Unit-1

1. Define digital system.

➢ A Digital System is a system defined as the discrete
signal and two binary value which is 0 and 1 that is any
programmable electronic system such as a PLC, DCS,
or microcomputer.
2. Explain control function using an example.
➢ Control is a function of management which helps
to check errors in order to take corrective actions.
3. What is flip-flop?
➢ A flip-flop is a circuit with two stable states that
can be used to store binary data.
4. Define microoperation.
➢ a microoperation (also known as a
microinstruction) is a low-level operation
performed by the control unit of a processor,
which manipulates the data in the registers or
memory of the processor.
5. List out types of shift registers.
➢ These are the shift registers:
o Serial In Serial Out shift register (SISO)
o Serial In Parallel Out shift register (SIPO)
o Parallel In Serial Out shift register (PISO)
o Parallel In Parallel Out shift register (PIPO)
6. Discuss function of three state buffer gate.
➢ A three-state buffer gate is a digital circuit
component that has three output states: high
(logic 1), low (logic 0), and high impedance (also
known as Hi-Z).
7. Explain 4-bit binary adder with diagram.
➢ 4-bit adder performs the function of 4-bit addition
that gives a sum and two bits of carry as output.

8. Explain 4-bit binary incrementor with diagram.

➢ The increment microoperation adds one to a
number in a register.
9. Explain logical shift operation.
➢ A logical shift is one that transfers 0 through the
serial input.
➢ We will adopt the symbols shl and shr for logical
shift-left and shift-right microoperations.
10. Explain arithmetic shift operation.
➢ An arithmetic shift is a microoperation that shifts a
signed binary number to the left or right.
11. Explain selective-complement logic microoperation.
➢ The selective-complement operation complements bits
in A where there are selective-clear corresponding 1's
in B. It does not affect bit positions that have 0's in B.
12. Explain selective-set logic microoperation.
➢ Selective Set Operation - It sets 1 to the bits in register A
where there are corresponding 1's in register B.

13. Explain selective-clear logic microoperation.

➢ The selective-clear operation clears to 0 the bits in A
only where there are corresponding 1's in B.
14. Discuss 1’s complement.
➢ 1's complement is a binary notation system used to
represent signed integers.
15. What is the use of 2’s complement?
➢ the 2's complement notation system is a binary
notation system used to represent signed integers.

❖ Sample question
1. Explain Block diagram of digital computer.
➢ Control condition is terminated by a colon implies
transfer operation be executed by the hardware only if
P=1. Every statement written in a register transfer
notation implies a hardware construction for
implementing the transfer. Figure Shows the block
diagram that depicts the transfer from R1 to R2.

2. Briefly explain the arithmetic logic shift unit (ALU).

➢ • Computer systems employ a number of storage
registers connected to a common operational unit
called an arithmetic logic unit, ALU
• To perform a microoperation, the contents of specified
registers are placed in the inputs of the common ALU. The
ALU performs an operation and the result of the operation
is then transferred to a destination register.
•The ALU is a combinational circuit so that the entire
register transfer operation from the source registers
through the ALU and into the destination register can be
performed during one clock pulse period.
3. Explain list of logic Microoperations.
➢ 16 different logic functions that can be defined over
two binary inputvariables.
• However, most systems only implement four of these:
• AND (), OR ( ), XOR ( ), Complement/NOT
➢ AND():Performs a bitwise AND operation on two
binary inputs. The output is 1 only if both inputs are 1,
otherwise the output is 0.
➢ OR():Performs a bitwise OR operation on two binary
inputs. The output is 1 if either input is 1, otherwise
the output is 0.
➢ XOR():Performs a bitwise XOR operation on two binary
inputs. The output is 1 if the inputs are different,
otherwise the output is 0.
➢ NOT():Performs a bitwise complement operation on a
binary input. The output is the inverse of the input.
4.Discuss application of logical microoperation in detail.
➢ Applications of Logic Microoperations:
• Logic microoperations are very useful for
manipulating individual bits or a portion of a
word stored in a register.
• They can be used to change bit values, delete a
group of bits, or insert new bit values into a
register.
 Unit-2
1. Define instruction code.
➢ Instruction Code is a group of bits that instruct the
computer to perform a specific operation.
2. What is Op Code?
➢ Operation Code is a group of bits in an instruction
code that define operation to be performed.
➢ E.g. Add, Subtract, Shift.
3. What is effective address?
➢ An effective address is the location of an operand which
is stored in memory.
4. What is use of INPR register?
➢ INPR (Input Register) is a register in a computer
system that is used to hold data that is input from
an input device, such as a keyboard or mouse.
5. What is use of OUTR register?
➢ OUTR (Output Register) is a register in a computer
system that is used to hold data that is output to
an output device, such as a display screen, printer,
or speaker.
6. List out instruction cycle phases.
➢ These are the instruction cycle phases:
1. Fetching instruction from memory.
2. Decoding the instruction.
3. Reading the effective address from memory in
case of indirect address.4. Executing the instruction.
 7. Explain use of extended accumulator.
➢ The accumulator is a register in a computer's
central processing unit (CPU) that is used to store
intermediate results of arithmetic and logical
operations.
8. Accumulator is also known as _______.
➢ processor register.
9. What is instruction decoding?
➢ The decoding process allows the CPU to determine
what instruction is to be performed so that the CPU can
tell how many operands it needs to fetch in order to
perform the instruction.

