support of the local community; and
- the school organizational structure.
CURRICULUM CHANGE
DRIVING FORCE RESTRAINING FORCE
EQUILIBRIUM
Government Intervention Fear of the Unknown
Society’s Values Negative Attitude to Change
Technological Changes Tradition Values
Knowledge Explosion Limited Resources
Administrative Support Obsolete Equipment
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A CHANGE PROCESS
1. Substitution.
Replacing or substituting a current curriculum bya new one.
Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul. Example, changing an old
book to an entirely new one, not merely a revision.
2. Alteration.
A minor change is introduced to the existing curriculum. For example,
instead of using a graphing paper for Mathematics teaching, this can be
altered using a graphing calculator.
3. Restructuring.
This means a major change or modification in the school system,
degree program, or education system. The use of an integrated curriculum
for the whole school in K to 12 requires the primary and secondary levels to
work as a team. Another example of a restructured curriculum is when there
is significant involvement of parents in the child instead of leaving
everything to the teacher. Using the "In-school Off-school" or a blended
curriculum is an example of restructuring.
4. Perturbations.
These are disruptive changes, but teachers have to adjust to them
within a fairly short time. For example, the school head changes the initially
planned schedule to catch up with the national testing time. Another example
is when the dean has to shorten the schedule to accommodate unplanned
extracurricular activities.
5. Value Orientation.
This classification will respond to a shift in the emphasis that the
teacher provides, which are not within the mission or vision of the school or
vice versa. For example, when newly recruited teachers in religious schools
emphasize academics and forget the formation of values or faith, they need a
curriculum value orientation. Likewise, all teachers in public schools
undergo a teacher induction program, a specialized curriculum for newly
hired teachers.
CURRICULUM STAKEHOLDERS
Learners
 Considered as the core of the curriculum
 Learners themselves are directly influenced by it as well.
 They are the primary stakeholders of the curriculum.
Teachers
 The teachers tackle the learners’ goals, needs, and interests by creating
learning experiences.
 They design, enrich, and modify the curriculum to suit the learner’s unique
characteristics.
 Furthermore, a teacher’s role extends from a developer to an implementer, so
a developed curriculum will become successful.
Curriculum Managers and Administrators
 There is always either a curriculum manager or school administrator in a
school organization setting.
 One of the functions of school principals is being a curriculum manager.
They oversee curriculum implementation and select and recruit new
teachers. They admit students and provide procedures, equipment, and
materials needed for effective teaching.
 The school administrators have an equally important part in shaping the
school curriculum. They are the people responsible for the construction of
the school's vision, mission, and objectives. Moreover, they provide the
necessary leadership in assessing personnel and school programs.
Parents
 They are the best supporters of the curriculum because they pay the
education of their children.
 There is a better link between home and school, lesser disciplinary problems,
and higher motivation.
Community Members
 it takes a whole village to educate a child.
 Some can become resource speakers and impart local and indigenous Learning which is a visual device, can help teachers to make decisions on what
knowledge in the school curriculum. resources and materials will maximize learning.
Other Stakeholders
1. Professional Organization
 have shown significant influence in the school curriculum. They are
asked by curriculum specialists to contribute to curriculum review
since they have a voice in the licensure examinations, curriculum
enhancement, and many more. These are:
- Philippine Association for Teacher and Educators (PAFTE)
- State Universities and Colleges Teacher Educators Association
(SUCTEA)
- National Organization of Science Teachers and Educators
(NOSTE)
- Mathematics Teachers Association of the Philippines (MTAP)
2. Government
 It is worth noting that all schools in the country are under government
regulation as mandated in the Philippine Constitution. The government
is represented by the:
- Department of Education (DepEd) – supervises the basic
education curricula
- Commission on Higher Education (CHED) – manages the
tertiary and graduate education
- The Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) certifies and
issues teachers’ licenses in qualifying one to teach
- Civil Service Commissions affirms and confirms appointments of Curriculum Evaluation: Processes and Models
teachers Just like in curriculum development and curriculum implementation,
3. Local Government Units there are models for evaluating a curriculum. These evaluation models are made
 Some teachers are paid through the LGU budget and some school by curriculum experts based on their understanding on how to assess the quality or
buildings, equipment, school supplies, books, and support teachers’ value of a particular curriculum. There are a number of curriculum evaluation
professional development are also provided. models but we will only study six of them.
4. Non-government Agencies
 Gawad Kalinga (GK) – to build communities means to include Bradley Effectiveness Model
education. Full support of GK to early childhood education is very In his Curriculum Leadership and Development Handbook, L.H.
significant. A school for pre-school and out-of-school youth has been Bradley (1985) provided key indicators that are useful in measuring the
established in each village. effectiveness of a curriculum. First, you need to choose a particular curriculum to
 Synergia - a foundation that supports basic education through Reading, evaluate. Then, assess the curriculum using the indicators in the table below by
Science, Mathematics, and English. responding with a Yes or No. (Some original descriptions were simplified).
 Metrobank Foundation - supports continuing teacher development
programs. Indicators Descriptive Questions Yes or No
Vertical Does the curriculum reflect the format (i.e., K to 12,
DepEd Order No. 70 s. 2012 Curriculum OBE, etc.) that enables the teachers to have quick access
Teachers of all public elementary and secondary schools will not be required Continuity to what is being taught in the grade/year levels below or
to prepare detailed lesson plans. They may adopt daily lesson logs which contain above the current level? Does it avoid useless curricular
the needed information and guide from the Teacher Guide (TG) and Teacher repetitions?
Manual (TM) reference material with page number, interventions given to the (Example: If you are looking at Math 5, below means
students and remarks to indicate how many students have mastered the lesson or Math 4 and above is Math 6?
are needing remediation.
However, teachers with less than 2 years of teaching experience shall be Horizontal Does the curriculum provide common content and
required to prepare Daily Lesson Plans which shall include the following: curriculum objectives to all classrooms within the same grade level?
I. Objectives continuity (Example: Humanities 11 is common to all 1st year
II. Subject Matter college students)
III. Procedure
Instruction Are the lesson plans or syllabi derived from the
IV. Assessment
V. Assignment Based on curriculum? Are the utilized materials correlated with
As a result, as aspiring teachers, you can prepare lesson plans that Curriculum the content, objectives and activities?
include all of the necessary components as specified by the Department of Broad Is there evidence that the various curriculum
Education. Private school teachers can use a different lesson plan style, but the involvement stakeholders are represented or involved in the planning,
basic elements will remain the same. designing, implementation and evaluation of the
curriculum?
TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES
Long-Range Does the curriculum follow a regular sequence and
Blooms Taxonomy (1956) Revised Bloom’s by Anderson (2001) Planning review cycle within its planning and implementation
Evaluation Creating period?

Synthesis Evaluating Positive Did the initial thoughts of the curriculum come from the
Human teachers, school heads, and other stakeholders? Are
Analysis Analyzing Relations participating members willing to risk disagreeing
Application Applying without breaking down communication lines?
Theory- Is there clarity and consistency in the philosophy, vision,
Comprehension Understanding
Into- mission, goals and objectives, graduation outcomes,
Knowledge Remembering Practice learning outcomes and authentic tasks of the
Somehow the two are similar, however the highest level of cognition in Approach curriculum?
the revised version, is creating. Take note that the original version is stated as Planned Is there tangible evidence that shows that the internal
nouns while the revised version is stated as verbs which implies more active form Change and external publics accept the developed curriculum? Is
of thinking. the process of program development focusing on how to
In writing objectives or intended learning outcomes, it is always do it better?