10. LDA instruction Vs. STA instruction.

LDA instruction STA instruction

LDA instruction loads data from a memory STA instruction stores the contents
location into the accumulator. of the accumulator into a memory
location.

LDA instruction specifies the memory The operand of the STA instruction
address of the data to be loaded. specifies the memory address where the
data should be stored.

11. During interrupt handling the return address is stored at

____ word location of memory.
➢ Stack
12. Compare format of input-output instruction and register
reference instruction.
➢ The format of I/O instructions involves specifying a
device address and a control function. The device
address specifies the I/O device that will be used,
and the control function specifies the type of
operation that will be performed (e.g., read or
write).
➢ the format of RR instructions involves specifying
one or more registers and an operation code. The
operation code specifies the arithmetic or logical
operation that will be performed on the registers.
13. In input-output configuration transmission interface is
implemented using _____ data structure.
➢ Buffer

14. In register reference instruction and input-output

instruction operation code is stored in bit _____ bits.
➢ 12

❖ Sample questions
1. Write about Stored Program Organization.
➢ The simplest way to organize a computer is to have one
processor register and an instruction code format with
two parts.
➢ The first part of instruction specifies the operation to
be performed and the second specifies an address.
➢ The memory address tells the control where to find an
operand in memory.
➢ This operand is read from memory and used as the
data to be operated on together with the data stored in
the processor register.

2. Write short note on computer registers.

➢ Computer instructions are normally stored in
consecutive memory locations and are
executed sequentially one at a time.
➢ It is also necessary to provide a register in the
control unit for storing the instruction
code after it is read from memory.
➢ The computer needs processor registers for
manipulating data and a register for holding
a memory address.
➢ The memory unit has a capacity of 4096
words and each word contains 16-bits of
Data.
➢ Each word requires 12-bit memory address.

3. Write about the basic computer instruction

formats.
➢ A basic computer has three instruction code formats such as the
memory reference instruction, the register reference instruction,
and the input-output instruction format.
1. Memory Reference Instruction.
2. Register Reference Instruction.
3. Input-Output Instruction.
4.Explain the instruction cycle with the help of flow chart.
➢ The instruction cycle, also known as the fetch-
decode-execute cycle, is the basic operation
performed by a CPU to execute an instruction from
memory. The instruction cycle consists of the
following three steps:
➢ 1.fetch 2.decode 3. Execute
➢ Flowchart diagram:
5. Draw and explain flowchart of interrupt cycle.

➢ The sequence counter is set to 0 initially.

➢ At initial stage the PC holds address of first
instruction of the program. Hence at timing
signal T0 the address of first instruction is
transferred to AR.
➢ At time signal T1 the instruction is fetched from
memory and stored to IR, and PC is
incremented by 1.
➢ At time signal T2 the instruction stored in IR is
decoded. IR [0-11] is stored in AR, and
opcode in IR [12-14] is decoded, left most
significant bit IR [15] is stored to I.
➢ If IR[12-14] is 111, also known as D7:
o If D7 = 0, the instruction must be memory
reference instruction.
➢ If I = 0 while D7 = 0, the instruction is Direct
memory reference instruction.
➢ If I = 1 while D7 = 0, the instruction is Indirect
memory reference instruction.
➢ In indirect memory reference instruction, the
reference address is replaced with effective
address in AR at time signal T3.
➢ he execution of memory reference instruction
begins from time signal T4.
➢ Direct memory reference instruction always
has effective address, hence,
time signal T3 is considered as ‘Nothing’
o If D7 = 1, the instruction can be either register
reference instruction or input-output
instruction.
➢ If I = 0 while D7 = 1, the instruction is register
reference instruction.
➢ If I = 1 while D7 = 1, the instruction is input-
output instruction.
 ➢ Register reference instruction and input-output
instruction do not hold any
memory address and contains opcode in IR [0-
11] – Hence at time signal T3 register reference
and input-output instruction get executed.
➢ After execution of each instruction, the SC is
set to Zero.
6. What is Interrupt? Explain different types of
interrupts.
➢ The interrupt is a signal emitted by hardware or
software when a process or an event needs
immediate attention. It alerts the processor to
a high-priority process requiring interruption of
the current working process.”
➢ Interrupts have two types: Hardware interrupt and
Software interrupt.
➢ 1.hardware interrupts: A hardware interrupt is an
electronic signal from an external hardware device that
indicates it needs attention from the OS.
➢ 2.software interrupts: A software interrupt occurs
when an application program terminates or requests
certain services from the OS.
 Unit-3
1. Define stack.
➢ a stack is an abstract data type that represents a
collection of elements, where the operations
performed on the collection follow a "Last-In-First-
Out" (LIFO) principle.
2. Define Effective address.
➢ An effective address is the location of an operand which
is stored in memory.
3. What is interrupt?
➢ An interrupt is a signal emitted by a device attached to
a computer or from a program within the computer.
4. Define data transfer.
➢ Data transfer is the process of using computing
techniques and technologies to transmit or transfer
electronic or analog data from one computer node to
another.
5. Give name of status bit.
➢ Status bits also known as flags.
➢ Names of status bit:
Carry Flag (CF),Zero Flag (ZF),Sign Flag (SF),Overflow Flag (OF),Parity
Flag (PF),Interrupt Flag (IF),Direction Flag (DF),Auxiliary Carry Flag (AF).
6. List type of interrupt.
➢ Hardware Interrupts
Software Interrupts
Internal Interrupts
External Interrupts
Maskable Interrupts
Non-Maskable Interrupts
Spurious Interrupts
7.Write level of parallel processing.
➢ Bit-level parallelism
➢ Instruction-level parallelism
➢ Data-level parallelism
➢ Task-level parallelism
➢ Pipeline parallelism
➢ Distributed parallelism
8. Define throughput.
➢ Throughput is a measure of how many units of information a
system can process in a given amount of time.
9. Define data manipulation.
➢ Data transfer instruction causes data transfer from one
location to another. Data manipulation performs arithmetic,
logic, and shift operations.
10. Define bit level manipulation of data.
➢ Bit manipulation is the act of algorithmically
manipulating bits or other pieces of data shorter than a
word. Computer programming tasks that require bit
manipulation include low-level device control, error
detection and correction algorithms, data compression,
encryption algorithms, and optimization.

❖ Sample questions
1. Explain general register CPU organization with diagram.
➢ Generally CPU has seven general registers. Register
organization show how registers are selected and how
data flow between register and ALU.
➢ A decoder is used to select a 3 particular register. The
output of each register is connected to two
multiplexers to form the two buses A and B. The
selection lines in each multiplexer select the input data
for the particular bus.
➢ The A and B buses form the two inputs of an ALU. The
operation select lines decide the micro operation to be
performed by ALU.
➢ The result of the micro operation is available at the
output bus. The output bus connected to the inputs of
all registers, thus by selecting a destination register it is
possible to store the result in it.