recommended that more of the higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) should be
developed and less of the low level thinking skills (LOTS) for learners. The low
level categories will develop LOTS and thinking skills progress as the categories Tyler’s Objective-Centered Model
move higher. With his vast contribution in the field of educational evaluation, did
you know that Ralph Tyler earned the reputation of being called the Father of
LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE Evaluation? In 1950, Ralph Tyler proposed one of the earliest evaluation models
Another revision is the expansion of the concept of Knowledge which which is said to have influenced many curriculum assessment processes until now.
was not given emphasis nor discussed thoroughly before. His model is advantageous in the sense that it is relatively easy to understand and
1. Factual knowledge – ideas, specific data or information apply. The components and steps in Tyler’s evaluation model are shown in the
2. Conceptual knowledge – words or ideas known by common name, common following table.
features, multiple specific examples which may either be or concrete or Components Evaluation Steps
abstract. Concepts are facts that interrelate with each other to function 1. Objectives / 1. Establish the objectives or desired learning outcomes. The
together. Desired Learning objectives should specify the content to be learned and expected
3. Procedural knowledge – how things work, step-by-step actions, methods of Outcomes behavior.
inquiry.
2. Situation or 2. Identify the situations or contexts that will provide the
4. Metacognitive knowledge – knowledge of one’s cognition, thinking about Context opportunity for students to attain or achieve the objectives.
thinking.
3. Evaluation 3. Select and develop appropriate evaluation tools, then check their
Intended learning outcomes (ILO) should be written in a SMART Tools/Instruments validity, reliability and objectivity.
(Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-Oriented (Outcomes) and Time-Bound) 4. Utilization of 4. Use the instrument to collect data/results.
way. the Tool 5. Compare the data obtained from several instruments before and
Subject matter or Content (SM) comes from a body or knowledge (facts, after to determine the extent of change (or compare data with the
concepts, procedure and metacognition) that will be learned through the guidance stated objectives).
of the teacher. Subject matter is WHAT in teaching. In a plan, this is followed by
the references. 5. Results 6. Study the obtained results to determine the strengths and
Procedure or Methods and Strategies. This is the crux of the curriculum Analysis weaknesses of the curriculum. Give also possible explanations for
these strengths and weaknesses.
implementation. How a teacher will put life to the intended outcomes and the
subject matter to be used depends on this component. 6. Utilization of 7. Use the results in making the necessary revisions or
Teachers and learning must be supported by instructional materials (IMS). Results modifications in the curriculum.
Considering the teaching methodologies and the learning styles, the different
support materials should be varied. This will ensure that the individual differences
will be considered. Instructional materials should complement Visual, Auditory
and Tactile or a combination of the three. However, following Dale’s Cone of Provus’ Discrepancy Evaluation Model or DIPP Model
 Developed by Malcolm Provus in 1971, it has four components. program, curriculum, service or product (Bilbao et al., 2020; Frey, 2018). The
According to Doll (1997), this is called the discrepancy model because it consumer-oriented model utilizes criteria and checklist as a tool for either
compares the actual performance of the curriculum with the standards to identify formative or summative purposes. The criteria must be deemed meaningful or
any discrepancy or difference between the two. With that, curriculum evaluators valuable to the consumers or else the evaluation is useless.
and school administrators will clearly see if the collected data / evidence satisfies The Instructional Material Review Form by Marvin Patterson of
the standards. Florida State University given below is adapted for you to better understand this
model.
Preliminary Information Recommendation
Title: ____ Retain for further review
Author(s):
____ Reject (Comments)
Publisher:
Copyright date:
Name of evaluator:
The codes below are used in the following checklist to rate the
Program performance is specifically evaluated in terms of four aspects: instructional material.
 Stage I – Design. Is the program adequately designed? (+) yes or good quality
 Stage II – Installation. Is the program implemented as stated in its design? (-) no or poor quality
 Stage III – Processes. Are the persons involved accomplishing what is (0) all right but not of good quality
expected from the program design? Are the resources and techniques used (NA) not applicable
aligned with the program objectives? 0 all - no
 Stage IV – Products. Are the end products (student learning, productivity + yes right or
Criteria or but poor NA not
level, etc.) congruent with what is anticipated from the program design? applicable
good no so qualit
good y
Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Model 1. Does the content cover a significant portion of
Composed of four stages, this model was developed by the Phi Delta the program competencies?