2. Explain stack organization of CPU.

➢ the stack is a region of memory that is used for
temporary storage of data, often in a last-in, first-out
(LIFO) order. The stack is commonly used in the CPU to
store return addresses, function parameters, and local
variables during the execution of programs.
➢ The stack organization of the CPU typically involves the
following components:
➢ Stack pointer, stack segment, push and pop instruction,
Frame pointer.
3. Discuss types of data manipulation instruction in detail.
➢ Arithmetic Instructions: These instructions
perform arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division on data
stored in registers or memory locations. Examples
of arithmetic instructions include ADD, SUB, MUL,
and DIV.
➢ Logical Instructions: These instructions perform
logical operations such as AND, OR, NOT, and XOR
on data stored in registers or memory locations.
Logical instructions are often used for bitwise
operations, where each bit of the operands is
compared or combined. For example, the AND
instruction performs a bitwise AND operation on
two operands, while the XOR instruction performs
a bitwise exclusive OR operation.
➢ Shift Instructions: These instructions shift the bits
of a register or memory location to the left or
right. Shifting to the left multiplies the operand by
2, while shifting to the right divides the operand
by 2. Shift instructions are often used for
multiplying or dividing by powers of 2, as well as
for packing and unpacking data.
4. Explain program control instruction and status bit
diagram.
➢ Program control instruction: it is modify or change the
flow of a program. It is the instruction that alters the
sequence of the program's execution, which means it
changes the value of the program counter, due to which
the execution of the program changes.
➢ status bit diagram: a status bit diagram represents
the state of various status bits in the CPU's status
register. Status bits are condition codes that reflect
the outcome of an instruction or operation, such
as arithmetic or logic operations. The status bits
indicate whether a certain condition is true or
false, and they affect the behavior of subsequent
instructions.
5. Write short note on program interrupt.
➢ a program interrupt is a mechanism by which the normal flow of program
execution can be temporarily suspended and transferred to a special
routine, known as an interrupt handler or interrupt service routine (ISR).
Program interrupts are typically triggered by hardware events, such as the
completion of an I/O operation or the detection of an error condition,
although software interrupts can also be generated by the running
program itself.

• When a program interrupt occurs, the CPU temporarily stops

executing the current program and saves its state, including the
program counter and the contents of the CPU registers, onto the
system stack. The CPU then jumps to the interrupt handler routine,
which typically performs some specialized task related to the event
that triggered the interrupt. Once the handler routine has completed
its task, it restores the saved CPU state from the stack and returns
control to the interrupted program, which resumes execution from the
point where it was interrupted.

• Program interrupts are an important mechanism for enabling efficient

and responsive operation of computer systems, particularly in real-
time and interactive applications. By allowing the CPU to quickly
respond to external events and to prioritize certain tasks over others,
 interrupts enable more efficient use of system resources and improve
the overall performance and reliability of the system.
6. Discuss CISC and RISC.
RISC CISC

Focus on software Focus on hardware

Uses both hardwired and

Uses only Hardwired control unit
microprogrammed control unit

Transistors are used for storing

Transistors are used for more
complex
registers
Instructions

Fixed sized instructions Variable sized instructions

Can perform only Register to Can perform REG to REG or REG to

Register Arithmetic operations MEM or MEM to MEM

Requires more number of registers Requires less number of registers

Code size is large Code size is small

An instruction executed in a single Instruction takes more than one clock

clock cycle cycle

Instructions are larger than the size

An instruction fit in one word.
of one word
7.Write about subroutine call and return instructions.
➢ Call instruction: a subroutine call is an instruction
that transfers control from one part of a program to
a specific subroutine, or subprogram, that performs
a specific task. Subroutine calls are an essential
mechanism for modularizing code and improving its
readability, maintainability, and efficiency.

➢ To perform a subroutine call, the program typically

executes a specific opcode or instruction that
transfers control to the beginning of the
subroutine. This instruction typically saves the
current program counter and any other relevant
CPU state on the system stack, and then jumps to
the first instruction of the subroutine code.

➢ Return Instruction: a subroutine return instruction

is an instruction that transfers control back to the
calling program from a subroutine that was
previously called. Subroutine return instructions
are an essential part of subroutine calls, which are
a mechanism for modularizing code and improving
its readability, maintainability, and efficiency.

➢ When a subroutine is called, the program typically

saves the current program counter and any other
relevant CPU state on the system stack, and then
jumps to the first instruction of the subroutine
code. Once the subroutine code has completed its
task, it typically executes a subroutine return
instruction to transfer control back to the calling
program.
8.Convert following expression to RPN and solve using
register stack:(4 + 7) × [12 × (3 + 2) + 5].
 Unit-4
1. What is ASCII?
➢ ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) is the most common character encoding
format for text data in computers and on the internet.
2. Define baud rate.
➢ Baud rate is the measure of the number of changes to
the signal (per second) that propagate through a
transmission medium.
3. Define status command.
➢ a status command is a type of instruction that is
used to read the status of a particular hardware or
software component. The status command
typically reads the current state of one or more
status registers, which contain information about
the state of the system or a specific component.

4. Describe IOP.
➢ IOP stands for Input/Output Processor. An IOP is a
specialized processor designed to handle
input/output operations in a computer system.

5. Define handshaking in data transfer.

➢ This method is commonly used to accompany each
data item being transferred with a control signal
that indicates data in the bus. The unit receiving
the data item responds with another signal to
acknowledge receipt of the data.
 6.Define strobe in data transfer.
➢ The Strobe Control method of asynchronous data
transfer employs a single control line to time
each transfer. This control line is also known as a
strobe, and it may be achieved either by source
or destination, depending on which initiate the
transfer.

7. Discuss problem with handshaking method in data

transfer.
➢ a destination unit that initiates the transfer has no
way of knowing whether the source unit has
placed data on the bus.
➢ So this problem is solved by the handshaking
method. The handshaking method introduces a
second control signal line that replays the unit that
initiates the transfer.

8. Status bit is set by ________.

➢ CPU

9. In Asynchronous serial transfer the start bit is ___.

➢ First bit

10. Define interrupt vector.

➢ Interrupt vectors are addresses that inform the interrupt
handler as to where to find the ISR (interrupt service routine,
also called interrupt service procedure). All interrupts are
assigned a number from 0 to 255, with each of these
interrupts being associated with a specific interrupt vector.
❖ Sample questions

1. What is I/O interface and its architecture?

➢ Peripherals connected to a computer need special
communication links for interfacing with CPU.
➢ In computer system, there are special hardware
components between the CPU and peripherals to
control or manage the input-output transfers. These
components are called input-output interface
units because they provide communication links
between processor bus and peripherals.
➢ They provide a method for transferring information
between internal system and input-output devices.
➢ The I/O interface supports a method by which data is
transferred between internal storage and external I/O
devices.
2. Explain various strobe method for asynchronous
data transfer.
➢ There are two various strobe method:
1. Strobe Control Method,2. Destination
initiated strobe.
➢ 1.Strobe Control Method
• The Strobe Control method of
asynchronous data transfer employs a
single control line to time each transfer.
This control line is also known as a strobe,
and it may be achieved either by source or
destination, depending on which initiate
the transfer.
• Source initiated strobe: In the below block
diagram, you can see that strobe is
initiated by source, and as shown in the
timing diagram, the source unit first places
the data on the data bus.
 • After a brief delay to ensure that the data resolve
to a stable value, the source activates a strobe
pulse. The information on the data bus and strobe
control signal remains in the active state for a
sufficient time to allow the destination unit to
receive the data. The destination unit uses a falling
edge of strobe control to transfer the contents of
a data bus to one of its internal registers. The
source removes the data from the data bus after it
disables its strobe pulse. Thus, new valid data
will be available only after the strobe is enabled
again. In this case, the strobe may be a memory
write control signal from the CPU to a memory
unit. The CPU places the word on the data bus and
informs the memory unit, which is the destination.
➢ 2.Destination initiated strobe: In the below block
diagram, you see that the strobe initiated by
destination, and in the timing diagram, the destination
unit first activates the strobe pulse,informing the source
to provide the data.
 • The source unit responds by placing the requested
binary information on the data bus. The data must
be valid and remain on the bus long enough for
the destination unit to accept it.
• The falling edge of the strobe pulse can use again
to trigger a destination register. The destination
unit then disables the strobe. Finally, and source
removes the data from the data bus after a
determined time interval.
• In this case, the strobe may be a memory read
control from the CPU to a memory unit. The CPU
initiates the read operation to inform the memory,
which is a source unit, to place the selected word
into the data bus.