Kappa National Study Committee on Evaluation, chaired by Daniel L. 2. Are the contents up-to-date?
Stufflebeam. According to Braden (1992), CIPP model can be used for both 3. Is the reading level appropriate for most
formative and summative evaluation activities. This means it does not just look students who will use the material?
into the conclusion of the program but also at various stages of program 4. Are intended learning outcomes or
implementation. CIPP model is appealing to evaluators and educational leaders competencies stated?
because it provides a wide range of data for decision making. 5. Are formative and summative assessments
included?
Contex Input Proces Produc 6. Are varied and experiential activities provided
evaluatio evaluatio evaluatio evaluatio to meet the needs of students?
If the instructional material to this point appears to be possibly selected, proceed with the
Stages Steps to be taken in each stage review. Otherwise, stop the review if it appears too poor.
1. Context Step 1: Identify the kinds of decisions to be made 7. Is a teacher’s guide (TG) included to offer
evaluation management suggestion?
Step 2: Identify the kinds of data to make those decisions. 8. Is the material presented in logical order?
2. Input
Step 3: Gather the needed data. 9. Are objectives, competencies and/or tasks of
evaluation qood quality?
Step 4: Establish the criteria for determining the quality of the gathered data.
3. Process 10. Do learning activities match with the
evaluation intended learning outcomes?
Step 5: Based on the criteria, analyze the data.
11. Are test items of good quality and do they
4. Product Step 6: Organize and give the information needed by decision makers. match with the intended learning
evaluation outcomes?
12. Are performance checklists of good quality
and do they match with the intended
Stake’s Responsive or Stakeholder-Centered Model learning outcomes?
Developed by Robert Stake (1975), this model is oriented more directly 13. Are the directions of good quality in guiding
on program activities than program intents. The main advantage of this model is students on how to proceed through the
its sensitivity to the concerns and values of their clients and stakeholders. By materials?
adapting to their needs and involving them in the evaluation process, stakeholders 14. Are drawings, photographs and other visuals
will find the evaluation results to be highly relevant and useful. The following are of good quality?
the recommended steps to be taken by curriculum evaluators when adopting the 15. How is the quality of the overall design of
responsive evaluation model (Glatthorn, 1987): the learning activities for individualized
instruction?
Step Process
16. Is there emphasis on safety practices (when
Meet with clients and stakeholders to understand their perspectives and intentions needed)?
1
about the evaluation process. 17. How much is the degree of freedom from
bias with respect to age, sex, race, religion,
Determine the scope of the evaluation project based from the discussions and and nationality etc.?
2
documents in Step 1. 18. Is the quality of
management procedures in the TGs of
Observe closely the operation of the curriculum to note any unintended good quality?
3
deviations or nonconformities from the announced intents. 19. Is there a list of course map competencies
Identify the stated and real purposes of the program, as well as the concerns of its covered by the material? (optional)
4
stakeholders about it and the evaluation process. Comments:
Identify the problems or issues that the evaluation process should address. For
5 Curriculum Evaluation: A Wrap-Up
each problem, develop an evaluation design and specify the data needed.
Steps What to Consider
Select the means for collecting the needed data. Most of the time, judges or
6 1. Identify primary Curriculum program sponsors, school heads, managers and
evaluators are chosen. audiences / administrators, teachers, students, content specialists and others
7 Implement the data collection process. stakeholders
2. Identify critical Outcomes (desired or intended), process (implementation), inputs
Organize the gathered information into themes and prepare how to present or
8 problems/issues (resources)
communicate them.
3. Identify data Teachers, students, parents, curriculum developers and other relevant
Decide which of the stakeholders require which report and choose the most sources persons, existing documents and records, evaluation studies
9
appropriate formats for the report. 4. Identify data Informal tests, standardized tests, samples of students’ work,
collection interviews, observations, questionnaires, checklists, etc.