3. Explain various handshaking method for asynchronous

data transfer.
➢ 1.Source initiated handshaking: In the below
block diagram, you can see that two
handshaking lines are "data valid", which is
generated by the source unit, and "data
accepted", generated by the destination unit.
• The timing diagram shows the timing relationship
of the exchange of signals between the two units.
The source initiates a transfer by placing data on
the bus and enabling its data valid signal. The
destination unit then activates the data accepted
signal after it accepts the data from the bus.The
source unit then disables its valid data signal,
which invalidates the data on the bus.After this,
the destination unit disables its data accepted
signal, and the system goes into its initial state.
The source unit does not send the next data item
until after the destination unit shows readiness to
accept new data by disabling the data accepted
signal.
• This sequence of events described in its sequence
diagram, which shows the above sequence in
which the system is present at any given time.
➢ 2.Destination initiated handshaking: In the below block
diagram, you see that the two handshaking lines are "data
valid", generated by the source unit, and "ready for data"
generated by the destination unit. Note that the name of
signal data accepted generated by the destination unit has
been changed to ready for data to reflect its new meaning.

• The destination transfer is initiated, so the source unit

does not place data on the data bus until it receives a
ready data signal from the destination unit. After that,
the handshaking process is the same as that of the
source initiated.
• The sequence of events is shown in its sequence
diagram, and the timing relationship between signals is
shown in its timing diagram. Therefore, the sequence
of events in both cases would be identical.
4. Explain various methods for serial data transfer.

5. Explain CPU-IOP communication with flowchart.

➢ There is a communication channel between IOP
and CPU to perform task which come under
computer architecture. This channel explains
the commands executed by IOP and CPU while
performing some programs. The CPU do not
executes the instructions but it assigns the task
of initiating operations, the instructions are
executed by IOP. I/O transfer is instructed by
CPU.
➢ The IOP asks for CPU through interrupt. This
channel starts by CPU, by giving “test IOP path”
instruction to IOP and then the communication
begins as shown in diagram:
 Unit-5
1. Define primary memory.
➢ Primary memory is the main memory of
computer. It is a chip mounted on the
motherboard of computer.
2. Define secondary memory.
➢ Secondary memory is computer memory that is non-
volatile, persistent and not immediately accessible by
a computer or processor.
3. What is use of RAM?
➢ RAM is used for immediate data storage and
retrieval — any task that requires quick access to
computing resources. Another use for RAM is to help
your computer load previously-accessed information
more quickly.
4. What is the use of ROM?
➢ it's used for things like your printer software or your
startup programs.
5. What is bootstrap loader.
➢ A Bootstrap Loader (BSL) is a small program which
can be activated immediately after a microcontroller
has been powered up, in order to load and execute
another program in a well defined manner.
6. What is mapping process in context of memory?
➢ In the context of computer memory, mapping is the process of
assigning logical memory addresses to physical memory addresses.
Logical memory addresses are used by programs to access data and
instructions stored in memory, while physical memory addresses
represent the actual locations in physical memory where the data
and instructions are stored.
7. Discuss types of floppies.
➢ 5.25-inch floppy disks, 3.5-inch floppy disks, SuperDisk, Zip disks.
 8.What is use of hit-miss ratio?
➢ The Importance of Hit and Miss Ratios in Caches
If you have a high hit ratio and low miss ratio, that
means your cache is operating well. It also means
that content is likely being retrieved from the cache
quickly, and page load times are also as fast as
possible for end users.

9. Define flash memory.

➢ Flash memory is a long-life and non-volatile storage
chip that is widely used in embedded systems. It can
keep stored data and information even when the
power is off.

10. Define masked ROM.

➢ Mask ROM is a read-only memory whose contents
are programmed by the integrated circuit
manufacturer (rather than by the user). The desired
memory contents are furnished by the customer to
the device manufacturer.