Prior to his responsive model, Stake had an earlier approach to evaluation, techniques
which was called the Congruence-Contingency Evaluation Model (Stufflebeam & 5. Identify Standards set by professional organizations or agencies (DepEd,
Coryn, 2014). From the name itself, it analyzes the matching or congruency established CHEd, etc.)
between the intended results and the actual results in the implementation process. standards and
1. Antecedents criteria
- any condition that exists before the implementation process
(teaching-learning) has taken place, such as students and 6. Identify data Document and content analysis, process analysis, statistics,
analysis comparison and evaluation
teachers’ profiles, school community context, etc. techniques
2. Transactions
- the activities during implementation, these are the interactions 7. Prepare Written or oral; progress or final summary; descriptive, illustrative
between and among students, teachers, other school personnel evaluation and evaluation (judgmental); with recommendations
and the various aspects of the learning environment report
3. Outcomes 8. Prepare modes Test scores summary, multimedia presentation, case studies,
- results/impact of the delivery of instruction, e.g., level of of display testimonies, exhibits, technical report
students’ learning, effects of the curriculum on the teachers,
administrators, the school and the community. K to 12 Curriculum: A Standards-Based Curriculum

Scriven’s Consumer Oriented Evaluation Model

In 1967, Michael Scriven formally introduced the consumer-oriented
evaluation approach or model, which is based on the premise that the evaluation
process must serve the interests of the consumer, who is the end user of any

Last 2012, a new curricular reform in the Philippines was launched,
called the K to 12 curriculum, for Grade 1 and Grade 7. This curriculum replaced
the Revised Basic Education Curriculum (RBEC) of 2002, which in turn
substituted the former New Elementary School Curriculum of 1983 and New
Secondary Education Curriculum of 1989. The K to 12 curriculum was
formally signed into law in May 15, 2013 by the former President Benigno
Aquino III through the Republic Act 10533 (Enhanced Basic Education Act of
2013).
The new curricular reform is called the K to 12 curriculum because it
includes a compulsory Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (6-year
primary education, 4-year junior high school and 2-year senior high school). This
new reform made our educational system at par with the international standard of
12-year basic education.
2. To be at par with the international standard of 12-year basic education.
Prior to K to 12 implementation, the Philippines was the last country in
Asia and one of the three remaining countries in the world with 10 years of
basic education (SEAMEO-INNOTECH, 2012). As a result, graduates who
plan to work abroad are not automatically recognized as professionals, while
students who wish to pursue further studies have to take remedial courses to
satisfy entrance requirements.
3. To prepare students for higher education and employment (SEPO,
2011).
Based on DepEd’s assessment, secondary graduates of the previous
system are not adequately prepared for tertiary education. These graduates
are also too young (usually 15 years old) to legally join the work force or
even start a business. With the current K to 12 program, the introductory
courses that were taught in college before will now be given in the senior
high school curriculum for better preparation. By the time students graduate
from senior high school, they are of legal age already (18 years old) to be
employed and have acquired the necessary skills and competencies already.
4. To respond to the overdue recommendations of studies and researches
in expanding the years of basic education.
The Philippines actually had 11 years of basic education until the
1930s (7-year elementary + 4-year secondary). The Commonwealth
Government decided to reduce the elementary years to six (which was done)
and add two years to high school, which never happened (de Jesus, 2010).
The proposal to lengthen the basic education in the Philippines was actually
been given decades ago. Refer to the table below.

Outcomes-based education
Advocated by William Spady (1994), it is a learner-centered approach
to education that emphasizes on what students should be able to do in the real
world when they have completed their courses or degree programs, in general.
OBE has four essential principles that will guide instructors in planning, teaching
and assessing learning.
1. Clarity of focus – everything that the teachers plan and do must focus on
what they want the learners to do successful.
2. Designing backwards – based on the learning outcome, content, methods,
As a standards-based curriculum, the K to 12 spells out its expected outcomes in learning activities and assessments are carefully determined to ensure
terms of learning standards and competencies. These are articulated in the alignment
respective curriculum guides for various learning areas. Based on DepEd Order 3. High expectations – challenging standards and expectations are established
No. 8, s. 2015, these standards are: to encourage students to learn better
 Content Standards – identify and set the essential knowledge and 4. Expanded opportunities – since students are expected to excel, equal and
understanding that should be learned. It answers the question, “What should expanded opportunities must be provided to develop or nurture their inborn
the learners know?” potentials.
 Performance Standards – describe the abilities and skills that learners are
expected to demonstrate in relation to the content standards and integration
of 21st century skills. Curriculum Modifications: In the Light of Educational Disruption
 Learning competencies – refer to the knowledge, understanding, skills and A. Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELCS)
attitudes that students need to demonstrate in every lesson and/or learning Subject Original LC(s) MELC
activity Area
Salient Features of the K to 12 Curriculum Araling Nasasabi ang batayang Nasasabi ang batayang
1. Strengthening Early Childhood Education (Universal Kindergarten) Panlipunan impormasyon tungkol sa sarili: impormasyon tungkol sa
2. Building Proficiency through Language (Mother Tongue-Based pangalan, magulang, kaarawan, sarili: pangalan, magulang,
Multilingual Education or MTB-MLE) edad, tirahan, paaralan, iba pang kaarawan, edad, tirahan,
3. Ensuring Integrated and Seamless Learning (Spiral Progression) pagkakakilanlan at mga paaralan, iba pang
katangian bilang Pilipino. (this pagkakakilanlan at mga
LC was retained) katangian bilang Pilipino.
Mathematic Illustrates linear inequalities in Illustrates and graphs linear
s two variables inequalities in two variables
Graphs linear inequalities in (original LCs were merged
two variables and rephrased)
Science Recognize the importance of Design a product out of local,
recycle, reduce, reuse, recover recyclable solid and/or liquid
and repair in waste materials in making useful
management. (this LC was products. (this retained LC
deleted) covers the intention of the
deleted LC)

4. Making the Curriculum Relevant to the Learners (Contextualization B. Learning Delivery Modalities
and Enhancement) 1. Distance Learning – a kind of learning modality where the learning
a. Localization – the process of relating the specified content in the process occurs between the teacher and the students who are
curriculum to local information and materials in the learners’ geographically separated. It has three types:
community. a. Modular Distance Learning (MDL) – provides individualized
b. Indigenization – the process of enhancing the competencies, resources instruction by utilizing self-learning modules (SLMs) either in
and teaching-learning processes of the curriculum with respect to the printed or digital format.
bio-geographical, socio-cultural and historical contexts of the learners’ b. Online Distance Learning (ODL) – the teachers facilitates the
community. learners using internet-based technologies, either synchronous
5. Gearing Up for the Future (Senior High School) (live) or in an asynchronous manner.
a. Core Curriculum. c. Television (TV) / Radio-Based Instruction – uses SLMs that
b. Tracks. are converted into video lessons or radio scripts for broadcast in
television channels or radio stations, respectively
2. Blended learning – from the name itself, it combines face-to-face
classes with any or a combination of modular MDL, ODL and
TV/radiobased instruction.
3. Homeschooling – learners are guided by qualified individuals (e.g.,
parents, guardians or tutors) who have undergone training for teaching
in a home-based environment. However, this learning modality is still
subject for review.

c. TVET (Technical Vocational Education & Training) National

Certificate.

Why the K to12 was implemented

1. To decongest the curriculum.
The 10-year span of our basic education caused a congested
curriculum, and consequently, insufficient mastery of basic competencies.
There was not enough time for students to master the competencies because
we are teaching within 10 years what other countries are teaching within 12
years.