11. What is the use of associative memory?

➢ An associative memory can be treated as a memory
unit whose saved information can be recognized for
approach by the content of the information itself
instead of by an address or memory location.
Associative memory is also known as Content
Addressable Memory (CAM).
❖ Sample question

1. Classify various types of memory.

➢ Primary Memory: This refers to the memory that the processor
directly accesses to execute programs and store data
temporarily. It includes Random Access Memory (RAM), Read-
Only Memory (ROM), and Cache Memory.
• Secondary Memory: This refers to the memory used for long-
term storage of data and programs. It includes hard disk
drives (HDD), solid-state drives (SSD), optical storage devices
(CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays), and USB flash drives.
• Volatile Memory: This type of memory loses its data when the
power is turned off. It includes RAM and Cache Memory.
• Non-Volatile Memory: This type of memory retains data even
when the power is turned off. It includes ROM, HDD, SSD,
optical storage devices, and USB flash drives.
• Dynamic Memory: This type of memory needs to be refreshed
regularly to retain its data. It includes DRAM (Dynamic
Random Access Memory) and SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic
Random Access Memory).
• Static Memory: This type of memory does not need to be
refreshed regularly and retains data as long as power is
supplied. It includes SRAM (Static Random Access Memory).
• Magnetic Memory: This type of memory uses magnetic
storage technology to store data. It includes HDDs and
magnetic tape storage.
• Solid-state Memory: This type of memory uses semiconductor
technology to store data. It includes SSDs, flash memory, and
memory cards.
• Virtual Memory: This refers to the memory management
technique used by the operating system to expand the
available memory beyond the physical RAM. It uses a portion
of the hard disk as an extension of the RAM.
 2. Explain memory hierarchy.
➢ The memory is characterized on the basis of two
key factors: capacity and access time.
➢ Capacity is the amount of information (in bits)
that a memory can store.
➢ Access time is the time interval between the
read/ write request and the availability of data.
➢ The lesser the access time, the faster is the speed
of memory. Ideally, we want the memory with
fastest speed and largest capacity. However, the
cost of fast memory is very high. The computer
uses a hierarchy of memory that is organized in a
manner to enable the fastest speed and largest
capacity of memory. The hierarchy of the
different memory types is shown in Figure.

➢ The Internal Memory and External Memory are the two

broad categories of memory used in the computer. The
Internal Memory consists of the CPU registers, cache
memory and primary memory. The internal memory is
used by the CPU to perform the computing tasks. The
External Memory is also called the secondary memory.
➢ The secondary memory is used to store the large
amount of data and the software.
➢ In general, referring to the computer memory usually
means the internal memory.

3. Explain Auxiliary memory.

➢ Auxiliary memory is known as the lowest-cost,
highest-capacity and slowest-access storage in
a computer system. Auxiliary memory provides
storage for programs and data that are kept for
long-term storage or when not in immediate
use. The most common examples of auxiliary
memories are magnetic tapes and magnetic
disks.
➢ A magnetic disk is a digital computer memory
that uses a magnetization process to write,
rewrite and access data. For example, hard
drives, zip disks, and floppy disks.
➢ Magnetic tape is a storage medium that allows
for data archiving, collection, and backup for
different kinds of data.

4. Discuss catch memory with mapping techniques.

➢ There are various cache mapping techniques
like associative mapping, direct mapping, set-
associative mapping.
 ➢ Associative Mapping :
• The fastest and most flexible cache organization
uses an associative memory. This organization is
illustrated in figure. The associative memory
stores both the address and content (data) of the
memory word. This permits any location in cache
to store any word from main memory.
➢ Direct Mapping
• The CPU address of 15 bits is divided into two
fields. The nine least significant bits constitute
the index field and the remaining six bits form
the tag field.
➢ Set-Associative Mapping: Set-associative mapping is a compromise between
direct mapping and fully associative mapping. In this technique, each block
of main memory can be mapped to a subset of the cache. Each set contains
multiple blocks, and a block from main memory can be mapped to any block
within a set. When a memory request is made, the cache controller first
determines the set that the requested address belongs to and then searches
for the requested data within the set. If the data is in the cache, it is returned
to the processor. If not, the cache block is replaced with the requested data
from main memory.
5. Write short note on virtual memory.
➢ A virtual memory system attempts to optimize the use of the
main memory (the higher speed portion) with the hard disk
(the lower speed portion). In effect, virtual memory is a
technique for using the secondary storage to extend the
apparent limited size of the physical memory beyond its
actual physical size. It is usually the case that the available
physical memory space will not be enough to host all the
parts of a given active program. Virtual memory gives
programmers the illusion that they have a very large memory
and provides mechanism for dynamically translating
program-generated addresses into correct main memory
locations. The translation or mapping is handled
automatically by the hardware by means of a mapping table.